The Science Scholars Podcast

This week, we talk about flower colors and genetics! (Shoutout to Sydney, this episode was inspired by you.) We discuss how flower color is as an interesting example of how phenotype is affected by both environment and genotype. We struggle to describe a Punnett square without the visuals. Then, we talk about how and why hydrangeas change color based on their environment (you're welcome Sydney). We also discuss the genetics of the morning glory and how that impacts color.

This week, we discuss the paper Genetic Mechanisms of critical illness in Covid-19. The paper explores genetic differences between patients with severe and non-severe COVID cases. The authors pull out a list of genes that are associated with severe Covid-19 cases. They discuss how two genes in particular (IFNAR2 and TYK2) could be differentially involved throughout disease progression and speculate about how that information could be used in treatment.

This week, we talk about a paper titled Phosphine gas in the cloud decks of Venus, published in Nature Astronomy in September 2020. Phosphine gas was detected (for the first time!) in the middle level of the atmosphere of Venus at ~20 parts per billion. This is exciting because currently, processes associated with the production of phosphine gas are only associated with living organisms. So there may be living organisms on Venus! There were some potential errors in data analysis, so more data should be collected on the topic.

This week, we have fan favorite, Mike Pokrass come on the podcast and talk about his first author paper from graduate school!

This week, we finally caved and gave the people what they wanted - more Jennifer Huffman. Since she is a frontline worker, she was offered the vaccine through work. We discuss why she decided to get the vaccine and what her experience getting the Covid-19 vaccine. But before her interview, we discuss vaccines generally, types of vaccines and why they are important. Then, we dive into some details about the Covid-19 vaccines - what makes some of the Covid-19 vaccines different scientifically (but still clinically proven to be safe!). We also talk about how normal vaccine clinical trials work (and how it worked for the Covid-19 vaccines), vaccine rollout and how to determine when you may be eligible.

This week, in honor of some of the great questions of Victoria Roe, we cover sunless tanners, aka self tanner, aka dihydroxyacetone (DHA). We start things off by describing what a normal tan is and how DHA can provide a safer tan. We talk about the discovery of DHA as an active ingredient that can make skin appear tan and then walk through the reaction that changes skin tone. Then, we discuss the potential risks of DHA and what some new types of sunless tanners are.

Better late that never - we are back this week with an episode about Alice Augusta Ball, a Black researcher who died in 1916 at the age of 24. Despite dying at such a young age, she was the first African American and woman to graduate with a master degree in chemistry from the College of Hawaii (now the University of Hawaii). She also developed the Ball Method, which produced the most effective treatment for leprosy at the time.

This week, we talk to friend of the pod and soon-to-be doctor, Lauren Faulkner. Lauren talks about why she went to grad school and then walks us through some much needed mental health tips for coping with the pandemic.Lauren is getting her PhD in Psychology at UMBC in the Waldstein Lab. Lauren just defended her dissertation looking at how social support affects clinical health and started her clinical internship year.Then, Lauren walks us through the FACE method for coping with Covid-19.

This week, we bring on our TV correspondent, Jennifer Huffman (RN, MBA) to discuss one of Netflix's reality shows, Too Hot to Handle. We discuss who should watch, which cast members we would be friends with, and take a quiz to figure out which cast member we are most similar to.

This week, we talk about a paper titled, A circadian rhythm-gated subcortical pathway for nighttime-light-induced depressive-like behaviors in mice. The authors focus on why light exposure during the day and night may have opposite effects on mood. They use a number of methods, including behavior, slice physiology, and optogenetics, to uncover the brain areas underlying this phenomenon. They focus on the modulation of neurons in the perihabenular nucleus and their role in this phenomenon.

