Podcasts about augustus'

In 2020 lagen de levens van velen over de hele wereld overhoop. Aan het begin van 2021 hebben we het in een nieuwe podcast van De Telegraaf over hoop. Wordt het een zomer vol festivals? Initiatiefnemer van de actiegroep Nachtbelang Jorn Lukaszczyk is realistisch: pas na augustus kunnen we weer los. Mede vanwege die uitzichtloosheid heeft de Utrechtse clubeigenaar besloten de stekker eruit te trekken. Zijn partners gaan door zonder hem.

Welcome to Finance and Fury, The Furious Friday edition. I love history – valuable lessons. When looking at us To those in the past - Culturally we are different, but biologically we are not. If any one of us was put back in time to grow up in past civilisations, we would be no different to the local people in that time period – the environment we grow up in has a lot to do with our values and outlooks   One thing is fairly consistent with human nature – path of least resistance – as an aggregate – driver for technology and innovation – Making things easier for our lives - Cars – less effort than walking, less mess than horses – getting food – go and hunt or grow it, or go to supermarket or fast food - Convenience of safety in numbers and ease of living – towns and cities developed – more people to defend and also produce and specialise – trade – and with this – the requirement of having others be in charge of decisions for the whole group – But what happens when the path of lease resistance starts to occur at the societal level in decision making? Individual choice gets outsourced – just like what occurs when outsourcing in building a house or getting their food from a supermarket – the rules that govern life and the economy is placed in the hands of others In this episode - We will be looking back in history - looking at one of the greatest civilisations in history. And how they declined – economically anyway – many many things contributed to their decline – but there is a parable when it comes to their economic decline – what happens when the population becomes reliant on the government that has complete control over the currency? misallocation of resources and the devaluation of their own currency Rome rise – and economic fall from the people losing power - Rome is a good example: It was a tiny kingdom that was overthrown in 509BC – for hundreds of years after getting rid of a king – the people were adamantly opposed to any form of centralised rule – But the romans were smart and adaptable as a culture – they didn’t invent too much in the way of technology for themselves – but were masters at adapting other technology and integrating it as their own With this they started to grow – through war and conquest – the next few hundred years saw Rome and the people start to grow wealthy – wealth through conquest – looking through cultural eyes of the times – this is how it was done – the state grew through conquest Economic Side – in the early republic Citizens were only taxed in times of war – Citizens were land owners and had to have been given citizenship 10 years in the Roman Army was the criteria – true that the wealthy ended up getting citizenship – as they could afford the weapons, armour, horses to arm themselves to fight in wars - Misconception – Most of the early Roman army were from the middle to upper classes They had low tax collection – and only on the land owners – Each province had to pay a certain amount (not ind.) Tax collected (who was elected) – Pay Rome upfront then go collect his money back from people – very decentralised – same in rule Stay out of the way economic policy – If you weren’t a citizen – you didn’t have to pay any taxes – you had no say in electing senators – but the way they saw it was if you didn’t contribute to rome – through military service or paying taxation – you don’t get to vote Rome went from a back water swamp to a wealthy country – became the age of Affluence! But at the same time – there started to become an economic disruption – the shift from a republic to an empire and Slavery What turned rome from the republic to a dictatorship - 27 BC – Augustus Caesar converted the Republic into an Empire Prior to this - By 60BC Julius Caesar (more or less godfather to Augustus) was elected consul however used this position to gain further power To build favour, he redistributed a lot of land to the poor and the soldiers of his wars Major contributor to their economic decline - Government corruption and political instability was growing over this time If Rome’s sheer size made it difficult to govern under the new Empire standards – Centralised authority compared to localised under the republic - ineffective and inconsistent leadership only served to magnify the problem Being the Roman emperor became a dangerous job – through the second and third centuries it nearly became a death sentence. The amount of power put into the political class was what started causing chaos – but also needed the public to like you – why bread and games strategies were so important Civil war thrust the empire into chaos, and more than 20 men took the throne in the