History of the American People to 1877

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues the Pilgrims and Puritans were radical separatists and reformers who disagreed with Charles I and his Archbishop William Laud who favored a return of Roman Catholic doctrines in the Church of England. Puritans had unique beliefs and goals that influenced their colonization of New England. The Pilgrims' arrival at Plymouth was poorly timed with the near onset of winter and the they suffered greatly. Only the aid of an Native American named Squanto, who had been forcibly abducted and transferred all over the Atlantic World, enabled the Pilgrims to survive. "Plimouth Plantation's" relationship with native tribes was not as cordial as the myth of the first Thanksgiving depicted, as conflict frequently broke out. Though the colony was never financially successful, subsequent waves of Puritan settlers swept into the region, quickly expanding the presence of the English in the face of dwindling native numbers, due to epidemic disease and war. Puritans suffered less than their English brethren in the Chesapeake, since Puritan families often traveled together and had more property. Unlike the decentralized Chesapeake, Puritan towns were centered around the church and school, to foster literacy in order to pursue religious studies to form a personal relationship with Christ. New England's economy was more balanced than the cash-crop export centered economic of the Chesapeake, though that also meant it yielded fewer profits. The result was a more balanced wealth gap. Without large amounts of capital and no cash crops, native and African slavery was less pronounced in the region. Puritan families worked together, with women serving as "Deputy Husbands," which allowed them greater control over their households. Due to relative balance of genders in New England, women could form tighter social networks with their neighbors to financial, moral, and political support. Premarital sex, abortion, and family planning, though rare, occurred in colonial New England, illustrating the concept of the "prude Puritan" was a myth. Over time, relations strained between Puritans and Native American tribes. This led to the Puritan-Pequot War and the Mystic River Massacre, where the Puritan militia massacred hundreds of natives after setting fire to a Pequot village. The survivors were sold into slavery across the Atlantic World. Decades later, another conflict, King Phillip's War, broke out due to the abuse heaped upon the Wampanoag tribe. The result killed thousands of settlers and Indians and posed on of the most serious challenges to English colonialism in New England. In the end, the Puritans, aided by native allies, were successful. Metacom, also called King Phillip, was killed, his alliance broke apart, and the survivors were sold into slavery. Thus, New England embarked on a century long project of conveniently forgetting their multi-racial past, as they depicted a "white New England" against a "black South."Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues the expansion of colonial Virginia led to further conflicts with native tribes, which culminated in English dominance of Southeast Virginia after 1642. Due to Virginia's rural plantations, it was highly decentralized, lacked any formal education system, and was dominated by the wealthy planters. Their abuse of indentured servants, the corruption of the courts, and the actions of royal governors, led to Bacon's Rebellion. After the rebellion, the Virginia gentry learned a valuable lesson. To slowly switch from indentured servants to African slaves, and divide the lower classes with white supremacist ideologies to prevent biracial alliances against elite power. The result, was the rise of African slavery in the colony.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues English colonization experienced several setbacks before finally flourishing in the mid-seventeenth century. Conditions in England, such as surging populations and oppressive economic policies, led to the rise of the study beggars, which worried middle and upper-class Englishmen. These men desired fame and wealth associated with colonization and used cooperative ventures, like joint stock companies, to fund their efforts. The English used the experiences of cultural oppression, torture, and warfare against the Irish in their relations with various native tribes. After the inglorious failure at Roanoke, Jamestown was founded, though suffered from its poor location and the intransigence of the settlers. John Smith instituted new policies that tied work to rations, but these were abandoned after he left the colony due to an injury. The result was the "starving times" where most of Jamestown population died. It was only the timely arrival of reinforcements that saved the English venture from failure. Jamestown survived only because of the headright system and the use of indetured servants, who died in large numbers. Tobacco, a cash crop, fueled further immigration into colony of Virginia and allowed it to thrive. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues France's experience in the "New World" differed from the Spanish and English in their relatively positive relationships with various Native tribes. New France was less populous than other European possessions, though it was territorial expansive. However, France did not effectively control the territory they claimed, as they relied on Native Americans to trade and project power from the St. Lawrence River Valley, down the Mississippi River, into the Gulf of Mexico. French efforts at conversion were tepid and largely unsuccessful. Competition with other Europeans, like the Dutch, and competition between native tribes, created coalitions of support and led to endemic warfare. The Iroquois, with access to Dutch guns, were the most successful, and carved a swath of control from Upstate New York and Pennsylvania, into the modern Midwest. France's peace with the Iroquois in 1701, illustrates a missed opportunity for a more inclusive and mutually beneficial relationship. This example at cooperation and toleration, as we will see, would not be followed by the English settlers along the Atlantic coast. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten describes the Spanish Empire in the western hemisphere and native resistance to colonial oppression. He argues that New Spain's labor relations led to further suffering on the part of surviving Native Americans, which was exposed by reformers like Bartolome de las Casas. He details how New Spain responded to such debates with increased centralization and the introduction of new labor systems that led to the rise of African slavery in the empire. He argues Native revolts in New Mexico constituted the single greatest challenge to European colonialism and necessitated concessions on the Spaniards part in order to reestablish control. He concludes the Spanish Empire declined due to inflation, increased importation of manufactured goods, and the massive security expenses of foreign wars and military installations abroad.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten describes the conquest of Central, North, and South America by Spanish conquistadors. He argues the Spanish were aided less by "Guns, Germs, and Steel" and more by Native American allies that helped destroy the Aztec and Inca Empire. He details the massive death in the Americas that resulted from Spanish misrule, disease, and famine that led the Native survivors to form new tribal identities through the process of ethnogenesis. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues European societies after the late Middle Ages were violent, intolerant, and oppressive towards women. The high minded ideals of chivalric warfare were only applied to elites, while poor conscripts, mercenaries, and perceived "heathens" were not accorded such privileges. Economic motivations led Europeans to seek water-based routes to East Asia in order to avoid Muslim traders and middlemen in favor of direct access to these desired markets. Combined with European conceptions of property inheritance, many second and third sons would strike out to earn glory and plunder wealth that led to the Spanish conquest of the Americas.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten describes West and Central African civilizations from the 1300s to 1600s. He argues that African societies were diverse and powerful, rather than the monolithic poor rural villages that dominate popular media. He contends that African and Islamic slaveries differed from the European plantation slavery that developed in the late 1400s. He details how African conceptions of religion, slavery, and warfare were misinterpreted by Europeans, and led to the creation of racial stereotypes that reinforced white supremacist ideology that survive to this day. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten describes Native American Societies prior to European contact. He argues Native societies were incredibly diverse, with large sedentary civilizations in Meso-America and semi-sedentary communities along North America's Atlantic coast. He argues Native understandings of private property, religion, gender, and warfare were misunderstood by Europeans, which led to numerous conflicts.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten discusses the massive economic and technological changes that fundamentally altered the young republic in the 19th century.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the greatest trick ever played on white southerners was convincing them that disunion and the protection of slavery was a good cause and that the the Confederacy benefited the South. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues Reconstruction attempted to bring due process, equal protection of the law, and voting rights to African Americans, but was thwarted by white southerners who attempted to recreate slavery in all but name, using economic and political repression as well as white supremacist terroristic violence, Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues both northerners and southerners created false memories of the war that highlighted unity and downplayed the division that griped both home fronts.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the Civil War was a a devastating conflict that killed 750,000 Americans.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues elite white southerners reacted to the election of Abraham Lincoln by pushing for secession. This was a rash decision, considering Lincoln never threatened slavery where it already existed. In addition, elite white southerners still held considerable congressional power and controlled the Supreme Court. Despite this, elite white southerners embraced secession despite widespread dissatisfaction with it. Seven deep southern states seceded after conventions were held, but these conventions never submitted secession for a popular vote, due to widespread resistance. The border states would never secede and the upper South only seceded after the firing on Fort Sumter and Lincoln's call for volunteers to put down the rebellion. Thus, the Confederacy was on shaky foundation, as many southerners rejected its very legitimacy. This dissatisfaction with secession would be largely forgotten, as a Lost Cause emerged after the Civil War and Reconstruction, which portrayed a united South.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the debate over the expansion of slavery into the recently conquered territories of the Mexican Cession led to the outbreak of the Secession Crisis and ultimately the American Civil War.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the South was a slave society, where every aspect of its economy, politics, and social hierarchy was wrapped around the sinful institution. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues white Americans believed they were destined to conquer and settle the American continent. White Americans systematically ethnically cleansed Native Americans from the American southwest and West in order to make way for white settlement and exploitation. In addition, The United States fought a war with the Republic of Mexico and conquered vast stretches of their territory, known as the Mexican Cession. This led to the revival of the question over slavery's expansion into the territories, which led to the political crisis of the 1850s and eventually, the American Civil War.