War in Space

US Space Command was re-established in 2019, with responsibility for all military operations in outer space. But how much adversarial competition are we actually seeing in this domain? General Stephen Whiting, Commander of US Space Command, discusses the realities of space warfare, how multi-domain integration of military capabilities involves the space domain, and how we can work better with allies to ensure resilient space architectures. This episode was recorded in August 2024.

The US is the undisputed predominant space power. But for how long? While Western private companies such as Space X are entering and often dominating the space sector, China's space power is also increasing, with private space launch enterprises such as that of Galactic Energy. Todd Harrison, Senior Fellow at the American Enterprise Institute, joins the podcast to discuss what the US must do now to stay ahead of the game. How should it interact with the private sector and where its priorities lie? After all, an advantage in technology may prove temporary if innovation does not follow in other areas.

How does space power fit into German defence thinking, and has this changed since German Chancellor Olaf Scholz called for a ‘Zeitenwende' in 2022? When Chancellor Scholz addressed the nation shortly after the large-scale invasion of Ukraine in 2022, a fundamental reconfiguring of Germany's defence policy and budget was promised. The word Zeitenwende (‘turning point') usually refers to the shift from one era to another, but two years on from his speech, much remains business-as-usual. Joining us to discuss German defence in the space domain is Antje Nötzold, Assistant Professor at Chemnitz University of Technology and Associate Fellow at the Centre for Advanced Security, Strategic and Integration Studies at the University of Bonn. We analyse the country's sovereign capabilities and ambitions for space power.

We hear about the dangers of space debris all the time – the high velocities with which discarded or disused manmade objects travel around the Earth and the threat that high-speed impacts, even of small debris pieces, pose to satellites. Technologies are currently being developed to mitigate this, including by the company Astroscale. Alex Godfrey, Business Development Manager at Astroscale, talks to us about the technical challenges of debris mitigation, as well as future missions and trends. We also discuss the inherent dual-use nature of these technologies and how debris mitigation can be used for nefarious purposes. The question is whether space security and future sustainability measures are doomed to always be at odds – can we keep space free of debris and sleep soundly at night, knowing that robotic arms are orbiting our satellites?

There is no pan-European approach to space. Instead, there is a diverse set of European actors, agencies and infrastructures that are making a mark on the final frontier. Who exactly is involved in the various European space endeavours and what are their projects? Are the constellations of Copernicus and Galileo the limit of ambition or will we see further projects and a tie into NATO? Mathieu Bataille, Research Fellow and Lead on Security and Defence at the European Space Policy Institute, joins us to discuss these questions and more.

Keeping track of satellites requires space situational awareness (SSA). But how does one acquire this information, and how subjective is the data that we receive? Sean Goldsborough, Business Leader at Raytheon NORSS, talks to us about the art of satellite tracking. We discuss the difference between SSA and space domain awareness (there is a distinction!), how the technology underlies military applications, and how the data available could potentially be used for nefarious purposes – for example, by disguising the real nature of objects in space.

Space launches in 2024 are routine events – new satellites enter orbit on a weekly basis, and the industry is changing fast. In this episode, we examine the increasing commercialisation of space and its implications, including how access to (relatively inexpensive) launch facilities has changed the satellite market, and how states and commercial companies are now working together to meet new demands. Dr Michelle Parker, Vice President, Space Mission Systems at Boeing Defense, Space & Security, joins us to discuss a legacy business that has adapted to new trends, and to survey the landscape of up-and-coming space technologies.

After three years of setting up and running UK Space Command, Air Vice Marshal Paul Godfrey joins us to discuss the lessons learned and explains why setting up the Command felt a bit like running a start-up. The discussion covers the road to integration, partnerships and why training with terrestrial alternatives to space services is important for the whole of the armed forces. Lastly, we discuss space's PR problem and how this could be solved in the future. Be part of the solution – listen in to find out more!

