Metabolism Made Easy

Glucose provides two important precursors for the synthesis of triacylglycerol and fatty acids. Specifically, dihyroxyactone phosphate (DHAP) and acetyl CoA are both derived from glucose. DHAP provides the backbone to build triacylglycerol, while acetyl CoA (from pyruvate) is the precursor for fatty acid synthesis. On the other hand, acetyl CoA derived from the Beta-oxidation of even-chain fatty acids can not be used for glucose synthesis.

This podcast covers the key effects of insulin on metabolism in the liver, muscle, adipose tissue, and the brain. Similarly, the effects of glucagon and epinephrine on metabolism are summarized. Also covered are the effects of these hormones on blood glucose.

Insulin resistance will frequently produce dyslipidemia, which is characterised by elevated plasma triglycerides and fatty acids. The increase in triglycerides is most likely due to a decrease in the activity of endothelial lipoprotein lipase, while the increase in fatty acids is likely due to a decreased inhibition of hormone-sensitive lipase by insulin in adipose tissue.

A YouTube video transcript from "Metabolism Made Easy" explains insulin's key actions within the liver. The video details how insulin promotes glucose storage and utilization by stimulating glycogen creation and glucose breakdown. Furthermore, the transcript highlights that insulin actively suppresses the liver's production and release of glucose through the inhibition of glycogen breakdown and new glucose synthesis. Essentially, the content describes insulin's role in lowering blood glucose levels by influencing crucial metabolic pathways in the liver. When insulin resistance develops, these effects of insulin on the liver's consumption and production of glucose may become impaired, thus resulting in hyperglycemia. In addition, insulin-mediated glucose uptake by GLUt-4 transporters in muscle and adipose tissue is likely to be decreased, thus contributing further to hyperglycemia.

This podcast covers the structure of nonpolar amino acids and the properties of their side chains ( R) groups.

This podcast is an introduction to amino acid structure, including the functional groups that give amino acids their unique identity.

This podcast excerpt addresses common misunderstandings about dietary fat. It clarifies that fat and cholesterol are distinct substances, with cholesterol comprising a small fraction of overall fat intake. Furthermore, the transcript explains that triglycerides constitute the vast majority of dietary fat, while other lipids like fatty acids and phospholipids make up the remaining portion. The source aims to educate viewers on the accurate composition of fat in their diets.

**This YouTube transcript from Metabolism Made Easy outlines the diverse roles of macronutrients within the cell.** It details **glucose's involvement in energy production, storage as glycogen, nucleotide synthesis, and the formation of structural components.** The text also explains that **fatty acids are crucial for energy generation, energy storage, membrane structure, and inflammatory processes.** Furthermore, it notes that **amino acids are essential for tissue repair, glucose production, nucleotide synthesis, and the creation of specialized molecules.** Finally, the transcript highlights that **cholesterol is vital for bile acid production, membrane integrity, vitamin D synthesis, and the creation of steroid hormones.**

This podcast covers the key catabolic pathways in the mitochondria, including : 1. The 3 catabolic pathways of carbohydrates and fatty acids; 2. The roe of Acetyl CoA as a common metabolite and its dietary sources; 3. The TCA cycle and its energy output; 4. Fatty acid beta oxidation and its energy output; and 5. A comparison of energy (ATP/ CO2) output from glucose, fatty acids, ketone bodies, and amino acids.

The podcast explains how exercise or fasting raises epinephrine levels in the blood. Epinephrine then stimulates beta-adrenergic receptors in fat tissue, boosting the breakdown of stored triglycerides. This activation initiates a cascade, increasing cyclic AMP and activating protein kinase A. Protein kinase A then triggers hormone-sensitive lipase, leading to the breakdown of triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol. These products are subsequently released into the bloodstream and can provide tissues with an alternative (fatty acids) source of energy to glucose.