span of only 75 years, usually after the murder of their predecessor. The Praetorian Guard—the emperor’s personal bodyguards—assassinated and installed new sovereigns at will, and once even auctioned the spot off to the highest bidder. The political rot also extended to the Roman Senate, which failed to temper the excesses of the emperors due to its own widespread corruption and incompetence – those with money started buying their way into the senate – as the emperor became the electorate – choosing who could run for office and not the local people civic pride waned and many Roman citizens lost trust in their leadership – but also became reliant on them There was no stable system of succession – Power disruptions in the Empire Created a Stagnant bureaucracy – where the people no longer had any power except in the mob – which could be quelled by the militarised nature of the roman state The downfall of Rome was also in part due to the Slave economy – remember that slavery was everywhere in the ancient world – looking through the cultural lens of the day - The import of free labour destabilised the economy - Through the conquest of wars and territory, there were a lot of slaves – this was occurring before the empire – towards the end of the republic – but after it got to one point where the majority of the working force were slaves - This introduction of free labour replaced those in paid labour positions Whilst the practice of slavery didn’t start with Caesar – he needed to keep slavery around but also keep himself popular with the roman people, hence the land redistribution tactic. This was funded by his very wealthy friends and the money he made from selling slaves - At one point, Caesar sold 53,000 people captured into slavery Mass importation of slaves caused destabilisation of the economy – displaced many workers – shut down most small businesses or individuals ability to work – through the empires policy to accumulate more wealth in the hands of the already wealthy – shut down whole parts of the economy Those in economic power bought more slaves – The economic shutdown has put employment in smaller sector down – they got into debt – and had to become workers for the wealthy oligarchs – or became reliant on the state for food and lodging But employment at larger estates was massively up But rome was still wealthy at the time - Society that is rich, demands free things – the welfare state in rome started to also rise Rome switched from Supply to Demand slowly– everything changed from 1AD onwards When Rome went to an Empire – Central control increased – like Julius Caesar wanted – Authoritarian nature increases The leaders had much greater say in the Roman spending – so needed more income (tax) - also needed more men for Army Needed tax – System was transformed into Income Tax (not wealth tax) – war was used as a justification – like in Aus, USA, etc. with our income taxes being introduced as temporary measures in WW1 and expanding in WW2 Needed more men for army – increase spending as well and reform military – no longer the wealthy fighting – now the lower class - Spending requirements grew so much over time that Needed to increase number of citizens – Did have a few good Emperors But free entertainment, free bread, free housing was given out to population – keep them happy As moneys value was taken over by empire – spending to keep people happy – needed more – Old way was conquest – so outpaced the spending needs of those in charge – who had increased say – instead debased currency Needed to keep up the spending and free bread to the people - devaluation of denarii (or denarius) Like coinage of today, Ancient Rome's coins represented portions of larger denominations - like our denominations, through inflation they experienced a loss of buying power. During the time of the Roman Republic, you could buy a loaf of bread for ½ As (1 cent coin) or a liter of wine for one As. A year's pay for a commander in the Roman army around 133 B.C. was 10-2/3 Asses, by Augustus' rule (27 B.C.-A.D. 14) 74 Denarii, and by the reign of Septimus Severus (A.D. 193-211), it rose to 1,500 Denarii – but was worth less in real terms – how can this happen for a coin based on silver which is limited? Reduce the silver content – same effect of printing money today – stable from 300BC to 1AD - You would think that more money being introduced – taxing peoples incomes and making more and more people citizens would result in more tax for the state? But by 200AD - Tax collection was 50% less than at 1AD – even though tax rates were up – and the number of citizens had boomed – lowered the requirements of citizenship along the way 200AD - Currency was only 40% Silver now – compared to over 95% in 1AD - 200 years ago - all territory became a pool of citizens – in 212AD Caracalla– Just as the final collapse started – took about 150y from here for the value of the denarius to hit 0.1% of its value 300 years prior - Poor leadership - Free stuff due to loss of jobs through slavery – the final Economic downfall of rome Even as Rome was under attack from outside forces, it was also crumbling from within thanks to a severe financial crisis - overspending had significantly lightened imperial coffers, and oppressive taxation and inflation had widened the gap between rich and poor The wealthy in political power - to avoid the taxman left to the countryside and set up independent fiefdoms At the same time, the empire was rocked by a labor deficit. Rome’s economy depended on slaves to till its fields and work as craftsmen, and its military might had traditionally provided a fresh influx of conquered peoples to put to work. But when expansion ground to a halt in the second century, Rome’s supply of slaves and other war treasures began to dry up.   