Does a state's power on Earth translates into influence in orbit – and vice versa? Dr Jana Robinson, Managing Director of the Prague Security Studies Institute, presents her research on what she calls the ‘ground-based space race', where authoritarian states fund parts of the space economy in third countries to gain influence and shape their voting decisions. This is especially important as norms and values are still being discussed within the UN. We discuss these economic and financial threats and how they further shape values and norms in space. Finally, we talk about the soft power element of space: what does the future for international space cooperation hold given that the International Space Stationis being decommissioned after 2030?

Multilateral efforts to prevent an arms race in outer space have been going on for decades. The most recent efforts include a UN resolution that intended to solve existing gridlocks by getting states to discuss what responsible behaviours in space look like. The problem of dual use – using space assets for military purposes or as a weapon – will continue to make verification of the nature of assets difficult. However, responsible behaviours that promote transparency on how these assets are used can help reduce the risk of miscalculation in space. The UN resolution on responsible behaviours was put forward by the UK in 2020 and discussed in the forum of Open-Ended Working Groups (OEWG) until 2023. Dr Jessica West, Senior Researcher at the Canadian peace research institute Project Ploughshares, shares observations from the discussions at the OEWG and her assessment of what future efforts might look like. Tune in to find out why UN diplomats are the unsung heroes of peace and security, and what Geneva's food prices have to do with it all!

There is a persistent perception that space is a lawless place. Professor Steven Freeland, Emeritus Professor of International Law at Western Sydney University and Professorial Fellow at Bond University, joins us to explain why that is not the case. We discuss the current multilateral rules that govern orbits, as well as where additions may come in in the future, why they might be necessary and what obstacles are currently preventing us from reaching multilateral consensus. As well as this, we talk about the involvement of commercial actors in space and what benefit national space laws bring.

Orbits are getting busier, frequencies are taken up, collisions are becoming likelier and the resulting space debris is endangering satellites ... are we really running out of space in space? John Janka, Chief Officer, Global Government Affairs and Regulatory at Viasat, discusses with us the various factors that make up space sustainability, including frequencies, physical space and effects on the atmosphere. We discuss what measures can be taken to avoid an overcrowding of the orbits and how methods such as fragmentation analysis can help predict the impact of a potential collision.

How do concepts of warfare apply to space? Is there such a thing as irregular warfare, asymmetric tactics or hybrid warfare in space? Dr John 'Patsy' Klein, Senior Fellow and Strategist at Falcon Research, Inc. and Adjunct Professor at the George Washington University Space Policy Institute and Georgetown University's Strategic Studies Programme, helps us unravel these terms, discussing how they apply to space and why strategies on war do not need to be rewritten for the ‘final frontier'.

The Skynet Satellite Communications Programme is the UK's biggest space project; having started in the 1960s, it is currently in its sixth generation. Dr Richard Davis, Programme Director of Skynet 6 at UK Strategic Command, joins us to discuss what makes the current generation different from its predecessors, what the future of the programme may look like, and the organisational structures it falls under.

Space-enabled communications are vital to modern military operations. But it's not just the military that benefits from satellite communications; it's also governments, doctors and other emergency first responders. Rory Welch, Head of Global Government at IntelSat, discusses the various applications of satellite communications, as well as how the service is already woven into Multi-Domain Integration. We also consider the potential threats to satellite communications systems and ask what consequences have already resulted from the war in Ukraine.

Are we back to counting tanks and trenches? Do the air and space domains matter in the context of the war in Ukraine? Air Marshal Johnny Stringer, Deputy Commander of NATO's Allied Air Command at Ramstein Air Base, explains why air superiority matters and why access to space and the capabilities it enables is so important. We discuss the lessons learnt from this war for peer-on-peer air and space operations, including the involvement of commercially available capabilities.

Compared to the likes of the US, Russia and China, India's place among the preeminent space powers is often forgotten, despite its rich history in the domain dating back to the 1950s. Dr Namrata Goswami, Professor at the Thunderbird School of Global Management at Arizona State University, shares with us her research into India's space diplomacy, its capabilities and its new space policy, in which commercialisation plays a key role. We also discuss planned defence space capabilities and India's stance on the future utilisation of space resources.

