KYTOS Biology

The Jack the Ripper case remains one of the most studied and debated criminal mysteries in history. Biological evidence, from blood patterns and autopsy reports to modern DNA analysis, has played a crucial role in shaping the investigation and the various theories about the killer's identity. Despite the significant advances in forensic science, the case highlights the challenges of applying these techniques to historical crimes. Contamination, degradation of evidence, and the limitations of early forensic methods all pose significant hurdles. However, the ongoing analysis and debate continue to enrich our understanding of the case and exemplify the evolution of forensic science.

The O.J. Simpson case remains a landmark in the history of forensic science and criminal justice. The biological evidence, particularly the DNA analysis, was a cornerstone of the prosecution's case. However, the handling of this evidence, the cross-examination of experts, and the broader social context all played crucial roles in the trial's outcome.

Migraines are a debilitating neurological condition characterised by severe, recurring headaches, often accompanied by symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, and sensitivity to light and sound. Despite the availability of various pharmacological treatments, the search for effective, well-tolerated, and safe preventive measures remains a priority. Among the various non-pharmacological interventions, vitamin B2 (riboflavin) has emerged as a promising candidate. This podcast explores the potential of vitamin B2 in the management of migraines, examining the underlying mechanisms, clinical evidence, and practical considerations for its use.

This episode explores anthropomorphism, the attribution of human characteristics to non-human entities, such as animals. Written and researched by my sixth form student Phoebe L, the discussion delves into how anthropomorphism can enhance animal welfare by fostering empathy and compassion. However, it also uncovers the hidden, potentially catastrophic dangers of this practice. We ask: Do the negative impacts of anthropomorphism outweigh its benefits?

The Harry Potter series, while rooted in fantasy, offers a rich tapestry of biological concepts that enhance its magical narrative. By exploring the evolutionary adaptations of magical creatures, the botanical wonders of magical plants, and the biological foundations of spells and potions, we gain a deeper appreciation for the intricate world J.K. Rowling has created. Furthermore, the ethical questions raised by these biological concepts provide a platform for reflection on our own interactions with the natural world.

Circadian rhythms are one of three biological rhythms that tell the body when to eat, sleep, wake up - the biological and psychological processes that oscillate in predictable patterns each day. This internal clock is influenced by external cues, like sunlight and temperature, which help determine whether one feels energised or exhausted at different times of the day.

In the realm of human appearance, few features carry as much symbolic weight as the beard. It's more than just a cluster of facial hair; it's a statement, a symbol of masculinity, wisdom, and even status in many cultures throughout history. But what lies beneath this seemingly simple facial adornment? Beyond its aesthetic appeal, the biology of beards reveals a complex interplay of genetics, hormones, and evolutionary history.

Medical ethics is essential for maintaining the integrity of healthcare practice, promoting patient well-being, and upholding the trust and confidence of both patients and the broader community in the medical profession. In this podcast, I'll explore the key ethical principles in relation to several controversial topics; genetic testing, genetic screening and preimplantation genetic diagnosis, vaccination and vaccine research and the use of monoclonal antibodies.

There is no doubt that some individuals are much more risk averse than others, but how do we explain individual differences in risk-taking behaviour? Perhaps the answers lie in our biological differences; these can include differences in brain structure or function, as well as those caused by the process of evolution. Understanding the biological basis of these risk-taking behaviours is crucial in being able to identify who may be more prone to poor outcomes. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Endometriosis is a disorder that affects a staggering 190 million women worldwide, often associated with severe pelvic pain, period cramps and even infertility. In this podcast, Sixth Form Biology student Amelie D explores the potential causes of the condition, one that is both misunderstood and all too often misdiagnosed in the medical community, and the current treatment options available.

Cosmetic dentistry has gained unprecedented popularity. Whether your teeth exhibit chips, stains, wear, breakage, gaps, or misalignment, a variety of dental procedures are available to enhance the aesthetic appeal of your teeth, providing a significant confidence boost to your smile. In this podcast, Sixth Form Biology student Yasmin J explores the options available, assessing both the benefits they bring and the risks they pose.