Moral of the story – Fuelling demand through authoritarian controls never works – long term – can show promise in theory Hence - Demanded by the population (to be voted in) for an increase in the demand (consumption) of the citizens Required to tax more, reduce freedoms, increase controls on populations – as a government to be able to give you everything needs to also control everything – but at the same time can take it away Power/Authority of ruler – Created civil wars, infighting – leading to further authoritarian powers Julius Caesar wanted power to stop more civil wars – ended up creating one almost every time a leader died – 84% murdered The need to have public support for your wars/grab at powers - Creates need for providing more goods to population Rome became fat and lazy – lost what made them great and became solely reliant on their benevolent dictators – a lot of people lost their jobs – and the state was put under more pressure to fund the public – But without the ability to fund the war machine due to taxes dropping – started to debase the currency which created more problems down the road - When you have a system that rewards popularity of demand – not supply and independence of the people – it tends to last a while before collapsing Supply side isn’t some uncaring beast – it actually give people more than just money payments (or bread handouts) It gives people the freedom of choice – to choose what you do, how much you earn, how much you want to pay for thing The market decides – the market isn’t moral, but it determines the optimal outcome for pricing (based around our wants and demands) Until you get regulation and controls – then unfair competition increases Emperors couldn’t afford not to – their sole grip on power came from making the masses happy – started trying to one up one another for support of the crowd – but needed more and more money to do so – Their option: Expansion – but territory grew, so spending on military had to increase (along with everything else) – Lower requitement standards as well – but eventually couldn’t afford military Taking the path of least resistance takes the power away from the individual – something to watch out for Even with Rome - Along the way to their economic decline – People were fleeing Italy due to the inevitable collapse – but Emperor made it illegal to leave – they were placed on lock down – couldn’t cross their territory boarders People were working their jobs, but due to devaluation of currency, running at losses, so stopped working Emperor put in laws to force people to work, not leave and then also – their kids had to do the ‘family’ occupation Due to being stuck in a job, losing money, you become despaired and broke – so working class became indentured servitude to wealthy land owners – This all was the birth of feudalism and Monarchy again in medieval Europe from 500AD onwards This lock down on individual freedoms is a trend through history when those in power start to feel like they are losing power – they tend to freak out and become more draconian – If someone is assured in themselves – there is no need to crack down on the population or take supreme control Julius Caesar took dictatorship powers and marched on rome as the senate under the republic wanted him dead for war crimes – but he had immunity whilst he was a consul- but you had term limits under this – so had to create an empire and become dictator for life – same time – got popular through writing his own press releases – needed to keep that going and fund bread and games – it was self interest as he couldn’t lose power - The people have been pawns of greater powers all through history – the days of kings started through conquest – taking power – to the modern form of Greater power – what are known as Governments Founding father quote – Government is like fire, when it is well controlled it can help a country to grow and support it, when it gets out of control – it will destroy everything in its path – just like the Empire when it had too much political power in its hands – over the people and the economy – they started down the path of inevitable failure – the economic problem of unlimited wants but finite resources is ignored – as the Government is seen to have infinite resources if they can produce it at will – and to remain in power to keep the mobs happy – they will tend to do so – or lose office/power – easy choice for them –

