The John Batchelor Show

SOCCER STADIUMS AS PROTEST VENUES AND THE ETHNIC FACTOR Colleague Brenda Shaffer. Shafferdescribes how soccer stadiums, particularly for the Azerbaijani team "Tractor," have become venues for ethnic and anti-regime protest. She notes the regime's brutal crackdown on athletes supporting the movement. Shaffer observes a shift in the opposition from seeking reform to demanding total regime change. She predicts the ethnic factor will be decisive in the Islamic Republic's potential collapse, warning that a transition to a Persian-nationalist military dictatorship would further alienate minority populations. NUMBER 41940 TEHRAN

BROKEN PROMISES AND LINGUISTIC DISCRIMINATION Colleague Brenda Shaffer. Shaffer details how the Islamic Republic initially promised ethnic minorities linguistic and cultural rights to secure power in 1979, only to violently suppress them once established. She explains that this oppression continues today through the policing of non-Persian names on birth certificates and the banning of minority language education. Shaffer argues this linguistic discrimination fuels current unrest, exemplified by Mahsa Amini, whose Kurdish identity was suppressed by state mandates. NUMBER 21911 QAJAR IN URMIA

BROKEN PROMISES AND LINGUISTIC DISCRIMINATION Colleague Brenda Shaffer. Shaffer details how the Islamic Republic initially promised ethnic minorities linguistic and cultural rights to secure power in 1979, only to violently suppress them once established. She explains that this oppression continues today through the policing of non-Persian names on birth certificates and the banning of minority language education. Shaffer argues this linguistic discrimination fuels current unrest, exemplified by Mahsa Amini, whose Kurdish identity was suppressed by state mandates. NUMBER 21870 TEHRAN

IRAN IS MORE THAN PERSIA: A DIVERSE MOSAIC OF ETHNIC MINORITIES Colleague Brenda Shaffer. Brenda Shaffer discusses her book, Iran is More than Persia, arguing that Iran is not a monolithic Persian state but a diverse mosaic where ethnic minorities comprise roughly half the population. She explains how the 20th-century shift to Persian nationalism marginalized groups like the Azerbaijanis, Kurds, and Baluch. Shaffer notes that current anti-regime protests involve these previously pacified groups, highlighting the regime's failure to fully subjugate peripheral regions like Sistan-Baluchistan. NUMBER 11890 TEHRAN

 THE SAM ALTMAN MELODRAMA Colleague Gary Rivlin. The shock firing of Sam Altman by the OpenAI board over trust issues, Microsoft's intervention, and the rapid rehiring that solidified the race for dominance. NUMBER 161955

THE DILEMMA OF BIGNESS Colleague Gary Rivlin. How corporate giants like Google were slowed by their own business models, leading Suleyman to leave for Inflection and eventually Microsoft to bypass startup funding issues. NUMBER 15

DOOMERS VS. ACCELERATIONISTS Colleague Gary Rivlin. The ideological battle between "accelerationists" who want rapid progress and "doomers" who fear existential risk, with Hoffman positioning himself as a "bloomer." NUMBER 141959

TRANSFORMERS AND OPENAI Colleague Gary Rivlin. The development of the "transformer" paper at Google, the rise of large language models like GPT, and OpenAI's pivot from non-profit to a Microsoft-backed entity. NUMBER 131950

DEEPMIND AND THE GOOGLE ACQUISITION Colleague Gary Rivlin. Mustafa Suleyman and Demis Hassabisfounding DeepMind to master games, their sale to Google for $650 million, and the culture clash that followed. NUMBER 121952

THE AI WINTER Colleague Gary Rivlin. The history of Frank Rosenblatt's neural networks, their dismissal by Marvin Minsky in favor of rules-based computing, and the decades-long "winter" before the resurgence of machine learning. NUMBER 11

THE CONNECTOR Colleague Gary Rivlin. Reid Hoffman's journey from a lonely childhood to becoming a Silicon Valley "super-connector," his relationship with Peter Thiel, and his early recognition of AI's potential. NUMBER 101955

AI VALLEY: THE TRILLION DOLLAR RACE TO CASH IN Colleague Gary Rivlin. Gary Rivlin chronicles the personalities driving the AI revolution, including Reid Hoffman and Mustafa Suleyman. He explores the history of "AI winters," the rise of neural networks, and the corporate battle between Google and Microsoft. The narrative covers the "Doomer" safety debates and Sam Altman's dramatic firing. NUMBER 91931