This week, we talk about the importance of wearing a mask in preventing the spread of COVID-19. We get into how aerosol droplets spread COVID-19 and how masks reduce spread of aerosol droplets. Scientists can't directly do the causative studies linking wearing masks to COVID-19 reduction rates, so we turn to a paper studying how masks reduce transmission of other viruses. We also look at a modeling paper that focuses on infection rates before and after mask mandates. Based on their estimates, mask mandates prevents as many as 230,000–450,000 COVID-19 cases possibly averted by May 22, 2020. Another model produced by the Institute of Health Metrics and Evaluation suggests that 33,000 deaths could be avoided by October 1 if 95 percent of people wore masks in public. Then, we move onto the question: how many people need to wear a mask for them to reduce the spread of COVID? We discuss a modeling paper that predicts a significant reduction in COVID infection rates when approximately 80% of the population is wearing mask compared to 50% (where they saw almost no impact). In fact, based on their modeling, it would be more effective if everyone wore a mask than to have just a strict lockdown. We end by cover a paper looking at what types of masks are effective. But importantly, any mask you can keep on for a long period of time is pretty good.

This week, our other science scholar is Kameron Azarm! Kameron recently graduated with a PhD in Cell Biology from NYU. We talk through his PhD journey - touching on how he decided to pursue a PhD, how he chose Dr. Susan Smith's lab, and how he got through some of the ups and downs of a PhD. We end by discussing his recent paper, Persistent telomere cohesion protects aged cells from premature senescence.

In this episode of Science Scholars in Lab, we cover the paper, Capture of nitrogen dioxide and conversion to nitric acid in a porous metal–organic framework. The authors created a new material (a metal organic framework) to help with air pollution caused by nitrogen oxides. Previous capture and abatement technologies use toxic chemicals and are incapable of complete nitrogen oxides elimination. Their new material selectively binds nitrogen oxides at a wide variety of conditions and is reusable. Thus, if scalable, this could be an extremely important development in nitrogen oxides abatement technology.

After getting through a few technical difficulties (sorry for the quality), we discuss an article published in New Scientist in January 2020. The popular, direct to consumer genetic testing company, 23andMe, sold the rights to a drug that it had developed to Almirall. This marks the first time that 23andMe has signed a deal with an external company to license a drug it developed. To provide context about why this is a big deal, we discuss the history of drug development at 23andMe and more specifics about the drug they developed.

Police officers murdered George Floyd and Breonna Taylor over a month ago. Breonna Taylor's murderers have yet to be charged. There is pervasive police violence against Black people in the United States rooted in systemic racism. Today, we discuss implicit bias because of its role in contributing to both individual racism and perpetuating institutional and structural racism. We discuss the test that you can take to assess your own bias (and some caveats), when implicit bias is developed, and how it can impact behavior (see below). We want to emphasize throughout all of this - it is likely that most of us have some level of implicit bias, but that doesn't mean we can just sit idly. We have to understand and work on changing our own biases (see examples below).How implicit bias can impact behavior - hiring practices, medical treatment and policingChanging your implicit biasChanging implicit bias about GandhiHypnosisFor admirer and disliked individualsReducing bias among care providers

In this episode of Science Scholars in Lab, we cover the recent paper, Brain control humoral immune responses amenable to behavioural modulation. They looked into how the brain could directly control the adaptive immune system. They used a number of techniques, including flow cytometry, optogenetics and cell type specific tracing. Using these techniques, they discovered that activation of two brain areas (PVN and CeA), via the splenic nerve, increased adaptive immune response. They then developed a new low level stress behavior to activate the PVN and CeA naturally to induce changes in the adaptive immune response. In terms of how this science could be applied to human health, they mainly focused on how modified behavior (through low level increases in stress) could increase immune system activation.

In this episode of Other Science Scholars, we discuss the life and science of Nobel Prize winner, Tu Youyou. She won the prize in 2015 for her discoveries concerning a novel therapy against treatment-resistant malaria. To find the cure for this type of malaria, her team screened thousands of herbs mentioned in ancient Chinese medical texts. Eventually, they discovered artemisinin, an extract from sweet wormwood. Artemisinin is now commonly used in combination with other drugs to treat malaria. Her discovery has been called “the most important pharmaceutical intervention in the last half-century” (Lasker Award Presentation). She was the first mainland Chinese scientist to receive a Nobel Prize and she did it without a doctorate, medical degree, or training abroad.

For this science scholars on break, we discuss Netflix's 2019 true crime documentary series, Don't F*** with Cats. We give a summary, describe who should watch, and dive into some of the new details about Luka Magnotta's life. We end the episode by discussing who we'd want on the case if we were murdered.