Vi snakket Hilde Brendeford Andreassen på tlf fra Tromsø om hennes oversettelse av Den guddommelige Augustus' bragder. Det ble en hyggelig og interessant samtale om politikk, propaganda og ikke minst Augustus. I studio var Torolf Høstmælingen og Brage Bungum Gallis. Tekniker var Helje Svensson

For første gang i sin helhet på norsk: Den guddoimmelige Augustus' bragder

Dr. Gaius J. Augustus (he/him and they/them) is a science illustrator and visual storyteller. They create infographics, illustrations, animations, and tell science stories through art. They also teach and consults to help others create #SciArt masterpieces. Gaius demystifies the technical aspect of science illustration, so if you're interested in creating science art, this episode is for you! Gaius also happens to identify as non-binary and trans. They share their experiences coming out and years later, coming out again. For all your #SciArt needs, check out Gaius J. Augustus' website! Check him out on Twitter and Instagram! Here's a guide to he/him and they/them pronouns! Check out more trans scientists using #TransInSTEM or through 500 Queer Scientists! ___ Support #InferiorinCanada, as we fundraise to get Angela Saini's Inferior into high schools across Canada! Check it out. You can find me (your host, Ive) on Twitter, Insta, and YouTube. Let's be friends! Any feedback on the show? Let us know on Twitter at @ScienceSucksPod. --- Support this podcast: https://anchor.fm/sciencesucks/support