Briefing Document: Liver Function During Fasting Subject: Liver's role in energy provision during fasting. Source: Excerpts from "The LIVER During Fasting @Metabolism Made Easy" Main Themes: Ketogenesis: The liver actively synthesizes ketone bodies as an alternative energy source during fasting. Energy Provision: The liver plays a critical role in supplying energy to other tissues when glucose is scarce. Key Ideas and Facts: Ketone Body Synthesis: During fasting, the liver utilizes fatty acids to generate energy. A byproduct of this process is Acetyl-CoA, a portion of which is then used in ketogenesis, the production of ketone bodies. "the liver will be increasing Ketone body synthesis ketogenesis because it's using fatty acids uh as a source of energy producing a lot of acet Co a and some of that aceta is used in ketogenesis" Dual Energy Source: The liver provides two essential forms of energy during fasting: glucose (presumably through gluconeogenesis, though this isn't explicitly stated in this excerpt) and ketone bodies. "note how important the liver is it's providing glucose providing Ketone bodies two different forms of energy to other tissues to use during fasting" Implications: The excerpt highlights the liver's central role in metabolic adaptation during periods of food deprivation. By producing both glucose and ketone bodies, the liver ensures that other tissues, including the brain (which can utilize ketone bodies), have a continuous supply of energy. This demonstrates the liver's importance in maintaining metabolic homeostasis.

Red blood cells are entirely dependent on glucose as their only energy source. Glucose is utilized in glycolysis to produce the ATP output required by the red blood cell because red blood cells lack mitochondria, which would metabolize pyruvate to CO2 in other cells. The glycolytic output of energy from glucose breaking down to two lactates will produce two ATPs only because the NADH produced from the glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase step of glycolysis will be consumed in the conversion of two 2-pyruvates to two lactates. Check out the original short on glucose and red blood cells below: https://youtube.com/shorts/nbEF42DaAko?feature=share

Hormonal Regulation of Blood Glucose: Metabolism Made Easy Check out the original YouTube video of this podcast below: https://youtu.be/E_Vool7IuOE The YouTube video explains how blood glucose levels are hormonally regulated. Insulin lowers blood glucose by prompting cells to absorb glucose and store it as glycogen. In contrast, glucagon, epinephrine, and cortisol elevate blood glucose. These hormones stimulate the liver to release stored glycogen or create glucose from other molecules. This coordinated hormonal action ensures blood glucose remains within a healthy range. What are the primary hormones involved in blood glucose regulation and what are their roles?How does the body maintain blood glucose levels during fed versus fasting states?What tissues are most sensitive to hormonal regulation of blood glucose concentration.

Briefing Document: Glucose Importance for Brain Function Date: October 26, 2023 Subject: Glucose's Role as Primary Brain Fuel Source: Excerpts from "Why we need sugar (glucose)? @Metabolism Made Easy" Main Theme: This document highlights the critical role of glucose as the primary energy source for the brain and the body's mechanisms for maintaining adequate glucose levels. Key Ideas & Facts: Glucose as the Brain's Preferred Fuel: The brain relies heavily on glucose for energy. As stated in the excerpt: "the brain's favorite energy source is glucose". Limited Alternative Fuel Sources: While the brain can utilize ketone bodies, it cannot use fatty acids due to the blood-brain barrier. The document mentions that the brain will only use Ketone bodies when their concentrations reach significantly high levels. Hormonal Regulation of Glucose Levels: The body has intricate mechanisms to maintain sufficient glucose levels. When glucose in the plasma decreases, the brain triggers the release of glucagon, epinephrine, and cortisol, instructing the liver to restore plasma glucose via glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis. The excerpt says the brain "sends instructions through the hypothalamus and the autonomic nervous system to the pancreas and adrenal glands releasing glucagon epinephrine and cortisol and instructing the liver to restore plasma glucose by glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis". Implications: This information underscores the importance of maintaining stable glucose levels for optimal brain function and overall health. It highlights the body's complex hormonal response to glucose fluctuations. The brain prioritizes glucose so much that it will orchestrate hormonal processes for restoring adequate levels. LM - generated. Check out the full podcast on why we need glucose: The role of liver gluconeogenesis below: https://youtu.be/PDzJXOsrE4A Also, check out how different tissues metabolize glucose below: https://youtu.be/fGVcxsPwJ9Q

This podcast covers the metabolism of alanine, aspartate, and glutamatr in the disposal of nitrogen and the Urea cycle. Also covered are the roles of alanine transaminase, aspartate transaminase and glutamate dehydrogenase.

This podcast covers: 1) The major cellular fates of dietary amino acids; 2) The role of Transaminases in amino acid catabolism; 3) The purpose of the urea cycle; 4) Enzymes of the urea cycle; and 5) Regulation of the urea cycle.