This week, we gave an update about Covid-19 testing, focusing specifically SARS-CoV-2 antibody testing. We are joined by our friend, Maggie Rank, to discuss her personal experience getting an antibody test. We cover the basics of what antibodies are and what they typically do. Then, we discuss what antibodies for SARS-CoV-2 can tell us about Covid-19, focusing two papers looking at antibody levels in hospitalized patients and patients with mild symptoms. We talk about what we are looking for in an antibody test and which tests are the most reliable. Then, we discuss what having antibodies means - briefly touching on the idea of immunity passports. We also discuss a new study looking at the timeline of immunity in rhesus macaques.More information: FDA new test validation and education effortsInformation from the CDC about antibody testing

For our first science scholars in the world (and wild), we discuss the science behind baking. We cover what different ingredients contribute to the final product. We touch on the different types of flour, how sugar is extracted, the role of eggs in baking, and differences between baking soda and powder.

We discuss Tiger King, the global phenomenon sweeping across Netflix screens, with loyal listener and friend of the pod, Jennifer Huffman. We give a brief background about the documentary series and touch on some of the characters. We end by figuring out which character we are by taking the ground truth Buzzfeed quiz.

For our first installment of science scholars in lab, we discuss the paper, Search-and-replace genome editing without double-strand breaks or donor DNA. We cover some basics details about the paper - the problem they're addressing and why its important. Then we dive into the new technique, discussing what prime editing is and how they validated the technique. We end with a conversation about how useful we think the tool will be.

This episode, we talk about the first American woman to win the Nobel Prize in Chemistry, Frances Arnold. She received the Nobel Prize for utilizing directed evolution to engineer enzymes to work in unnatural environments. She is currently a professor at Caltech. We cover her trajectory in science, life and dive into the project that won her the prize.

We are changing our format! We are aiming for shorter, more focused episodes. Our episodes are going to break into 4 categories - science scholars in lab, science scholars on break, science scholars in the world, and other science scholars. In science scholars in lab, we are going to focus on basic research papers. For science scholars on break, we are focusing on things we find interesting outside of science. With science scholars in the world, we are deep diving on science related things in the world. And in other science scholars, we are talking with (or about) other scientists.

COVID-19 is still very much on the mind, so we decided to do another update! This week, we cover COVID-19 and pregnancy, food and sex. We talk about why Katie is living in a camper and movement and social distancing patterns across the US. We discuss how social isolation can affect mental health and what we are using to stay in touch with people. We discuss updates about what is known about the virus (variants and loss of smell), testing (a new 15 minute test) and treatment (human convalescent plasma, potential drugs, and ventilator sharing). We end with information about who is getting a stimulus relief check and where you can donate your money.More information:Original paper about pregnancy and COVID-19New papers about pregnancy and COVID-19Paper looking at mechanism of loss of smellPilot study for human convalescent plasmaClinical trial for hydroxychloroquine and azithromycin, but a warning against self-medicationOne online symptom assessmentIn case you don't know how to wash your handsInformation about ACA registration reopeningDonation options:Monetary donation suggestions from Vox, NYT, and CNNMask donations from PPE2NYC and Mask Match