In today’s Furious Friday episode, we’ll be running through the historical life cycle of fiat currencies. This episode is thanks to John – John wrote in with a few great questions; Is it true that all fiat currencies eventually become worthless? Should we be concerned about printing more and more money - is this something to be concerned about, i.e. the longevity of the AUD?   We will run through: How do fiat currencies fail and what causes it? Is safe-guarding against it something we need to worry about? How would one do this?   History of money Barter economy – was hard for getting values and trading efficiently – hard to travel with a mule to trade their corn Coins – Back by silver or gold Promissory notes – goldsmiths used to house gold for people – those people then give the ownership to others in paper (an “IOU”) – early day banks Skip forward to today – All paper but mostly Fiat or digital currency   Doesn’t have to be fiat to fail – it just has to be controlled by the government A quote from one of the US Founding Fathers – Government is like fire, when it is well controlled it can help a country to grow and support it, when it gets out of control – it will destroy everything in its path.   This is why it is important to remove government from Central banks.   America fought the war to get away from the Bank of England – controlling their currency Ended up back with one a few hundred years later   Beauty of the Gold Standard was in the early days it was hard to manipulate. But even physical currency can be manipulated – as the ruler has control of the currency.   Let's go back to Roman times and the Devaluation of the Denarii – Coins were made of silver Introduced 211BC and ended around 400AD (almost 600 years) So, until Augustus the coin was relatively valuable, but in 100 years its value decreased significantly, roughly 2,000% devaluation altogether, when there was almost no silver left in the coins. Like coinage of today, Ancient Rome's coins represented portions of larger denominations. The As (plural assēs), the basic unit – think of it as a 1c coin. Loss of purchasing power - During the time of the Roman Republic, you could buy a loaf of bread for ½ As or a litre of wine for one As. A year's pay for a commander in the Roman army around 133 B.C. was 10-2/3 assēs, by Augustus' rule (27 B.C.-A.D. 14) 74 Denarii, and by the reign of Septimus Severus (A.D. 193-211), it rose to 1,500 Denarii. Stopped using denarii and started paying in gold – Military and officials only Average Roman Joe was forced into Denarii Two-tiered economy.   Today – Rather than decreasing the quality of the coins we increase the supply of it, which has the same effect Look at global GDP to Debt Japan has the highest – over 250%! America is over 100% Australia is about 42% According to the last federal update, we (Australia) have decreased our debt, which is great. Liberals are trying to get back to a lower debt environment. An analogy Say you have parents (most people do) – Mum and Dad. Dad is a stickler and won’t buy you toys as you don’t have the money, but Mum racks up a credit card bill, gets in debt to buy toys. You have the toys now, but then your pocket money is halved – from $10 to $5 because Mum and Dad still have to pay back the debt. Government spends it, but you have to pay it back. Government debt is your debt – they can’t pay it back without you paying it off through taxes. Pay in more than one way - The money you have isn’t worth as much anymore thanks to inflation – the loss of buying power due to increased money supply. You don’t have the ability to increase your money supply as easily though.   The government however, can keep increasing the money supply – Let’s look at US history… 1900s - National Monetary Commission is established to propose legislation to regulate banking. US. Money Supply:$7 billion - What $1 Could Buy: A pair of patent leather shoes. 1910s - The Federal Reserve Act is signed in 1913. US. Money Supply:$13 billion - What $1 Could Buy: A woman’s house dress. 1920s - The Fed starts using open market operations as a tool for monetary policy (what we use today) US. Money Supply:$35 billion - What $1 Could Buy: Five pounds of sugar. 1930s - To deal with deflation during the Great Depression - suspends the gold standard. Executive Order 6102, which criminalizes the possession of gold. US. Money Supply:$46 billion - What $1 Could Buy: 16 cans of Campbell’s Soup 1940s - The massive deficits of World War II are almost financed entirely by the creation of new money by the Federal Reserve. Interest rates are pegged low at the request of the Treasury. US. Money Supply:$55 billion- What $1 Could Buy: 20 bottles of Coca-Cola 1950s - The Korean War starts in 1950, and inflation is at an annualized rate of 21% due to low rates – so they increased the rates US. Money Supply:$151 billion - What $1 Could Buy: One Mr. Potato Head toy 1960s - U.S. dollars in circulation around the world exceeded U.S. gold reserves. US. Money Supply:$211 billion - What $1 Could Buy: Two movie tickets. 1970s - In 1971, President Richard Nixon ends direct convertibility of the United States dollar to gold. The federal deficit doubles, stagflation hits, and the oil price skyrockets – all during the Vietnam War. Over the decade, the dollar loses 1/3 of its value. - US. Money Supply:$401 billion 1980s – Stock market crash - The Federal Reserve stepped in, “The Federal Reserve, consistent with its responsibilities as the nation’s central bank, affirmed today its readiness to serve as a source of liquidity to support the economic and financial system”. This just means they printed more money! The Dow would recover by 1989, which prolonged the recession which was occurring. The US. Money Supply:$1,560 billion. What $1 Could Buy: One bottle of Heinz Ketchup. 1990s - This decade is generally considered to be a time of declining inflation and the longest peacetime economic expansion in U.S. history. US. Money Supply:$3,277 billion - What $1 Could Buy: One gallon of milk. 2000s - After the Dotcom crash, the Fed drops interest rates to near all-time lows. In 2008, the Financial Crisis hits and the Fed begins “quantitative easing” (aka printing more money!) US. Money Supply:$4,917 billion - What $1 Could Buy: One Wendy’s hamburger. 2010 - After QE1, the Fed holds $2.1 trillion of bank debt, mortgage-backed securities, and Treasury notes. Shortly after, QE2 starts. Purchases were halted in October 2014 after accumulating $4.5 trillion in assets. It wasn’t for the bank bailouts – or for ‘economic stimulus when it is funded through bad debts’ US. Money Supply:$13,291 trillion - What $1 Could Buy: One song from iTunes.   Money supply was just $7 billion 100 years ago. Today there are literally 1,900 x more dollars in existence.   The buying power of a dollar has changed significantly over the last century, but it’s important to recognize that it could change even faster (up or down) under the right economic circumstances.   What causes them to fail? Giving the Government all the control – Venezuela inflation at 1m% Too much supply – the process of printing money to bail out debt Debt is future-Government’s problem, printing money and giving people what they want is a way to stay popular. Not enough demand – Someone needs to want your currency now for it to retain its value When we were exporting a lot – 1AUD was 1USD – people wanted Aus Cash for Aus goods and wanted to invest here   How to avoid this (though there’s no simple answer) We live in a democracy and we should be voting against government spending, even if it’s hardest way Just remember when voting for government spending – large amounts are funded from debt Own assets that increase in value or that are unrelated to inflation Unrelated to inflation Crypto currency Gold, moves like a volatile asset as well, but the supply doesn’t go up by much Physical assets Buying shares, property, anything that has a long-term growth component to it After inflation the real return on cash is pretty much negative   Thanks for listening, as always! If you have any questions contact us at https://financeandfury.com.au/contact/