THE MACHINERY OF REPRESSION Colleague Nilo Tabrizy. The structure of the IRGC and Basij, the specific targeting of ethnic minorities like Kurds and Baluchis, and the state's sadistic use of violence against mourners. NUMBER 81906 TEHRAN. HEADS OF TURCOMAN CHIEFS

ROOTS OF THE REVOLUTION Colleague Nilo Tabrizy. The historical context of the 1953 coup against Mossadegh, the alienation of the Pahlavi dynasty, and the recurring cycle of foreign interference and internal authoritarianism. NUMBER 71902 PERSIA

THE DEATH OF GINA Colleague Nilo Tabrizy. The killing of Mahsa Jina Amini by the morality police for her hair, the Kurdish origins of "Woman, Life, Freedom," and the immediate eruption of protests. NUMBER 61832 PERSIAN GIRL

WOMAN, LIFE, FREEDOM: THE STORY OF IRAN'S UPRISING Colleague Nilo Tabrizy. Nilo Tabrizy and co-author Fatima Jamalapur document the uprising sparked by the death of Mahsa Jina Amini in police custody. They trace the regime's brutality back to the 1953 coup and the 1979 revolution. The discussion highlights the repression of minorities and defiant activism within Evin Prison. NUMBER 51850 KHALIFA SULTAN, ABBAS II

ANTISEMITISM IN THE ACADEMY Colleague Josh Hammer. A hostile incident at Loyola University Chicagolaw school where protesters disrupted a debate on presidential immunity, and the link between anti-Zionism and the eradication of Western civilization. NUMBER 4842 JOSEPHUS

FROM TREBLINKA TO KFAR AZA Colleague Josh Hammer. A visit to the Nazi death camp Treblinka contrasted with the aftermath of the October 7 massacre at Kibbutz Kfar Aza, and finding solace in faith and the Golden Rule. NUMBER 31860 JERUSALEM

WESTCHESTER AND THE AMERICANIZATION OF JUDAISM Colleague Josh Hammer. Growing up in a secular Jewish environment, dropping out of Hebrew school, and the later discovery of conservatism and Edmund Burke leading to religious observance. NUMBER 21936 RAMALLAH

THE FATE OF THE JEWISH NATION AND THE DESTINY OF THE WEST Colleague Josh Hammer. Josh Hammer discusses his journey from a secular upbringing to Orthodox Judaism and his new book regarding Westerncivilization. He contrasts the Holocaust site Treblinka with the October 7 massacre at Kfar Aza. Hammer also details violent campus antisemitism, arguing it targets the foundations of the West. NUMBER 11857 CROSSING THE RED SEA

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY AI VALLEY: THE EARLY HISTORY OF ARTIFICIAL INTELLIGENCEColleague Gary Rivlin. Author Gary Rivlin reviews the early history of artificial intelligence in his book AI Valley. He details how 1950s pioneers faced mockery because computers lacked the power and digital data necessary for neural networks, resulting in a fifty-year delay before technology caught up to the concept.

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY PI: THE POLITE CHATBOT DESIGNED FOR EMPATHY Colleague Gary Rivlin. Gary Rivlin examines the creation of "Pi," a chatbot designed by personality engineers to exhibit good manners and empathy. Rivlin explains how humans fine-tuned the bot to be polite, predicting a future where such AI could serve affordable therapeutic roles or even function as romantic partners.1955

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY AI WINTERS: WHEN FUNDING VANISHED Colleague Gary Rivlin. Gary Rivlin explains the history of "AI winters" in the 20th century, periods when funding vanished due to overhyped expectations. He describes how optimism in the 1970s and 1980s regarding expert systems eventually collapsed, turning AI into a "dirty word" for investors until its recent resurgence.1964

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY ISRAEL AND CIVILIZATION: ANTI-WESTERN SENTIMENT ON CAMPUSColleague Josh Hammer. Columnist Josh Hammer discusses his book Israel and Civilization, arguing that anti-Israelprotests at universities like George Washington University are proxies for anti-Western sentiment. Hammer suggests these activists view Israel as a "little Satan" representing Western nation-states, aiming to dismantle Westerncivilization alongside the Jewish state.1842 MASADA

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY IRAN'S DIVERSE ETHNIC MAKEUP Colleague Nilo Tabrizy. Journalist Nilo Tabrizy, co-author of For the Sun After Long Nights, discusses the diverse ethnic makeup of Iran. She explains how moving to Tehran from the provinces feels like immigration for many minorities, who must assimilate and blend their distinct languages and cultures within the capital city.1870 PERSIA