Instead of our planned 100th episode, we decided to dive into the current pandemic caused by COVID-19 (novel coronavirus 19). We start things off by defining outbreaks generally and what it means for infections to grow exponentially. We get into coronaviruses generally - discussing the 7 types of coronaviruses that infect people, how coronaviruses are transmitted and some potential prevention and treatment. We discuss SARS (severe acute respiratory syndrome) and MERS (middle east respiratory syndrome), two diseases caused by coronaviruses with severe respiratory symptoms. Then, we move on to COVID-19, the disease caused by SARS-CoV-2. We briefly discuss papers about the origin of the virus and the death rate of the disease.We get into detail about the differences (and similarities) between the viruses that cause COVID-19 and SARS. The viruses both get into human cells via ACE2 and the receptor binding motif is 50% similar. Based on a recent paper, both viruses last on surfaces for a surprisingly long period of time. Both SARS and COVID-19 have higher mortality rates in males than in females. While understanding the similarities is important, the differences between the two diseases and viruses could help us understand how COVID-19 became a pandemic. The structure between the two viruses is slightly different - allowing the SARS-CoV-2 virus to bind to ACE2 with higher affinity. Additionally, transmission of COVID-19 can occur before symptoms arise or if the person is asymptomatic. There are many things that aren't known about the virus including the potential for oral-fecal transmission and how environmental temperature affects the virus.Then, we dive into testing, prevention and treatment. We cover how the virus is detected and a new method for testing if someone has antibodies for the virus. In terms of prevention, we discuss the importance of washing your hands, not touching your face, and sneezing/coughing into your elbow. We define the three big phrases for prevention - social distancing, self quarantining and flattening the curve. Next, we discuss some potential treatments - Actemra, Remdesivir, Chloroquine, targeting ACE2, CRISPR, and a multi-lab effort to identify virus-affected proteins and target them using already approved drugs. As a note, please do not self medicate using the drugs mentioned. Then, we discuss the current vaccine efforts using mRNA or altering a MERS vaccine. We finish by discussing some treatments and prevention strategies that are not effective.Here are more sources of information:A good Washington Post article with models of how social distancing and self quarantine can impact the number of infectionsJohns Hopkin's map of the outbreakThe CDC websiteThe World Health Organization website

If you need a break from the news, we discuss all of our favorite new shows and fake meat. We start things off by discussing Cheer and Love is Blind, two new Netflix shows, with heavy spoilers. Then we cover how we feel about this season of the Bachelor and UVA basketball. We end things by discussing fake meat, focusing on Impossible and Beyond beef. We talk about the how fake meat is different than plant based alternatives, how it will help some environmental problems, and how they mimic actual burgers (even some negative components). Then, we get into how fake meat is making their meat “bleed” through the use of leghemoglobin. And we finish the episode by talking about our experiences with them.

After briefly reviewing Bud Light Seltzer, we deep dive into hair - the basics, why you lose it and why it turns grey. We discuss follicle density and the three main growth stages. Then, we talk about how and why hair loss may occur, focusing on androgenetic alopecia, alopecia areata and telogen effluvium. Androgenetic alopecia is substantially heritable and more research is coming out frequently about additional genetic factors. Alopecia areata is a common autoimmune disease causing hair loss. We briefly discuss about treatment options, focusing on minoxidil and iron supplements. We follow this up with a discussion about the genetic and non-genetic causes of grey hair. We end things by discussing the intersection between stress and grey hair, covering a paper recently supporting the hypothesis that stress can cause more grey hair.

We discuss phenylketonuria (PKU) and why this disease has been used as a model for drug discovery and treatment testing. But first, in this iteration of Katie and Caleigh do hip shit, we deep dive into Korean pop (better known as K-pop). We discuss the intense fandom, the new super group SuperM, and our thoughts on K-pop songs. Then, we move onto some PKU background - what PKU is, what causes PKU, and how PKU is currently diagnosed and treated. We walk through why people are using PKU as a test case and some techniques people are testing out on PKU.Other important references:The Ringer's podcast about K-popAnd where to buy books we mentioned:She Said by Jodi Kantor and Megan TwoheyNine Pints by Rose George

We have scientist and author, Chris MacDonald, on the podcast this week. Chris wrote Operation Sustainable Human: A Four-Step Scientific Guide to Combat Climate Change. We discuss how he chose his four action items and why he thinks they are effective ways to reduce climate change.Follow Chris on instagram and buy his book on Amazon or your favorite independent indie bookstore.

Feeling some of the winter blues? We dive the science behind SAD (seasonal affective disorder) and some treatments. But first, we try to get into swipe texting (spoiler: it doesn't go very well). We discuss what depression is and how SAD fits into the classification and diagnosis of depression. Then, we talk about SAD risk factors (geographical location, biological sex, and genetic predisposition) and the potential mechanisms behind SAD. Researchers are actively investigating the mechanisms underlying SAD, but proposed mechanisms are irregular serotonin regulation, melatonin production and Vitamin D production. In terms of treatment, individualized treatments are preferred, but both light therapy or group therapy are proven to have a positive effect on SAD symptoms.

