Podcasts about semliki forest

The majority of excitatory transmission in the brain is mediated by glutamatergic synapses. Rapid synaptic signaling is mediated by AMPA and kainate receptors, whereas NMDA receptors mediate slow synaptic currents. Pathophysiological activation of glutamatergic neurons can lead to excitotoxicity and neuronal death, for example in ischaemia and neurodegenerative disorders. Therefore, studying the structure and function of AMPA receptors is important for understanding general mechanisms of synaptic transmission as well as for the development of new therapies. AMPA receptors are associated with auxiliary subunits called Transmembrane AMPA Receptor Regulatory Proteins (TARPs). The first identified member of this family was stargazin. Given the structural similarity to the γ1 subunit of skeletal muscle voltage-gated Ca2+channels, stargazin is also called γ2. The stargazer mouse is a spontaneous mutant that lacks AMPA receptors in granule cells of cerebellum and suffers from ataxia. In addition to stargazin, the family includes γ3, γ4 and γ8. TARPs regulate all aspects of AMPA receptor function - from early steps of synthesis and trafficking to the cell surface, to synaptic localization and biophysical properties. TARPs interact with PSD-95, a main scaffolding protein of excitatory synapses that belongs to the Membrane-Associated Guanylate Kinases (MAGUK) family. Via this interaction AMPA receptors are localized to the synapse. PSD-95 clusters many other synaptic proteins and organizes signaling complexes in the synapse. The goal of this thesis was to investigate the role of stargazin in regulating the antagonism of AMPA receptors. I focused on the commonly used antagonists CNQX, GYKI-53655 (GYKI) and CP-465,022 (CP) and explored how stargazin changes the inhibition of AMPA receptors by these drugs. The second goal was to assess the role of PSD-95 in synaptic function. More specifically, I aimed to investigate how an increased level of PSD-95 in a neuron affects AMPA and NMDA currents, as well as the presynaptic function of a neuron. In the first part of my thesis I used the heterologous Xenopus oocyte expression system to express AMPA receptor subunits alone or with stargazin. Using the two-electrode voltage clamp, I measured the glutamate-evoked currents and obtained dose-response curves for CNQX, GYKI and CP. I found that stargazin decreases the affinity of GluR1 for CNQX, which was explained by the partial agonistic effect of CNQX in the presence of stargazin. In contrast, stargazin increases the affinity for GYKI, and has only a small effect on CP. I also tested the effect of stargazin on recently described GYKI-insensitive receptors and found that inhibition of these receptors is restored by co-expression with stargazin. My data strongly suggest that the identified residues do not constitute the full GYKI-binding site. I could also show that the ectodomain of stargazin controls the changes in antagonist sensitivity of the receptors. In the second part of my thesis I used cultured hippocampal slices and Semliki Forest virus to overexpress PSD-95:GFP in CA1 region of hippocampus. I recorded simultaneously from a cell overexpressing PSD-95 and a neighboring control cell and compared their AMPA and NMDA currents. I confirmed the finding that overexpression of PSD-95 robustly increases currents mediated by AMPA receptors. In contrast to other studies, I observed that PSD-95 increases NMDA currents, although to smaller extent. I addressed the debated role of PSD-95 in regulating the presynatic release probability and found that overexpression of PSD-95 did not change glutamate release probability. Importantly, I observed that cells overexpressing PSD-95 have a lower rectification index of synaptic AMPA receptors, strongly suggesting that PSD-95 overexpression led to an increased fraction of AMPA receptors that lack GluR2 subunit. In conclusion, the work presented in this thesis gives further insights into AMPA receptor physiology, both from the aspect of pharmacology and synaptic trafficking. The results of co-expression of stargazin with the previously described GYKI-insensitive GluR1 mutants strongly indicate that TARP interacts with the linker domains of AMPA receptors. This finding is of great importance for understanding the molecular mechanism of AMPA-TARP interaction. Furthermore, this thesis shows that PSD-95 regulates both AMPA and NMDA synaptic currents by increasing the number of synaptic receptors. In addition, my data suggest that PSD-95 enriches the number of GluR2-lacking receptors in the synapse. Given the Ca2+permeability of GluR2-lacking receptors and their implication in plasticity and excitotoxicity, this finding is important for understanding how the synaptic localization of these receptors is regulated.