SHOW1-8-2026THE SHOW BEGINS IN DOUBTS ABOUT THE SARCASTIC INVENTION, THE DON-ROE DICTRINE..SPHERES OF INFLUENCE AND THE RETURN OF THE MONROE DOCTRINE Colleague Anatol Lieven, Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft. Anatol Lieven argues that "spheres of influence" have returned, with the US reasserting the Monroe Doctrine in the Western Hemisphere and threatening to seize Greenland. Unlike traditional alliances, this approach risks alienating fellow democracies. Lieven contrasts this with Russia's territorial ambitions in the former Soviet Union and China's historic regional goals. NUMBER 1COLD WAR TACTICS: THE SEIZURE OF A RUSSIAN TANKER Colleague Anatol Lieven, Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft. Lieven discusses the US Navy's detention of a Russian-flagged ship in the North Atlantic, viewing it as a dangerous escalation akin to piracy. This move humiliates Moscow and aims to control oil supplies. Lieven warns that if European nations mimic these seizures, Russia may retaliate violently, risking a direct war. NUMBER 2THE SUPREME COURT AND THE MYTH OF THE UNITARY EXECUTIVE Colleague Richard Epstein, Civitas Institute. Richard Epstein challenges the view that the Roberts Court blindly supports a "unitary executive." He argues the Court is correctly questioning the constitutionality of independent administrative agencies, like the FTC, which insulate officials from presidential removal. Epstein contends that relying on case counts ignores the specific legal merits regarding separation of powers. NUMBER 3TRUMP V. ILLINOIS: LIMITING PRESIDENTIAL POWER OVER THE NATIONAL GUARD Colleague Richard Epstein, Civitas Institute. Discussing a recent unsigned Supreme Court order, Epstein notes the Court upheld a decision preventing the President from deploying the National Guard without a governor's consent. This ruling contradicts claims of judicial bias toward the executive, affirming that the President cannot simply declare an emergency to override state sovereignty. NUMBER 4ONE YEAR LATER: ANGER AND STAGNATION AFTER THE PALISADES FIRE Colleague Jeff Bliss, Pacific Watch. A year after the Palisades fires, Jeff Bliss reports that residents remain angry over government inaction. Rebuilding is stalled by the Coastal Commission's strict regulations, and fuel loads in canyons remain high due to environmental restrictions on brush clearing. The fires, driven by Santa Ana winds, highlight systemic bureaucratic failures in Los Angeles. NUMBER 5#SCALAREPORT: AI AND ROBOTICS DOMINATE CES Colleague Chris Riegel, CEO of Scala.com. Reporting from CES, Chris Riegel highlights the dominance of AI and robotics, from household droids to military applications. While the tech sector booms with massive infrastructure spending, Riegel warns of a "K-shaped" economy where Main Street struggles with softening demand, masking the wealth concentrated in artificial intelligence and data centers. NUMBER 6LANCASTER COUNTY: AMISH SPENDING AND DATA CENTER GROWTH Colleague Jim McTague, Author and Former Barron's Editor. Jim McTague reports that the Lancaster County economy remains robust, evidenced by heavy Amish spending at Costco and thriving local businesses like Kegel's Produce. Despite some local protests, data centers are being built on old industrial sites. McTague sees no need for Fed rate cuts given the stable local economy. NUMBER 7THE NUCLEAR ESCROW: MANAGING PROLIFERATION AMONG ALLIES Colleague Henry Sokolski, Nonproliferation Policy Education Center. Henry Sokolski warns that allies like Poland, Turkey, and South Africaare considering nuclear weapons due to eroding trust in US guarantees. He proposes a "nuclear escrow" account: storing refurbished warheads in the US for allies to deploy only during crises, providing leverage without permanently stationing targets on foreign soil. NUMBER 8THE SIEGE OF 717 AND THE VOLCANO OF THERA Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. In 717 AD, Arab forces besieged Constantinople but failed due to the city's massive walls and "Greek fire." Professor Watts explains that a subsequent volcanic eruption in Thera was interpreted as divine punishment for the empire's sins, leading to a spiritual crisis and the rise of iconoclasm to appease God. NUMBER 9THE STUPIDITY OF SUCCESSORS: MANUEL AND ANDRONICUS Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. Manuel Komnenos favored grand gestures over systemic stability, weakening the Roman state. His successor, Andronicus, was a nihilistic sadist whose tyranny and family infighting destabilized the empire. Watts details how the refusal to punish rebellious family members created a culture of impunity that eventually led to a violent overthrow. NUMBER 10THE CRUSADES: FROM COOPERATION TO CONFLICT Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. Relations between East and West collapsed during the Crusades. While the First Crusade cooperated with Rome, the Second and Third turned hostile, with Crusaders seizing territory rather than returning it. Watts notes that the theological schism of 1054 and cultural distrust entrenched this division, setting the stage for future betrayal. NUMBER 111204: THE SACK OF CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE END OF CONTINUITY Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. The Fourth Crusade, diverted by Venetian debt, sacked Constantinople in 1204, burning the city to quell resistance. Watts argues this marked the true end of the ancient Roman state. The meritocratic system collapsed, and elites like Nicetas Choniates lost everything, severing the 2,000-year political continuity of the empire. NUMBER 12VENEZUELA: THE REGIME SURVIVES MADURO'S EXIT Colleague Mary Anastasia O'Grady, Wall Street Journal. Despite Maduro's removal, the Venezuelan regime remains intact under hardliners Delcy Rodriguez and Diosdado Cabello. Mary Anastasia O'Grady notes that repression continues, and European oil companies are hesitant to invest. The regime feigns cooperation to avoid US intervention, but genuine recovery is impossible without restoring the rule of law. NUMBER 13RUSSIA'S OIL CRISIS AND REGIONAL DEFICITS Colleague Michael Bernstam, Hoover Institution. Russiafaces a financial crisis as oil prices drop below $60 per barrel. Michael Bernstam explains that increased global supply forces Russia to sell at deep discounts to China and India, often below cost. This revenue loss prevents the Kremlinfrom paying soldiers, sparking severe regional budget deficits. NUMBER 14EUROPEAN FREEZE AND THE MYTH OF BOOTS ON THE GROUND Colleague Simon Constable, Journalist and Author. A deep freeze hits Southern Europe while commodity prices like copper rise. Simon Constable reports on the UK's bleak economic mood and dismisses the feasibility of British or French "boots on the ground" in Ukraine. He notes that depleted military manpower makes such guarantees declarative rather than substantial. NUMBER 15ARTEMIS 2 RISKS AND THE SEARCH FOR LIFE IN SPACE Colleague Bob Zimmerman, BehindtheBlack.com. Bob Zimmerman urges NASA to fly Artemis 2 unmanned due to unresolved Orion heat shield damage, arguing safety should trump beating China. He also dismisses concerns about lunar methane contamination and highlights a new study suggesting ice caps could allow liquid water lakes to exist on Mars. NUMBER 16