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues many middle-class Americans joined reform societies to deal with the issues created by the Market Revolution. Some Americans embraced anti-slavery, abolitionism, temperance, education, and mental health groups to improve the lives of Americans, though they also did so to wield substantial political power. Some Americans rejected these efforts, especially abolitionism, which was a tiny minority of evangelical northern Christians. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues a wave of religious revivals spread across the country, which led many Americans to change the way they worshiped. Americans embraced a more enthusiastic, evangelical interpretation of Christianity and the concept of perfectionism, which led many to join reform movements to perfect society and thus bring about the second coming of Christ. New protestant sects were created and many Americans experimented with utopian societies or communitarian communities. While the awakening led to a democratization of American religion, it also led to splits within American churches between proslavery southerners and anti-slavery northerners. This would later help contribute to the coming of the Civil War.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues President Andrew Jackson ushered in a new era of American politics, and his imprint on the presidency lives on to this day.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the closely contested election of 1824, led to a widely disparaged administration under John Quincy Adams. Supporters of Andrew Jackson, called Jacksonians and later termed Democrats, viewed the effort of Henry Clay to swing the contest in JQA's favor as outright theft. As a result, JQA's administration suffered from lack of support, even from his own Vice President, John C. Calhoun. While JQA is the greatest Secretary of State in U.S. history, his presidency was largely ineffective in passing his programs. The election of 1828, which was highly rancorous, ushered in a new era of American politics. Due to the removal of property requirements, white males voted in great numbers, which routinely reached 80-90% of the eligible electorate. In addition, a new political party, The Democratic Party, was founded, and its name sake, which bears little resemblance to its 19th century counterpart, lives on to this day. Finally, new methods of electioneering were adopted, which combined policy with revelry to achieve this massive participation. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the "Era of Good Feelings," is misnamed. While the period did have one party rule and a renewed sense of American identity, it also was a period of economic turbulence, political infighting, and most critically, it showcased that any public discussion of slavery's expansion had the potential to rend the nation in twain.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the War of 1812 was a foolish conflict that the Americans barely escaped intact. The war was caused by continued British impressment of U.S. sailors, as well as their refusal to abandon their forts in the modern Midwest. The war went badly for the U.S. until Andrew Jackson pulled out a victory at New Orleans. The war led to the destruction of the Federalist Party, since they opposed the war and some advocated secession due to the conflict. This would result in one party year for the next decade.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues Thomas Jefferson dropped his strict constructionist proclivities upon assuming the presidency and embarked on a reign of broad constructionist governance that enabled him to mold the future of the young nation. Jefferson kept many Federalist policies intact when he assumed office, though he rejected the more pompous social affairs of his predecessors. The Federalist, despite their political decline, remained dominant in the Judicial branch, and the new Chief Justice of the Supreme Court, John Marshall, helped establish the concept of judicial review. Under Jefferson, the country doubled in size over night, with the signing of the Louisiana Purchase from France. Though Jefferson thought the measure was unconstitutional, he approved it because it supported his vision of white settler expansion in the West and create the rural nation of farmers he desired. Jefferson's administration, like Adams, was dominated by navigating the complex diplomatic issues involved in the Napoleonic Wars. Jefferson's solution was to cut off all trade with the belligerent nations, though this too flew in the face of his strict constructionist views. The Embargo Act devastated the American economy, but sowed the seeds for industrialization that paved the way for America's future as an industrial power house. Thus, Jefferson's legacy is complex and contradictory, as he created an "Empire of Liberty" for whites at the expense of natives, and helped develop the country further, only by abandoning his principles in favor of fostering the common good.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues John Adams' opposition to a war with France saved the young nation but doomed his political career and paved the way for the election of Thomas Jefferson. By stepping down from the presidency after two terms, George Washington ensured the Republic would survive with the precedent of a two term limit that was later enshrined in constitutional law in the 1950s. Adams administration was dominated by the Quasi-War with France, an undeclared war between French and American ships. American delegates attempted to negotiate with the French foreign minister, Talleyrand, but instead were met with demands for a private bribe and a public loan for France. The resulting XYZ Affair led to the further deterioration of relations between America and her former ally. With a large French immigrant population in America, the Congress passed the Alien and Sedition Act, which criminalized free speech. As a result, Thomas Jefferson and James Madison wrote the Virginia and Kentucky Resolutions, which enunciated the concept of Nullification that later directly led to the Nullification Crisis of 1832 and the Secession Crisis of 1861. The election of 1800 between Jefferson and Adams was a highly contentious campaign, with numerous slanders and libels cast by supporters of both candidates. While Jefferson defeated Adams in the Electoral College, he tied his running mate Aaron Burr, who refused to concede defeat, as he was highly ambitious and unscrupulous politician. Alexander Hamilton helped throw the election in Jefferson's favor, because while he may disagree with Jefferson's politics, he at least knew he had principles, unlike Burr. Thus, Jefferson became president and stated: "We are all republicans, we are all federalists." While this was meant to unite the country, Jefferson meant it an invitation for everyone to join his party, as the concept of a loyal opposition party was still not yet firmly established in the American political process. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues George Washington's administration set many important precedents that continue in the United States to this day. Washington new he needed experts around him and established the cabinet to help him govern the new nation. Alexander Hamilton and Thomas Jefferson enunciated two rival visions for the future of the country, with Hamilton enacting numerous policies to stabilize the nation's economy. The battle between Hamilton and Jefferson led to the creation of the proto-political parties, the Federalists and the Democratic-Republicans, also called Jeffersonian Republicans. These parties were further solidified as Americans disagreed over foreign policy, as France and Great Britain were locked in battle over the French Revolution. Washington's administration attempted to negotiate the Jay Treaty with Great Britain, which did not solve the immediate problems of impressment that ultimately led to the War of 1812. While Americans were fearful that the Haitian Revolution might spread to America, Washington illustrated one more weakness of his character, when he attempted to recapture an escaped slave, Ona Judge, who had escaped to freedom. In the end, Washington continued his proclivity for giving up power when he could have been president for life. Thus, Washington is a flawed founder who provided a stable foundation for the Early American Republic.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the ratification debates illustrated the disagreement among Americans regarding the adoption of the new Constitution. Federalists undertook a successful propaganda campaign and wrote numerous "Federalist Papers" that discussed the benefits of the new government for the people. Anti-federalists argued the new government was far to powerful and would merely create an aristocracy in the new nation. The founders also debated the nature of implied versus enumerated powers, which continues to this day. In the end, the Constitution was adopted and the first ten amendments or "Bill of Rights" was added to the Constitution. These amendments protect many of our rights, though they can be interpreted narrowly or broadly in order to subvert these privileges and immunities of U.S. citizens.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the constitutional convention was a conservative victory that put numerous barriers between popular democratic or "mob rule" and the levers of government. James Madison set the tone of the debate with the introduction of his "Virginia Plan," which ensured he got most of what he wanted. The whole process could have been derailed, were it not for Roger Sherman and his Connecticut Compromise that formed the basis of the Senate and House of Representatives. While slavery was briefly debated, it was constitutionally protected in three specific sections of the Constitution, which would set the stage for eighty years of disagreement regarding the sinful institution. Arguments over how to elect the executive branch, led to the creation of the Electoral College, which is hotly debated to this day. In the end, the convention represented a successful coup against the Articles of Confederation that enabled elite control over the government, at least for awhile. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the Articles of Confederation government was extremely weak and unable to deal with the massive debt and competing interests of states following the American Revolutionary War. The founding generation believed in a concept of "republicanism" that stressed the dichotomy of liberty and power, virtue and luxury that competed in every government. Due to this political ideology, the new governments wanted to limit centralized authority and empower the states with the majority of rights. As issues compounded due to the lack of power, elites believed a new governing document was necessary in order to ensure the success of the American republic. As a result, the constitutional convention was called in order to create a functioning government capable of solving the nation's problems.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the Revolutionary War held several important consequences for Americans, beyond simply maintaining their independence from Great Britain. George Washington, while certainly a flawed man, continually gave away power when he could have set himself up as a king. Furthermore, the war empowered women with "Republican Motherhood," and led to the creation of the first anti-slavery society in the United States, though there was a missed opportunity for Washington to contribute to the decline of slavery in the U.S. The war saddled the young country with a substantial debt that would contribute to the creation of the U.S. constitution. Tens of thousands of loyalists fled the continent in the aftermath of the war. Finally, the most radical aspect of the war was the decline of deference in the United StatesSupport this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues the Revolutionary War was a far more complex event than is traditionally taught. George Washington lost more battles than he won, though his victories were important psychologically and strategically for the cause. In addition, women, African Americans, and Native Americans played a key role in the conflict that is often forgotten today. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Dr. Totten argues American colonists launched an insurgency in the face of British punitive actions that resulted from the Boston Tea Party. John Adams once wrote: "But what do we mean by the American Revolution? Do we mean the American war? The Revolution was effected before the war commenced. The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people; a change in their religious sentiments of their duties and obligations. This radical change in the principles, opinions, sentiments, and affections of the people, was the real American Revolution."The key point was the revolution was not inevitable and every event was contingent on each other. While we in retrospect can see the road to revolution clearly, it is important to note that very few people agreed on what they were doing or where they were going. The founders were eclectic people who vehemently disagreed on confronting Great Britain, disagreed on whether independence should be their goal, and most especially, disagreed on what government would emerge from the conflagration.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues the American colonists and the British government misunderstood each other's interpretation of the imperial relationship, which led to the American Revolution. Rather than providing a united front, the colonies were "ever at variance and foolishly jealous" of one another, which made their union in the face of British actions more impressive. The British need to pay off their war debt from the French and Indian War, led them to impose direct taxes on the colonies, which had not been forced to pay such duties in the past. In addition, colonials were perturbed by British attempts to assert stricter control over colonial trade, as they pursued smugglers who had operated for decades. The New England colonies, hard hit by a series of imperial wars, were more radical than the other colonies, and as a result, Boston was the hotbed of dissent. Several flash points erupted, which led the colonies to hold a "Continental Congress" in order to debate what steps to take next. The result would lead to the American Revolution.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues the French and Indian War set the stage for the American Revolution, due to the massive debt the British government incurred prosecuting the conflict. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues the Enlightenment and First Great Awakening were critical social and intellectual events that contributed to the lead up to the American Revolution. The Enlightenment emphasized empirical evidence, logic, and scientific reason instead of faith as an explanation for the world around them. Scientists and philosophers made critical discoveries and put forward novel ideas that influenced generations, including the founding fathers. The First Great Awakening led to a new expression of evangelical faith that created new Protestant denominations of Baptists, Methodists, and Presbyterianism. The challenging of the old religious order, led to a democratization of religion, and the awakening provided a shared cultural experience for colonial Americans that proved pivotal in the coming of the Revolution. After all, if they were willing to challenge social elites and preachers, why not challenge the rule of an arrogant king.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues economic motivations and white supremacy led to the rise of slavery on the North American continent. The creation of the plantation complex enabled large scale cultivation of sugar, which in turn, fueled the desire for more labor and land. West Africans were knowledgeable about harvesting sugar and their rulers had an economic incentive to sell war captives into a form of European slavery that was hard for these rulers to imagine. After leaving the slave forts on the coast of Africa, enslaved Africans suffered through the horrific Middle Passage. During their journey, they experienced physical and psychological torture, murder, and rape. Slavery was worst in the West Indies, where human beings were literally worked to death as part of a cruel economic calculation to maximize profits. Slavery in the Deep South was little better, where whites used alternating Indian allies as slave catchers, before eventually selling their former natives into slavery abroad. Initially, Georgia was not a slave state, until the colonists there wanted to exploit slavery for financial gain. The Chesapeake and Deep South saw an explosion in the number of enslaved Africans from natural reproduction, which later fueled the inter-state slave trade. The enslaved were subject to slave codes, which regulated every aspect of their lives. Despite the abject cruelty slaves suffered, African traditions endured in the Americas, and the enslaved resisted in acts of everyday sabotage to outright freedom rebellions. Thus, colonial slavery represents an unfortunate aspect of history that has a direct connection to modern day economic and racial inequality in the United Sates and abroad.Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations

In this lecture, Professor Totten argues the Middle Colonies of New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania, and Delaware were multi-ethnic and multi-racial societies that practiced more religious and cultural toleration than the Chesapeake or New England. New York began as a Dutch colony, New Netherland, which had relatively positive relations with nearby native tribes. In addition, women had more rights than in English colonies, as they could obtain divorces, own property, and give testimony in court. New Sweden, a Swedish colonial project, was absorbed by New Netherland, Eventually, the English captured the capital of New Netherland, New Amsterdam, during the Second Anglo-Dutch War. As a result, the English removed many of the rights enjoyed by women and reinforced slavery in the colony.Pennsylvania, by contrast, was a proprietary colony run by William Penn and his descendants. This colony differed from others, due to its large population of Quakers, a protestant sect that stressed equality and pacifism. Due to the middle-class origins of many Quakers, the colony quickly prospered. New Jersey and Delaware had large populations of Scottish and western European settlers and had relatively small economies, which were overshadowed by the more powerful New York and Pennsylvania. Thus, the Middle Colonies had eclectic ethnic, racial, and religious populations that were relatively tolerated, compared to the Anglican South and the Puritan North. Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/history-of-the-american-people-to-1877/donations