Prions have been extensively studied since they represent a new class of infectious agents in which a protein, PrPSc (prion scrapie), appears to be the sole component of the infectious particle. They are responsible for transmissible spongiform encephalopathies (TSEs), which affect both, humans and animals. Human prion diseases occur in infectious, sporadic or genetic forms. The "protein only" hypothesis argues that the key event in the pathogenesis represents the conversion of the normal host protein, PrPc, into its pathogenic isoform PrPSc. Prion diseases have been associated with the accumulation of this abnormally folded protein and its neurotoxic effects. However, it is not known if PrPc loss of function is an important factor since the normal biological function of PrPc, a cell surface-anchored glycoprotein predominantly expressed in neuronal cells, and the cellular processes in which this protein is involved remain obscure. Recently, the human 37 kDa laminin receptor precursor (LRP), which represents the precursor of the human 67 kDa high-affinity laminin receptor (LR), was identified as a binding partner for the cellular prion protein in a yeast two-hybrid screen. In order to characterize the possible role of LRP/LR as a cell surface receptor for PrPc, cell culture studies were performed to investigate the cellular localization of PrP and LRP/LR and to analyse the binding and internalization behaviour of PrP depending on the presence of LRP/LR on the cell surface of neuronal and non-neuronal cells. Immunofluorescence analysis of non-permeabilized murine neuroblastoma cells demonstrated that PrP and LRP/LR co-localize on the surface of these cells. In addition, baby hamster kidney (BHK) cells transfected with recombinant Semlik-Forest virus RNAs overexpressed human PrP and human LRP at their cell surface, the latter one orientated as a type II transmembrane protein with its C-terminus outside and its N-terminus inside the cell. Co-localization of both proteins was observed on BHK cells co-transfected with LRP and PrP encoding recombinant SFV RNAs. Cell binding and internalization assays with recombinant human PrP demonstrated the LRP/LR-dependent binding and endocytosis of externally added human PrP. An increased, dose-dependent cell binding of recombinant PrP was demonstrated by BHK cells overexpressing full-length human LRP on their cell surface. Trypsin treatment of the cell surface revealed the LRP dependent internalization of GST-tagged and untagged, glycosylated PrP. In contrast to wild-type LRP, the expression of an LRP mutant lacking its transmembrane domain led to the secretion of this mutant from transfected BHK cells and totally abolished the binding and internalization of exogenous, recombinant PrP. This LRP mutant could function as a decoy recetor in therapy of TSEs. The strict LRP/LR specificity of the PrP binding to neuronal cells was verified by testing the displacement capacity of a series of different antibodies in the LRP-PrP binding reaction. Only LRP and PrP specific antibodies were able to block totally the binding of human GST-fused PrP to N2a and NT2 cells whereas various control antibodies used for competition showed no effect. Mapping analyses in the yeast two-hybrid system and cell-binding assays identified direct and heparan sulfate proteoglycan (HSPG)-dependent interaction sites mediating the binding of cellular PrP to the 37-kDa/67-kDa LRP/LR. The relationship between the 37-kDa LRP and the 67-kDa high-affinity LR is unknown so far. Both forms were observed in plasma membrane fractions of N2a cells. We conclude from these data that the 37-kDa/67-kDa laminin receptor acts as the main cell surface receptor for PrP. High-level expression and purification of recombinant, glycosylated prion proteins in mammalian cells is essential for a better understanding of the physiological function of PrPc and biochemical processes responsible for prion diseases. Due to the presence of important organelles, membranes and other cellular cofactors which are necessary for the correct processing, trafficking and localization of prion proteins mammalian cell culture systems such as the Semliki-Forest virus (SFV) system allow the synthesis and characterization of wild-type as well as mutant PrP to get a better insight into the biology of these proteins. Therefore, the SFV system was used to generate recombinant highly glycosylated human wild-type and human disease-associated mutant prion proteins as well as FLAG-tagged human and bovine PrP in cultured BHK cells. Both mutated variants, which are related to the human prion diseases fatal familial insomnia (FFI) and Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) reveal proteinase K (PK) resistance, one of the most typical biochemical properties characteristic for the infectious scrapie isoform of the prion protein. The subcellular location of both PrP mutants at the cell surface and in intracellular compartments of transfected BHK cells was similar to that of wild-type PrP without any significant differences regarding the cellular distribution and expression level. In addition, FLAG-tagged prion proteins were expressed with high efficiency in BHK cells showing the typical glycosylation pattern allowing the rapid and simple purification via anti-FLAG antibody chromatography. PrP dimers could play an essential role in the PrPc to PrPSc conversion process and might be involved in PrP interspecies transmission. Recently, crystallization of the prion protein in a dimeric form was reported. Size exclusion chromatography showed that native soluble homogeneous FLAG tagged prion proteins from hamster, man and cattle expressed in the baculovirus system were predominantly dimeric. The PrP/PrP interaction was confirmed in rec. SFV-RNA transfected BHK cells co-expressing FLAG and oligohistidine tagged human PrP. The yeast two-hybrid system identified the octarepeat region and the C-terminal structured domain (aa90-aa230) of PrP as PrP/PrP interaction domains. The identification of the 37-kDa/67-kDa laminin receptor as the receptor for the cellular prion protein might represent an important step for a better understanding of the molecular biology of prion diseases and might lead to the development of powerful therapeutics such as LRP/LR specific antibodies for the treatment of these unconventional diseases.

Structural requirements for membrane antigens on target cells to mediate immune cytolysis were studied in a model system with purified membrane proteins from Semliki Forest virus (SFV). These SFV spike proteins were isolated in the form of detergent- and lipid-free protein micelles (29S complexes) or, after reconstitution into lipid vesicles, in the form of virosomes. Both the 29S complexes and the virosomes were found to bind well to murine tumor cells (P815 or Eb). When these cells, however, were used as target cells in complement-dependent lysis or in antibody-dependent cell- mediated cytotoxicity assays in the presence of anti-SFV serum, they were not lysed, although they effectively bound the antibody and consumed complement. The same tumor cells infected with SFV served as positive controls in both assays. Different results were obtained when inactivated Sendai virus was added as a fusion reagent to the cells coated with either virosomes or 29S complexes. Under these conditions the virosome-coated cells became susceptible to SFV- specific lysis, whereas the 29S complex-coated cells remained resistant. Evidence that the susceptibility to lysis ofvirosome-coated cells was dependent on active fusion and, therefore, integration of the viral antigens into the lipid bilayer of the target cells was derived from control experiments with enzyme-treated Sendai virus preparations. The 29S complexes and the virosomes partially and selectively blocked the target cell lysis by anti-H-2 sera but not by anti-non-H-2 sera confirming our previous finding that major histocompatibility antigens serve as receptors for SFV. The general significance of these findings for mechanisms of immune cytolysis is dicussed.