We start things off this week with our new segment and a follow up for Episode 91. Then, we dive into the main focus of the episode - blood. We briefly recap our episode about blood transfusions and types (Episode 85). We discuss blood banks (the Red Cross and independent centers), how donated blood is treated and what parts of blood is actually used in patients. Then, we talk about blood testing - why it's a good idea (especially for things like cancer) and some recent progress. Afterwards, we get into how the blood testing technology described by Theranos wasn't peer reviewed or accurate. We also suggest a documentary and podcast about how things unraveled.

This week, as White Claw Summer comes to an end, we discuss how White Claw (and other spiked seltzers) are different than other types of alcohol. But, to do the proper comparison, we start things off by broadly describing types of alcohol and the differences between distiled and undistilled alcohol. We describe the distillation process and where spiked seltzer falls into all of this. Then, we dive into more details about the differences between spiked seltzer, malt liquor and beer. And for those who are interested, we end things by discussing why light beer is “light”.

This week, in honor of the United Nations Climate Action Summit and the climate marches, we discuss some of the new studies about climate change and the policies surrounding it. We first rewind to the paper that sparked the Paris Agreement, what the Paris Agreement is, and some of its shortcomings. Then, we discuss a newer study from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change that sparked the Climate Action Summit. The new studies uses modeling to address timeframe over which we should reduce carbon emissions to stay on track for the 1.5◦C increase (or to potentially hit a lower target). This study put targets to have net zero carbon dioxide emissions significantly sooner than those proposed in the Paris Agreement.

This week, special return guest Mike Pokrass joins us to talk about reality television and a new paper that came out in Science. We start things off by discussing the nature vs nurture debate, specifically regarding human sexuality. We touch on an old (and non-replicated) paper that linked a single gene on the X chromosome with human sexuality. Then, we discuss a recent, large scale twin study that found genetic effects explained 34-39% of the variance in human sexual behavior in men. Then, we dive into the new paper, unpacking their subject pool, the techniques they use, and the major takeaways. Unsurprisingly, they didn't find a single gene that completely controls human sexual behavior. They found that heritability of the trait was 32.4%. There was a very small collection of SNPs that reached “genome wide significance”. However, an individual with one copy of one of these SNPs is only 0.4% more likely to report same sex behavior.

This week, we start things off by talking about spiked seltzer craze that is sweeping the nation, including a festival in Denver on September 14th. Then, we dive into Huntington's disease, a fatal genetic movement disorder. It is caused by excess CAG repeats in the huntingtin gene. This was the first disease-associated gene to be mapped to a human chromosome. Before genetic testing it was relatively easy to pass Huntington's onto your children because it is autosomal dominant and the disease has an adult onset (onset between 30-50 years). The number of CAG repeats may expand further in successive generations, leading to earlier onset Huntington's. Unfortunately, there is no cure for Huntington's currently. Scientists are trying to targeting the excess CAG repeats in the gene as a potential cure. Current potential treatment options are tetrabenazine and occupational or physical therapy. There are a number of ongoing clinical trials looking at the neuroprotection of cannabinoids and deep brain stimulation.

This week, we talk about our new Duolingo habit, Caleigh becoming outdoorsy, and grants. We discuss who submits grants, why we need them, and who bankrolls the grants. We talk about what is involved in the grant writing process (for those that have heard us complain). We also touch on different types of grants that PIs can apply to. We end things by discussing who gets grants and some problems with the grant writing system, specifically focusing on prejudice in the evaluation system (from this paper)

The second episode of this double header, we discus M U R D E R, but more specifically the scientific legacy of female scientists who have been murdered. We start things off by discussing the east coast heat wave, Caleigh's new Soda Stream and Blown Away. Then, we dive into the murder of Hypatia of Alexandria. She was murdered in 415 AD by Christian zealots. She is known for being a famous teacher at the Neoplatonic School and the first female mathematician in history. We skip a few centuries and move onto Dian Fossey, who was murdered in 1985. Despite some of her controversial actions, she was a famous primatologist and conservationalist, known for her extensive study of mountain gorillas. She wrote Gorillas in the Mist, the best-selling book about gorillas to this day. Next, we discuss Annie Le, a third year pharmacology PhD student at Yale, who was murdered in September 2009. Annie was interested in whether, and how, fatty acids regulate a particular molecule in the body. Some of her work was published after her death. To end, we discuss Suzanne Eaton. She was a PI at the Max Planck Institute of Molecular Cell Biology and Genetics and was found dead while attending a conference in Greece on July 8th. Generally, she was interested in how organizing tissue instructs the surrounding tissue via morphogen signaling. She used Drosophila wing development as a model organism for her developmental studies. There is a heartbreaking dedication page remembering her life.