 ARTEMIS 2 RISKS AND THE SEARCH FOR LIFE IN SPACE Colleague Bob Zimmerman, BehindtheBlack.com. Bob Zimmerman urges NASA to fly Artemis 2 unmanned due to unresolved Orion heat shield damage, arguing safety should trump beating China. He also dismisses concerns about lunar methane contamination and highlights a new study suggesting ice caps could allow liquid water lakes to exist on Mars. NUMBER 161953

EUROPEAN FREEZE AND THE MYTH OF BOOTS ON THE GROUND Colleague Simon Constable, Journalist and Author. A deep freeze hits Southern Europe while commodity prices like copper rise. Simon Constable reports on the UK's bleak economic mood and dismisses the feasibility of British or French "boots on the ground" in Ukraine. He notes that depleted military manpower makes such guarantees declarative rather than substantial. NUMBER 151918 UKRAINE

RUSSIA'S OIL CRISIS AND REGIONAL DEFICITS Colleague Michael Bernstam, Hoover Institution. Russiafaces a financial crisis as oil prices drop below $60 per barrel. Michael Bernstam explains that increased global supply forces Russia to sell at deep discounts to China and India, often below cost. This revenue loss prevents the Kremlinfrom paying soldiers, sparking severe regional budget deficits. NUMBER 141906 BAKU

VENEZUELA: THE REGIME SURVIVES MADURO'S EXIT Colleague Mary Anastasia O'Grady, Wall Street Journal. Despite Maduro's removal, the Venezuelan regime remains intact under hardliners Delcy Rodriguez and Diosdado Cabello. Mary Anastasia O'Grady notes that repression continues, and European oil companies are hesitant to invest. The regime feigns cooperation to avoid US intervention, but genuine recovery is impossible without restoring the rule of law. NUMBER 131930