Russia was the first nation to enter space with satellite 'Sputnik' in 1957. Now, however, the Russian space industry seems to struggle to even maintain its current constellations, let alone contribute to future growth. Further, Russian troops do not seem adequately trained to integrate with space capabilities. Anna Maria Wårlind from the Swedish Defence Research Agency shares with us insights from her open source report on Russian space capabilities. We discuss the state of Russia's PNT, ISR and SATCOM capabilities and to what extent these have already been used during the invasion of Ukraine.

Tim Marshall, author of the Prisoners of Geography series, joins us to discuss the geopolitics of space – ‘astropolitics'. But what is astropolitics exactly? And in the geography of space, what are the most contested areas? Marshall talks to us about why the South Pole of the Moon could be of future economic importance, and why commercial entities are now major players in this area.

Is the UK taking the space threat seriously? How does one protect space assets from threats and balance reliance on commercial providers with the 'price point' and broader financial burdens inherent in sovereign infrastructures? Nik Smith, Regional Director UK & Europe at Lockheed Martin Space, talks to us about space threats, lessons from Ukraine, and why the government delivering on space is important for both the public and industry.

In 1983, US President Ronald Reagan announced the Strategic Defense Initiative, which became known as the ‘Star Wars' programme. But was it really all about space? Dr Aaron Bateman, Assistant Professor of History and International Affairs at George Washington University (GWU) and member of the Space Policy Institute within the Elliott School of International Affairs at GWU, explains how thinking about space-based missile defence evolved and how earth observation capabilities played a role in the Cold War. He also touches on how space impacted US–UK relations during that time.

With her eight-day mission in 1991, Helen Sharman became the first British person in space. She also became the first woman aboard the Mir Space Station. In this episode, Helen reflects on her training in Star City, and ponders what value human spaceflight brings to us and the evolution of safety in space missions. Looking ahead, what will happen to the International Space Station? And what might UK involvement in future crewed missions look like?

What is the main driver of change - technology or strategy? Which one should it be? Kim Crider, former US Space Force Chief Technology and Innovation Officer and current Managing Director, AI Innovation for National Security and Defence at Deloitte, talks to us about the early days of the US Space Force and how one integrates tech, science and military strategy. The discussion then evolves into examining how these strategies filter down into tactical military planning, and the obstacles that can arise when incorporating new space technologies into existing defence structures.

With private space tech companies such as Starlink and Maxar making headlines during the Ukraine war, how have they affected the battlefield? And to what extent is the involvement of private companies new? Professor Jeremy Grunert, Assistant Professor of Law at the US Air Force Academy, answers these questions and more in the context of international space laws. This includes the question of whether an attack against a commercial asset could trigger NATO's Article 5.

It takes a village to get to space. Melissa Thorpe, the CEO of spaceport Cornwall, talks to us about the UK's first sovereign launch, the stakeholders involved and what the future holds for the UK county of Cornwall regarding space. Why is a sovereign launch capability so important? What are the implications for the UK space sector? And how does one become a spaceport?

Space has been a popular domain for power projection ever since the launch of Russia's Sputnik in 1957. But how is soft power relevant in this domain? Dr Malcolm Davis, Senior Analyst at the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), joins us to take a closer look at how China is utilising soft power in the space domain. This includes Tiangong, its space station; space situational awareness (SSA) ground stations all over the world; and BeiDou, China's GPS equivalent. Are these measures successful in projecting power? Where do they fit into the wider Chinese foreign policy of the Belt and Road Initiative? And is Russia likely to remain China's chief partner in this field?

Are space regulations doomed to lag behind the newest emerging technology in the sector? Anuradha Damale-Day, Policy Fellow and Programme Manager at BASIC, talks to us about how the development of space tech is having an impact on legal frameworks. Given her recent experience at the Open-Ended Working Group session on threats, held in Geneva, she ponders on the progress recorded in the international forum. What would be the impact of UN General Assembly Resolution 75/36 on reducing space threats through norms, rules and principles of responsible behaviours?