This week, we discuss the trashy reality TV shows we love (The Bachelor franchise and Love Island UK) at nauseam and malaria. We discussed the lifecycle of the disease inside and outside of the human body, the symptoms, how to test for and treatment of malaria and where it is prevalent. We also talk about how malaria can affect pregnancy and a new paper with potential implications for preventing malaria in pregnant women. We discuss preventative measures - specifically, the new malaria vaccine and some of the most common anti-malarial medicine. We finish by discussing how Sickle Cell Anemia and Malaria interact.

This week, we discuss immunology with special guest, Diana Contreras. We cover some of the basics of immunology - discussing innate and adaptive/acquired immunity and the cells associated with both. Diana teaches us about the main cells in the adaptive immune system, B and T cells. Then, we dive into Diana's science background - discussing how she ended up studying immunology as a PhD student at Vanderbilt. We also discuss her current work studying metabolic differences between two different types of T cells (Th2 and Th17) with Dr. Jeff Rathmell.

This week, we discuss blood transfusion, different blood types, and how knowing someone's blood type changed the game. Then, we dive into a new technique to convert blood type A into blood type O highlighted in a paper that came out in June 2019 and this article.

This week, for your listening pleasure, we talk about our feelings about this season of the Bachelorette and review three basketball movies - Space Jam, Like Mike and Thunderstruck.

This week, we cover the remaining planets - Neptune and Uranus - and debate extensively about whether Pluto is a planet. But before we start discussing the planets, we talk about Caleigh's strong feelings about Drake and this season of the Bachelorette. Due to their distance from Earth, Uranus and Neptune have been predominantly studied using powerful telescopes, like the Hubble Telescope. Voyager 2 was the first spacecraft to visit both planets. Uranus is an ice giant and one of the few planets that moves in retrograde. Neptune is the windiest planet, has a strong magnetic field (27 times stronger than Earth's) and its largest moon, Triton, was discovered a mere 17 days after it. There are currently plans in the works to send another spacecraft to Neptune and its moons.Then, Katie makes a case for why Pluto should be considered a planet - focusing on the potentially faulty IAU definition, confusion within the field of astronomy and because Pluto is so cool. Katie thinks Pluto is dope because of it's unique background and the interesting geology (dunes and ice mountains) and weather (red snow).

This week, we continue on our journey through the Solar System, flying by the gas giants, Jupiter and Saturn. This episode we focus on natural satellites - discussing Jupiter and Saturn's moons and rings at length. Jupiter is famous for its large mass (2 times the mass of all the other planets combined!), Great Red Spot, and plentiful moons (53 current, but awaiting approval of 26 more). Galileo discovered Jupiter's most famous moons - Io, Europa, Ganymede and Callisto. The Voyager missions (NASA, 1979) discovered Jupiter's faint rings, several new moons, and Io's volcanic activity. The most recent mission to Jupiter (Juno, NASA, 2011) discovered wave trains and weird lightning on Jupiter. Europa is the target of the next major mission and is thought to potentially be able to sustain life. Saturn has just as many moons (53 confirmed, 9 pending approval), but is more famous for its rings. Unfortunately, Saturn will likely lose its rings over the next few million years.