1204: THE SACK OF CONSTANTINOPLE AND THE END OF CONTINUITY Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. The Fourth Crusade, diverted by Venetian debt, sacked Constantinople in 1204, burning the city to quell resistance. Watts argues this marked the true end of the ancient Roman state. The meritocratic system collapsed, and elites like Nicetas Choniates lost everything, severing the 2,000-year political continuity of the empire. NUMBER 121661

THE CRUSADES: FROM COOPERATION TO CONFLICT Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. Relations between East and West collapsed during the Crusades. While the First Crusade cooperated with Rome, the Second and Third turned hostile, with Crusaders seizing territory rather than returning it. Watts notes that the theological schism of 1054 and cultural distrust entrenched this division, setting the stage for future betrayal. NUMBER 111600 FALL

THE STUPIDITY OF SUCCESSORS: MANUEL AND ANDRONICUS Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. Manuel Komnenos favored grand gestures over systemic stability, weakening the Roman state. His successor, Andronicus, was a nihilistic sadist whose tyranny and family infighting destabilized the empire. Watts details how the refusal to punish rebellious family members created a culture of impunity that eventually led to a violent overthrow. NUMBER 101572

THE SIEGE OF 717 AND THE VOLCANO OF THERA Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. In 717 AD, Arab forces besieged Constantinople but failed due to the city's massive walls and "Greek fire." Professor Watts explains that a subsequent volcanic eruption in Thera was interpreted as divine punishment for the empire's sins, leading to a spiritual crisis and the rise of iconoclasm to appease God. NUMBER 91680 CONSTANTINOPLE

THE NUCLEAR ESCROW: MANAGING PROLIFERATION AMONG ALLIES Colleague Henry Sokolski, Nonproliferation Policy Education Center. Henry Sokolski warns that allies like Poland, Turkey, and South Africaare considering nuclear weapons due to eroding trust in US guarantees. He proposes a "nuclear escrow" account: storing refurbished warheads in the US for allies to deploy only during crises, providing leverage without permanently stationing targets on foreign soil. NUMBER 81945 TRINITY

LANCASTER COUNTY: AMISH SPENDING AND DATA CENTER GROWTH Colleague Jim McTague, Author and Former Barron's Editor. Jim McTague reports that the Lancaster County economy remains robust, evidenced by heavy Amish spending at Costco and thriving local businesses like Kegel's Produce. Despite some local protests, data centers are being built on old industrial sites. McTague sees no need for Fed rate cuts given the stable local economy. NUMBER 71941 LANCASTER

#SCALAREPORT: AI AND ROBOTICS DOMINATE CES Colleague Chris Riegel, CEO of Scala.com. Reporting from CES, Chris Riegel highlights the dominance of AI and robotics, from household droids to military applications. While the tech sector booms with massive infrastructure spending, Riegel warns of a "K-shaped" economy where Main Street struggles with softening demand, masking the wealth concentrated in artificial intelligence and data centers. NUMBER 61953

ONE YEAR LATER: ANGER AND STAGNATION AFTER THE PALISADES FIRE Colleague Jeff Bliss, Pacific Watch. A year after the Palisades fires, Jeff Bliss reports that residents remain angry over government inaction. Rebuilding is stalled by the Coastal Commission's strict regulations, and fuel loads in canyons remain high due to environmental restrictions on brush clearing. The fires, driven by Santa Ana winds, highlight systemic bureaucratic failures in Los Angeles. NUMBER 51940 PACIFIC PALISADES

THE SUPREME COURT AND THE MYTH OF THE UNITARY EXECUTIVE Colleague Richard Epstein, Civitas Institute. Richard Epstein challenges the view that the Roberts Court blindly supports a "unitary executive." He argues the Court is correctly questioning the constitutionality of independent administrative agencies, like the FTC, which insulate officials from presidential removal. Epstein contends that relying on case counts ignores the specific legal merits regarding separation of powers. NUMBER 31890 FULLER SCOTUS

THE SUPREME COURT AND THE MYTH OF THE UNITARY EXECUTIVE Colleague Richard Epstein, Civitas Institute. Richard Epstein challenges the view that the Roberts Court blindly supports a "unitary executive." He argues the Court is correctly questioning the constitutionality of independent administrative agencies, like the FTC, which insulate officials from presidential removal. Epstein contends that relying on case counts ignores the specific legal merits regarding separation of powers. NUMBER 31924 SCOTUS HUGHES COURT