This podcast covers the allosteric regulation of Phosphofructokinase 1( PFK-1). A key allosteric activator is F2,6 bis-phosphate, which is produced by PFK-2 in the well-fed state. The production of this molecule is increased by the dephosphorylation of PFK-2, the enzyme responsible for its production. insulin will activate this enzyme by promoting g its dephodphorylation.Thus resulting in higher levels of F2, 6 bis-phosphate in the cytoplasm and resulting in the activation of PFK-1 and Glycolysis.

This podcast covers the cellular uses of cholesterol and a brief summary of its biosyntthesis and its regulation by intracellular levels of cholesterol. Check out the podcast on regulation of HMG CoA reductase below: https://youtu.be/FNSr3G6OTBs?si=da3V5SkXGkM8STsZ Also check out how statins reduce plasma cholesterol below: https://youtu.be/HrwI02Ww3Ew Also check out the he complete podcast on Regulation of Cholesterol Biosynthesis below: https://youtu.be/K1i3P3KPN3g

Amino acids can be classified as essential or non- essential. They can also be classified by the carbon skeletons they produce during catabolism. These carbon skeletons can be either glucogenic or ketogenic.

A Summary of Metabolism & Its Regulation :This podcast summarizes metabolism and its regulation by hormones. It includes: 1. Definition of metabolism, catabolism, anabolism, and their cellular compartments; 2. The 3 stages of catabolism; 3. The major cellular uses of glucose, amino acids, fatty acids, and cholesterol; 4. The major metabolic pathways that produce energy from dietary carbohydrates and fat; 5. Comparison of the energy (ATP) output from catabolism of glucose , fatty acids, and acetoacetate (ketone bodies); 6. Hormonal regulation of the major metabolic pathways by insulin, glucagon, and epinephrine

This podcast covers some misconceptions about catabolism of glucose , fat (Triacylglycerol) and amino acids. it also compares the energy output from these three dietary components.

This podcast covers the major tissue effects of insulin and glucagon in the well-fed state and the fasting state, respectively. The key effects of these hormones on carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism in various tissues are summarized.

Cell-Cell Communication is a fundamental process that is essential for the regulation of metabolism in various organs. Through hormones of the endocrine system, signals are chemically transmitted through the bloostream between different organs. The outcome of a hormone binding its specific receptor in target tissues can produce profound effects on metabolism. Insulin and its effects on the liver, is used as an example of the outcome of communication between the pancreas and the liver.

This podcast covers the catabolism of alanine, glutamate and aspartate, including the roles of 3 important enzymes alanine transaminase (ALT), aspartate transaminase (AST) and glutamate dehydrogenage in this process. Input of nitrogen into the Urea cycle is provided directly or indirectly through the metabolism of the 3 discussed amino acids.

This podcast is an overview of the catabolism of amino acids including the initial phase of transferring amines through transaminases to an acceptor keto acid like Alpha-ketoglutarate to produce glutamate.

During fasting, fatty acids are mobilized from stored triacylglycerol in adipose tissue through the activation of Hormone-Sensitive Lipase by epinephrine which results in the release of 3 fatty acids to the bloodstream.

This podcast covers three misconceptions dietary fat and covers the crucial contributions of dietary fat to energy production/ storage, membrane synthesis, and inflammation. The key roles of cholesterol in cellular functions are also summarized.

This podcast covers some misconceptions about glucose and its perceived bad effects on health. Glucose is an essential energy source for many tissues that almost exclusively depend on it availability in the bloodstream. In fact, through coordinated release of hormones and their various tissue effects, glucose is maintained between 80-100 mg/ dl during fasting and sleep with the purpose of supplying glucose to tissues that depend on it. Restoring blood glucose under fasting conditions is primarily accomplished by the liver. Although elevated plasma glucose can cause some health risks, the tissue requirement for glucose as an energy source can not be overlooked.

This podcast the dependence of the brain on glucose as an energy source. Although the brain can use ketone bodies, it only does that in prolonged fasts. Instead the brain can instruct other organs to release hormones that will restore blood glucose.

This pocast covers the endocrine pancreas and the role of the beta cells in secretion of insulin. The rise in bloodstream glucose triggers the increase of glucose uptake by the pancreas by glut-2 transporter, followed by an increase in glycolysiss and a rise in ATP in the cytoplasm. This rise triggers a cascade of events inside the beta cells leading to insulin release.