A bite-size explanation of the Chinese space programme, its ambitions and its underlying motivations. Dr Malcolm Davis, Senior Analyst at the Australian Strategic Policy Institute (ASPI), talks to us about the future plans for space and the blurry boundaries between civil and military, private and state-owned. Finally, we talk about the concerns surrounding China's strides in active debris removal technology, which has a dual-use nature. Are the worries legitimate or should we focus on other technology instead?

The space industry is a multibillion-dollar sector that is growing each year and becoming increasingly commercialised – the phenomenon of new space. But how exactly does it work? Who is funding the bulk of space activities? And does one need insurance as a space operator? Professor Akhil Rao, Assistant Professor at Middlebury College in the US, talks to us about the space economy and how we should understand it. We discuss how the rules of the road are shaping the industry, and how new ideas – such as that of an ‘orbital use fee' – might in turn help regulate the domain. Finally, we discuss where the future of the space industry may lie; is it time to talk about asteroid mining and space resource extraction?

What did the beginnings of the US space programme look like? Who was the strategist who decided to invest in it? And was the starting point President Kennedy's reach-the-moon promise, or President Reagan's 'Star Wars' programme? Dr Mark Shanahan, Associate Professor of Politics at the University of Surrey, unveils his research on the often-unappreciated influence of an earlier US leader: President Eisenhower and his two-term administration between 1953 and 1961. The discussion highlights lessons from the Cold War and their applicability to the great power competition dynamics of today.

Paul Taylor, Senior Fellow for Peace, Security and Defence at Friends of Europe and Contributing Editor at Politico, talks to us about his newest report, ‘Running out of Space: European Security in Space'. We discuss how countries seek to influence or shape space law by establishing unilateral facts which other states are then expected to follow, and what a European contribution to a legal framework might look like. We also look at the security dimension, especially whether European priorities converge, and to what extent collaboration can still be limited by the requirements of secrecy.

With the cost of launch into lower earth orbit (LEO) decreasing, many satellite companies are choosing this orbit for their operations. But what are the disadvantages? And how do we keep satellites safe? Chris Moore is the Vice President of International Government and Trade Engagement at OneWeb, a satellite constellation aiming to provide global internet services. He talks to us about safekeeping procedures for satellites in LEO and how we can defend against cyber attacks.

The history of spaceflight has always been closely linked to the development of missile technology. But does that mean that advances in a country's missile programme also spell success for its space ambitions? And is there a difference between a rocket and a missile? Melissa Hanham, an affiliate with the Stanford Center for International Security and Cooperation, explains why missile developments matter for space, why diplomatic language around this wording can be important, and how space in turn helps us keep track of ballistic missile testing.

How do you track a satellite? How reliable is its re-entry into the atmosphere? And how do we know what is happening in space? Dr Jonathan McDowell, astronomer at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics, talks to us about orbital profiles, space debris, and just how crowded LEO (lower Earth orbit) is getting these days. We discuss re-entry into the atmosphere, how mega-constellations might challenge our previous assumptions about the atmosphere, and how X-ray telescopes are helping us explore space.

Richard Franklin, Managing Director of Airbus Defence and Space UK, explains why satellites are essentially flying computers, and how their inner workings determine their function and lifespan. In this episode of War in Space, Richard talks to us about how satellites manoeuvre and how they can be protected from everyday interference, as well as deliberate jamming and cyber attacks. With space playing an increasingly important role in defence, we ask: what are the remaining obstacles to achieving multi-domain integration?

In a rapidly growing sector such as space, tracking and predicting trends is a necessary, if challenging, task. We speak with Taskeen Ali, Head of Horizon Scanning at the Space Directorate within the UK's Department for Business, Energy and Industrial Strategy. She talks to us about emerging trends, how horizon scanning works and how to avoid blind spots in an industry that is growing more and more connected as it evolves.