COLD WAR TACTICS: THE SEIZURE OF A RUSSIAN TANKER Colleague Anatol Lieven, Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft. Lieven discusses the US Navy's detention of a Russian-flagged ship in the North Atlantic, viewing it as a dangerous escalation akin to piracy. This move humiliates Moscow and aims to control oil supplies. Lieven warns that if European nations mimic these seizures, Russia may retaliate violently, risking a direct war. NUMBER 21962 CUBAN MISSILE CRISIS

SPHERES OF INFLUENCE AND THE RETURN OF THE MONROE DOCTRINE Colleague Anatol Lieven, Quincy Institute for Responsible Statecraft. Anatol Lieven argues that "spheres of influence" have returned, with the US reasserting the Monroe Doctrine in the Western Hemisphere and threatening to seize Greenland. Unlike traditional alliances, this approach risks alienating fellow democracies. Lieven contrasts this with Russia's territorial ambitions in the former Soviet Union and China's historic regional goals. NUMBER 11893 GREENLAND

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY REGULATORY HURDLES AND HIGH WINDS FUEL PALISADES FIREColleague Jeff Bliss, Pacific Watch. Jeff Bliss reports on the January 2025 Pacific Palisades fire, allegedly ignited by an arsonist and exacerbated by Santa Ana winds. Bliss notes that state regulations protecting a specific plant prevented fire crews from bulldozing underbrush, allowing embers to reignite and causing the catastrophe to rapidly expand.1919 PACIFIC PALISADES

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY CULTURE CLASH: MODERN TRAFFIC VS. AMISH BUGGIES Colleague Jim McTague. Jim McTague details the dangerous friction between Amish horse-drawn buggies and automobiles in Lancaster County. With over 30 collisions in 2024 and a recent fatality, McTague attributes the tragedy to impatient motorists who drive carelessly around the buggies, creating a sad and often deadly situation.1941 LANCASTER COUNTY

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY CES HIGHLIGHTS THE MARRIAGE OF AI AND ROBOTICS Colleague Chris Riegel, Scalar.com. Reporting from the Consumer Electronics Show, Chris Riegel highlights the dominance of robots, ranging from domestic helpers to advanced machines for firefighting. He observes a "progressive marriage" between Artificial Intelligence and robotics, predicting these advancements will significantly alter the execution of dangerous or repetitive tasks.1941

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY TURKEY'S NUCLEAR AMBITIONS AND IMPERIAL NOSTALGIA Colleague Henry Sokolski, Nonproliferation Policy Education Center. Henry Sokolski explains that Turkey desires a nuclear weapon to assert agency and revive the influence of the Ottoman Empire, despite NATO protection. President Erdoganargues it is unfair for neighbors like Israel to possess nuclear capabilities while Turkey cannot, viewing weapons as a path to respect.1951 RB-36

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY EMPEROR MANUEL: CHARISMA WITHOUT SUSTAINABILITY Colleague Professor Ed Watts, Author of The Romans. Professor Ed Watts critiques Emperor Manuel, a 12th-century ruler who prioritized grand gestures, such as jousting, over strategic governance. Although Manuel's conquests looked impressive, his failure to create sustainable systems left the empire superficially powerful but institutionally weak, unlike successful Roman predecessors.457 AMBROSIAN ILLIAD

PREVIEW FOR LATER TODAY ICE CAPS MAY SHIELD LIQUID LAKES ON MARS Colleague Bob Zimmerman. Bob Zimmerman reviews a new computer model suggesting that liquid water lakes could survive on Mars if protected by a cap of ice. While surface water usually sublimates in the thin atmosphere, this ice barrier might explain the existence of Martian geological water features.1917

Guest: Professor Edward J. Watts. Heraclius defeated the Persian Empire only to lose the Middle East to rising Arab forces, devastating Rome's food and financial supplies. Facing famine and new barbarian threats like the Avars, Romans interpreted these disasters as divine punishment, leading to the religious policy of Iconoclasm to appease God.

Guest: Professor Edward J. Watts. The Nika riots, sparked by chariot racing factions, nearly toppled Emperor Justinian until Empress Theodora convinced him to stay. After crushing the rebellion, Justinian built the Hagia Sophiato symbolize repentance and divine connection. He also launched costly military campaigns to retake Italy and North Africa.

Guest: Professor Edward J. Watts. Following Julian's failed attempt to restore paganism, Theodosius embraced Christianity and suppressed traditional Roman religion. Simultaneously, the mishandling of Gothic refugees fleeing the Huns led to rebellion. After the Roman leadership refused to negotiate extortion payments, Alaric the Goth sacked the city of Rome in anger.