This podcast covers the major glucose transporters, their tissue distribution, and regulation by hormones. The key role of these transporters is to pick up glucose from the bloodstream so it can be further metabolized by the cell. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers 4 distinct classes of receptors and their respective hormones, including the mechanism of transducing their intracellular signals. The receptors covered in detail are the steroid receptor, the insulin receptor, and 3 distinct G-protein coupled receptors, including the second messengers they produce. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the use of glucose and ketone bodies as energy sources by the brain. During sleep and short fasts, the brain is completely dependent on the output of glucose by the liver. Glucose is oxidized all the way to CO2 by the brain under aerobic conditions to produce up to 38ATPs. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the tissue distribution of various glucose transporters and their role of glucose uptake from the bloodstream, including the regulation of one transporter (Glut-4) by insulin. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the salvage of Hypoxanthine, guanine and adenine by two important enzymes Hypoxanthine-guanine phosphoribosyl transferase (HGPRT) and Adeneine phosphoribosyl transferase (APRT), including the outcome of an inherited deficiency in HGPRT. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the insulin-dependent uptake of glucose by GLUT-4 in muscle and adipose tissue. This insulin-dependent uptake by these tissues contributes to the reduction of plasma glucose after a meal. Check out the link below for the video podcast: https://youtu.be/_vyijJKL4oY --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the essential role of glucose as an energy source for several tissues. Most notably, red blood cells and the brain. Red blood cells are entirely dependent on glucose for their energy needs while the brain is highly dependent on glucose for its energy. Glucose in the bloodstream is produced by the liver and maintained around 80-100mg/dl during fasting to provide red blood cells and the brain with their energy needs. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the four different classes of receptors that illicit intracellular signals, including steroid receptors, ion channel receptors, receptor enzymes, and G-protein coupled receptors. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This episode summarizes the key effects on carbohydrate and lipid metabolism, including the processes that are activated by insulin and the ones inhibited by it. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast describes 4 distinct types of enzyme inhibitors and their mechanism of inhibition, including: substrate analogues, toxins, allosteric inhibitors, and heavy metals. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the regulation of pyruvate kinase allosterically and by hormone-dependent (insulin & glucagon) covalent modification. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the metabolic changes in various organs and key organ uses of the available nutrients in the bloodstream. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

With the exception of ketone bodies, the brain is entirely dependent on glucose as an energy source under most circumstances. Glucose is oxidized all the way to CO2 by the brain, producing up to 38 ATPs. This catabolism is dependent on oxygen, which is used to convert the energy in NADH and FADH2 to ATP through the Electron Transport Chain and Oxidative Phosphorylation. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast covers the digestion of the major dietary fat, triacylglycerol, including digestion uptake into intestinal mucosa, delivery through the bloodstream, uptake and storage of fatty acids from chylomicrons in the bloodstream. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message

This podcast describes the transport of ammonia produced in peripheral tissues by incorporating it into glutamine through glutamine synthase. Glutamine is transported in the bloodstream to either the liver or kidney for further metabolism. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/support

This podcast provides an overview of metabolic changes associated with fasting, including key metabolic changes in the liver and adipose tissue. The liver will increase its output of glucose and ketone bodies, while adipose tissue will provide fatty acids to the bloodstream for other peripheral tissues to use during fasting. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/support

This podcast summarizes the key biochemical components of metabolism, including: 1. definition; 2. cellular location; 3. the major catabolic pathways; 4. the 3 stages of catabolism; 5. the 12 major metabolic uses of glucose, fatty acids and amino acids; 6. the energy output of catabolism of glucose, fatty acids, and ketone bodies. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/support

This podcast covers 5 distinct enzyme regulatory mechanisms and their effects on enzyme structure and activity. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/support

This podcast covers the function and the location of the urea cycle, including some key features and the sequence of the enzymes as well as their location. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/support

This podcast covers the role of transaminases the initial step in the degradation of amino acids. This includes the role of glutamate dehydrogenase in producing ammonia. The ammonia and aspartate produced are then able to enter the urea cycle in the liver. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/support

This podcast covers the role of adipocytes in energy storage and their role in initiating lypolysis of stored triacylglycerols to provide various tissues with fatty acids as a energy source. The role of fatty acid Beta-oxidation in providing energy from both dietary or stored triacylglycerols is also covered. --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/message Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/a-j-ghalayini/support