The US was the first state to conduct an anti-satellite (ASAT) weapons test, as far back as 1959. Since then, several countries have conducted similar tests, generating dangerous orbital debris. Now, the US has also become the first state to declare – unilaterally – that it will not conduct direct-ascent ASAT tests that create debris. But why conduct such tests in the first place? Are they useful from a military perspective? How destructive are they exactly? And what kind of policy would be most effective at preventing further tests that pose a risk to our orbits? We discuss all this, and the ambitions for the UN's open-ended working group on reducing space threats, which started in May 2022, with Victoria Samson, Washington Office Director for Secure World Foundation, and Dr Brian Weeden, Director of Programme Planning at Secure World Foundation.

The concept of 'New Space' refers to the increasing commercialisation of the domain to smaller companies, at the expense of the previous dominance of state actors. But how have decreasing costs and greater accessibility changed the industry? Do we need new rules for space, now that it is hosting an increasingly large pool of actors? And who should be responsible for making and implementing such rules? We discuss this and more with Luca del Monte, Head of the Commercialisation Department at the European Space Agency.

SpaceX has become a household name, and its success has shaped the modern space industry. But what about its tenuous beginnings? We analyse the failed launches and the difficult financial straits the company went through in discussion with Eric Berger, Senior Space Editor at Ars Technica and author of Liftoff: Elon Musk and the Desperate Early Days That Launched SpaceX. In addition to analysing why building and launching rockets is so hard, we trace the implications the war in Ukraine has already had for the West's cooperation with Russia on the International Space Station. Will Russia be the world's first former space power?

How essential are satellite communications to defence? What is the difference between a military and a commercial satellite? And what are the UK's SATCOM capabilities right now? Neil Fraser, Director of Defence and Space Programmes at NSSL Global, talks to us about his extensive SATCOM experience, both in and out of uniform. We discuss the recently published UK Defence Space Strategy, Skynet 6 and why a mix of systems comes with greater resilience.

How does one become a space operator? And what does a space mission look like? Wing Commander Cliff Fletcher-Jones is a senior officer in the Royal Air Force and currently serves as Assistant Chief of Staff at UK Space Command. He explains the nature of military space operations and outlines his doctorate research into humanity's relationship with space. We further discuss the Orwellian-sounding theory by pondering whether all parts of space are equally strategic.

Space sustainability has become a buzzword for the space industry. But what does the term mean? Dr Timiebi Aganaba, Assistant Professor of Space and Society at Arizona State University, outlines the ecological roots of the term and why today's discussions often revolve around global security. We talk about ‘the space club' (were we not supposed to?), transparency in the behaviour of countries and space agencies and what they launch into space, and why Africa will be a game-changer for space exploration.

Laura Winter explains the intricacies of the US National Defence Authorisation Act and the impact that the continuing resolution has had on the defence space industry and the US Space Force. What are the repercussions for wider industry, and how does this affect the biggest spender on space – the military? Listen in to find out!

This is going to be a big year for space, with several moon missions, a test of our planetary defence, mega-constellations and JUICE! (That's ‘Jupiter Icy Moons Explorer.) Makena Young, Associate Fellow at the Aerospace Security Project (CSIS), explains why reusability is a growing trend, why the Webb telescope launch was so exciting, and why the dinosaurs might be jealous.

Air Vice-Marshal Paul Godfrey, Commander of UK Space Command, joins us to discuss the future of his responsibilities. He talks about his move from being a ‘space user' to taking charge of Space Command, why integration is so important, and why we need to acquire further knowledge to make full use of space and its capabilities.

Space Physics 101: What's a solar storm? Are orbits just space highways? And how dangerous is space debris? Ali Stickings, RUSI Associate Fellow and Space Strategy Lead at Frazer Nash Consultancy, breaks down the physical hazards to space assets and explains why space debris is the next big environmental problem.

The intersection of national security and space is not new, but more actors are becoming involved in the domain, in a race with increasing stakes. In the first episode in this new series of podcasts, Dr Bleddyn Bowen, Lecturer in International Relations at the University of Leicester, explains why space features in all the new national strategy documents and why that does not mean that terrestrial aspects should be neglected.

Everybody is talking about space. But why does it matter? What are we doing there? And is war in space a remote possibility, or an inevitable risk? In this trailer for a new podcast from RUSI, we discuss why space is important for national security.