Control and use of the legions played a critical role in Octavian's carefully orchestrated rise to power. Angus, Jasper, Murray, Lindsay, Mark and Marc discuss Ancient Warfare magazine XII.1.

Well, the guys were bad listeners this week, so get ready for tangents! How do ghosts move? Where does Augustus' body end? Will someone ever tell us the rulez? Things are starting to get serious in Dry River. Never fear, dear listener, we are not. 

After a lengthy reign of 41 years the Emperor Augustus needs to designate his successor, and after a number of candidates die young he is left with limited options. Dr Rhiannon Evans (Mediterranean Studies, La Trobe University) and host Matt Smith look at Augustus' succession problem and how he secures his legacy.

Ibland stannar man plötsligt till inför ett ord man hört tusentals gånger och börjar fundera: varför säger man så här, vad heter det egentligen - och varför? Det har flera lyssnare gjort denna vecka och deras frågor diskuteras av professor Lars-Gunnar Andersson. Det handlar om när gamla sanningar möter nya vanor och om när språkkänslan sviker. Veckans alla frågor: - mer eller mera - regeringen, dom - kan man säga så? - var eller vart? Kan man inte skilja på befintlighet och riktning längre? - kejsare och furste, men varför 'kejsar Augustus'? - kärnkraftverk eller kärnkraftsverk? - hur kommer vårt språk att utvecklas när alla skriver så mycket mer i dag än tidigare? - språkförenkling - och motsatsen

Professor Kleiner discusses the transformation of Rome by its first emperor, Augustus, who claimed to have found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. The conversion was made possible by the exploitation of new marble quarries at Luna (modern Carrara) on the northwest coast of Italy. The lecture surveys the end of the Roman Republic and the inauguration of the Principate and analyzes the Forum of Julius Caesar and the Forum of Augustus. Professor Kleiner shines a spotlight on Caesar's attempt to link himself to his divine ancestress Venus Genetrix and on Augustus' appropriations of Greek caryatids and other decorative motifs that associate his era with the Golden Age of Periclean Athens. Finally, she analyzes the Ara Pacis Augustae, a monument commissioned upon Augustus' return to Rome after achieving diplomatic victories in Spain and Gaul, and serving as the Luna marble embodiment of the emperor's new hegemonic Empire.

Professor Kleiner explores the architecture of the western provinces of the Roman Empire, focusing on sites in what are now North Italy, France, Spain, and Croatia. Her major objective is to characterize "Romanization," the way in which the Romans provide amenities to their new colonies while, at the same time, transforming them into miniature versions of the city of Rome. Professor Kleiner discusses the urban design of two Augustan towns before proceeding to an investigation of a variety of such established Roman building types as theaters, temples, and aqueducts. The well-preserved Theater at Orange and Maison Carrée at Nîmes, and the unparalleled aqueducts at Nîmes and Segovia are highlighted. The lecture concludes with an overview of imperial and private arches and tombs in the western provinces, among them the controversial three-bayed arch at Orange. The Trophy of Augustus at La Turbie serves as a touchstone for the Roman West, as it commemorates Augustus' subjugation of the Alpine tribes, clearing the way for Rome to create new cities with a distinctive Roman stamp.