UVA is still the National Champion, we're still talking about space. We start things off by highlighting Katie Bouman for her role in collecting images of black holes. Then, we move on to the second closest planet to the Sun, Venus. We talk about Venus's retrograde rotation, long day, and the patriarchy. We compare and contrast Venus and Earth on many different fronts, including surface temperature, atmosphere (specifically Argon), magnetic fields and soil composition. We also highlight some potential reasons that Venus doesn't have water in any form, specifically discussing the role of “runaway greenhouse effect”, solar wind, and an electric field. Then, we deep dive into the history of Venus expeditions. We start things off discussing the space race between the Soviet Union and the United States - best highlighted by the Mariner 2, Venera 4, and the Mariner 5. We discuss some of the major findings in 1978 from the Pioneer Venus 1 and 2 spacecrafts from NASA and Venera 11 and 12 from the Soviet Union. Venera 13 and 14 took the first color photographs of Venus in 1981. Since the 1990s, the Magellan, Venus Express, Akatski and BepiColombo have all either visited or flown by Mars.

This week, we release our first episode as National Champions. Since we taped this episode weeks ago, we start things off discussing the start of UVA's run in the NCAA tournament. We move on to more basketball related topics, specifically a Space Jam 2 preview and a discussion of Michael Jordan's poor managing skills (think about Kwame Brown). Then, we dive into science, discussing Mercury, the closest planet to the Sun. We define a planet and discuss our emotional attachment (or not) to Pluto. Next, we discuss how and when Mercury was discovered and the debate surrounding Mercury's day and year length (including 2 battling papers). We move on to discussing some of the discoveries about Mercury that have been made from Earth, focusing on Mercury's rocky surface features. We discuss Eugenios Antoniadi who made a map of Mercury we still use today, Soviet scientists who were the first to use radar to map surface features through space, and recent pictures that revealed some new surface features. Then, we discuss our attempts to get closer to Mercury, mainly the Mariner 10 and Messenger spacecrafts. The Mariner 10 was sent to space in 1973 and made landmark discoveries about the surface, temperature, magnetic field and atmosphere of Mercury. (Here's a dope book about it.) We mention the launch of the Messenger spacecraft and some new technology on board. We briefly mention a Mercury orbit hot take and information about Mercury and sunspots.

WE ARE GOING TO THE FINAL FOUR (both the team and us). We recap the game, share our thoughts about the Auburn matchup and the Duke loss. Special guests and friends of the pod, Dr. Kate Neitzke, Pete Stuart, and Marlon Lucas join us with their feelings and hot takes. See you at the Final Four! LET'S GOOOOOO

This week, we launched our miniseries on space, starting things off with the Sun. Before we start discussing the Sun, we talk UVA basketball and the NCAA tournament (thanks to everyone that created a bracket!!!). We begin generally, defining stars and galaxies. The light and heat from stars comes from nuclear fusion (which we do our best to describe). Then, we transition to describing different types of stars and what type of star our Sun is (yellow main sequence star). We discuss where stars come from (super cool gases condensing and collapsing on itself), which was best described in a University of Oregon astronomy class. We move on to stats about our own Sun - chemical composition, size, and energy - and then discuss our Sun's cool magnetic fields. These magnetic fields are related to sunspots, which were first discovered in 800 BC. People are still doing active research about how these sunspots are formed. Sunspots can be used as a proxy to estimate solar weather.

This week, we discuss STING, the artist and the protein. We start things off with some Caleigh hot takes on Sting, the artist. Then, we start discussing STING, the stimulator of interferon genes, a protein involved in innate immunity. Innate immunity is the non-specific immune system, which acts as the first line of defense against infection. STING protects cells against intracellular pathogens in two ways - the activation of type 1 interferon production or a novel mechanism of autophagy induction. Caleigh discusses the two new Nature papers that just came out about STING, one detailing the autophagy induction and the other describing the structure of cGAMP-bound STING and a necessary kinase. STING has recently been targeted as a potential site for cancer immunotherapy.

This week, Katie is back from Portugal and Caleigh moved across the country. We decided to discuss HIV (human immunodeficiency virus) because of a recent Nature/New York Times article and the movie Bohemian Rhapsody. We start off by describing what a virus is and some statistics about HIV/AIDS generally. We dive into a little more detail about the specific type of virus that causes AIDS (a retrovirus that has 9 genes and affects the immune system). We cover a paper from friend of the pod, Stephanie Carnes, about some basic science of HIV. Then, we talk about preventing the spread of HIV with PrEP and treatment approaches. We cover the new paper that claims a HIV patient is in remission. We finish by discussing some alarming disparities in affected communities and treatment availability.