Professor Kleiner features the architecture of Augustus' successors, the Julio-Claudian emperors, whose dynasty lasted half a century (A.D. 14-68). She first presents Tiberius' magnificent Villa Jovis on the Island of Capri and an underground basilica in Rome used by members of a secret Neo-Pythagorean cult. She then turns to the eccentric architecture of Claudius, a return to masonry building techniques and a unique combination of finished and unfinished, or rusticated, elements. Finally, Professor Kleiner highlights the luxurious architecture of the infamous Nero, especially his Domus Aurea or Golden House and its octagonal room, one of the most important rooms in the history of Roman architecture. The construction of the Domus Aurea accelerates the shift in Roman building practice toward a dematerialized architecture that fully utilizes recent innovations in concrete technology and emphasizes interior space over solid form.

Professor Kleiner discusses the transformation of Rome by its first emperor, Augustus, who claimed to have found Rome a city of brick and left it a city of marble. The conversion was made possible by the exploitation of new marble quarries at Luna (modern Carrara) on the northwest coast of Italy. The lecture surveys the end of the Roman Republic and the inauguration of the Principate and analyzes the Forum of Julius Caesar and the Forum of Augustus. Professor Kleiner shines a spotlight on Caesar's attempt to link himself to his divine ancestress Venus Genetrix and on Augustus' appropriations of Greek caryatids and other decorative motifs that associate his era with the Golden Age of Periclean Athens. Finally, she analyzes the Ara Pacis Augustae, a monument commissioned upon Augustus' return to Rome after achieving diplomatic victories in Spain and Gaul, and serving as the Luna marble embodiment of the emperor's new hegemonic Empire.

Professor Kleiner features the architecture of Augustus' successors, the Julio-Claudian emperors, whose dynasty lasted half a century (A.D. 14-68). She first presents Tiberius' magnificent Villa Jovis on the Island of Capri and an underground basilica in Rome used by members of a secret Neo-Pythagorean cult. She then turns to the eccentric architecture of Claudius, a return to masonry building techniques and a unique combination of finished and unfinished, or rusticated, elements. Finally, Professor Kleiner highlights the luxurious architecture of the infamous Nero, especially his Domus Aurea or Golden House and its octagonal room, one of the most important rooms in the history of Roman architecture. The construction of the Domus Aurea accelerates the shift in Roman building practice toward a dematerialized architecture that fully utilizes recent innovations in concrete technology and emphasizes interior space over solid form.

Professor Kleiner explores the architecture of the western provinces of the Roman Empire, focusing on sites in what are now North Italy, France, Spain, and Croatia. Her major objective is to characterize "Romanization," the way in which the Romans provide amenities to their new colonies while, at the same time, transforming them into miniature versions of the city of Rome. Professor Kleiner discusses the urban design of two Augustan towns before proceeding to an investigation of a variety of such established Roman building types as theaters, temples, and aqueducts. The well-preserved Theater at Orange and Maison Carrée at Nîmes, and the unparalleled aqueducts at Nîmes and Segovia are highlighted. The lecture concludes with an overview of imperial and private arches and tombs in the western provinces, among them the controversial three-bayed arch at Orange. The Trophy of Augustus at La Turbie serves as a touchstone for the Roman West, as it commemorates Augustus' subjugation of the Alpine tribes, clearing the way for Rome to create new cities with a distinctive Roman stamp.

Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss 'The Aeneid'. Out of the tragedy and destruction of the Trojan wars came a man heading West, his father on his back and his small son holding his hand. This isn't Odysseus, it's Aeneas and in that vision Virgil gives an image of the very first Romans of the Empire.Virgil's Aeneid was the great epic poem that formed a founding narrative of Rome. It made such an impact on its audience that it soon became a standard text in all schools and wiped away the myths that preceded it. It was written in Augustus' reign at the start of the Imperial era and has been called an apologia for Roman domination; it has also been called the greatest work of literature ever written.How much was Virgil's poem influenced by the extraordinary times in which it was written? How does it transcend the political pressures of Imperial patronage and what are the qualities that make it such a universal work?With Edith Hall, Leverhulme Professor of Greek Cultural History, Durham University; Philip Hardie, Corpus Christi Professor of Latin at the University of Oxford; Catharine Edwards, Senior Lecturer in Classics and Ancient History, Birkbeck College, University of London.