Consumption, or pulmonary tuberculosis, killed around 25% of the adult population in the 19th century. So why was this deadly disease seen as fundamentally romantic, intellectual and aesthetic? In this podcast, Year 13 biologist Felicity P will explore causes of the romanticisation of consumption, from Victorian fashion and styles, to its role as an emotional response to grief. 

In this podcast, I reveal the shameful practices taking place in the greyhound racing industry, and the devastating truth as to why most rescues are classed as 'unrehomable' and so are euthanised. The story of my own rescue greyhound, Luca, is explored to provide some real life context.

The glymphatic system works as a waste-carrying drainage system which removes unwanted materials from the brain. It was identified as a system in 2013 by Danish neuroscientist Maiken Nedergaard. He used the term glymphatic because the system works in a similar way to the lymphatic system but it is managed by the glial cells of the brain. There are still many unanswered questions about the role of the glymphatic system and how it may be harnessed to alleviate diseases like Parkinsons and Alzheimer's. New drugs could be developed to increase the rate of CSF flow during sleep, which would help flush out harmful proteins. This is certainly an area for further research and may have the potential to reduce the actual number of dementia patients. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Arthritis is a family of diseases that cause pain and swelling in the joints. Osteoarthritis and rheumatoid arthritis are two common forms of arthritis. Worldwide, gout is currently the most common form of inflammatory arthritis. Gout happens when uric acid, a normal body waste, gets too high in the blood. Uric acid comes from the breakdown of purines, which are chemicals found in both our diet and our bodies. In some people, high uric acid may turn into crystals that settle in the joints, and it is these crystals that result in pain and swelling. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

It wasn't until Sperry's split-brain research that it was possible to test the idea of hemispheric lateralisation. His studies used a unique group of participants, all of whom had undergone the same treatment for their severe epilepsy which involved cutting the corpus callosum in order to control severe epileptic seizures. While the surgery was successful in helping to control the patients' seizures, it also left them with unique brains, giving Sperry an opportunity to test the abilities of each hemisphere as independently functioning structures. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

In this podcast, I'm joined by Poppy GT who discusses the various treatments available for those suffering with depression. Should someone opt to have psychotherapy as opposed to being prescribed antidepressants, or could a combination of both be the most effective form of treatment?

In this second podcast of the series, I describe the initial three-month journey from embryo to foetus, in a period known as the first trimester. I'll examine the significant developments that occur, not only in terms of overall length, but in the physical structures and features that begin to take shape.

Human embryonic development is the development and formation of the human embryo. It is characterised by the processes of cell division and cellular differentiation of the embryo that occurs during the early stages of development. In biological terms, the development of the body entails growth from a single-celled zygote to an adult human being. This is the first in a series of podcasts examining the fascinating subject of human embryogenesis; in this podcast, I describe the processes of fertilisation and implantation.

Any person, at any stage of their life, can experience an eating disorder. Of people with eating disorders in the UK, around 10% have Anorexia nervosa compared to 40% with Bulimia nervosa; binge eating disorder along with several other conditions make up the remaining 50%. Anorexia is a serious mental health condition which significantly impacts a person's life - physically, emotionally and socially; it is in fact a potentially life threatening eating disorder. However, with the right treatment, recovery is possible. The earlier it is identified, the greater the opportunity for recovery or improved quality of life.

Head lice, or Pediculosis capitis, is a common condition caused by infestation of the scalp with head lice. While some people can have lice infestations with no symptoms, for most, the tell-tale sign is itching. Itching can affect the scalp, neck, and ears, and is caused by an allergic reaction to the louse saliva, which is injected under the skin as the louse feeds. Detecting lice is simple - it's done by examining the scalp to check for the sesame-seed-sized insects in motion. A female louse lives about 30 days, during which she can lay hundreds of eggs. The eggs are called nits and they hatch after eight days. Combing the hair with a very fine-toothed metal comb can confirm the problem and also help remove lice and nits.

Rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is recognised to be an autoimmune disease that causes preclinical systemic abnormalities and eventually leads to synovial inflammation and destruction of the joint architecture. Our understanding of this chronic inflammatory disease has evolved considerably during the past decade. Introduction of novel therapeutic strategies has had a major impact not only on how we treat affected patients but also on how we conceptualise the disease process itself.

Vasectomy is a safe, effective, and permanent method of birth control for men. It is also the most cost-effective form of birth control, costing half as much as a tubal ligation (having a woman's "tubes tied"). A successful vasectomy will last for life, but if circumstances change, the procedure can be reversed. In this podcast, I'll discuss how the initial procedure is carried out and exactly how the surgery can be undone, as such. I'll also examine the reasons for infertility even after a vasectomy reversal.

Acne is a common skin condition where the pores of your skin become blocked by hair, sebum (an oily substance), bacteria and dead skin cells. Those blockages produce blackheads, whiteheads, nodules and other types of pimples. Acne is the most common skin condition that people experience; it's estimated that 80% of people between the ages of 11 to 30 will have at least a mild form of acne at some point in their lives.

Microbial genes have been found to perform a variety of functions including coding for enzymes to hydrolyse food we can't digest, coding for proteins that form essential nutrients, making vitamins we can't produce and even helping to release energy from our diet. In addition to playing a vital role in metabolism, our microbiome stimulates the immune system and regulates the mood. Some species release compounds that reduce inflammation, whilst others specifically inhibit pathogen growth. Moreover, they increase the host's barrier function by increasing the thickness of their mucus layer, inducing antimicrobial molecules, and regulating antibody secretion. (With thanks to U6 Biologist Chloe P for conducting the research and providing content for this podcast)

2020 proved to us all that health is unpredictable. The pandemic, not only catalysed a global crisis as services were strained and lives were lost, but also forever altered the way we practice medicine. We saw a 50% drop in A&E visits, whilst more importantly a great proportion of appointments were moved online. This shows the great adaptability and resilience of our healthcare system, which will see doctors adapt the way they practice medicine in 2031 to overcome future challenges. In this podcast, Year 12 biologist Ellie MH discusses how exactly this might look.

Autism is lifelong developmental disorder with no known cures. A significant amount of research has been conducted into the causes of autism and research is increasing into the treatment of autism. Given that research has indicated there appears to be functional and structural differences in the brains of individuals with autism as well as the fact the main symptoms of autism are displayed behaviourally; drug therapy and behaviour interventions, such as ABA have been cited as the two main recognised and proven treatments. It is important to state that treatment for autism is not a one size fits all approach. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Culling is defined as the killing of animals in order to reduce population numbers. Culls can happen for various reasons, including health and disease control and prevention, or to protect other species. However, the ethics make the subject a strongly polarising one, and while culling in some cases may be necessary, it can be unclear when culling should take place, as there can be unforeseen consequences, both ecologically and economically. (With thanks to U6 Biologist Alice W for conducting the research and providing content for this podcast)

There's no doubt that Gregor Mendel is one of the great biologists of our time. His findings on inheritance led to multiple new fields of research, most notably genetics, in which breakthroughs have revolutionised biology and medicine. His work helped to create the modern understanding of how evolution and selection works, and his mathematical methods of analysis inspired a new approach to experiments, involving models and statistics. In this podcast, I'll explain the significance of his work, how he went about his initial research, and why the 'father of genetics' really is one of the greats. (With thanks to U6 Biologist Alice W for conducting the research and providing the content for this podcast)

Sometimes, scientists can take advantage of real-world incidents to help us understand the function of particular parts of the brain. Psychologists can carry out case studies on people who have experienced bran injuries. They are not interested so much in the actual injury, but what that injury can tell us about the normal functions of the brain. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

There will always be elements of near death experiences (NDE's) that are difficult to explain scientifically. This is partly because researchers are entirely dependent on the reports people provide of their individual experience, which means the data is received second-hand and there is no way of verifying that the report given is accurate. Some researchers have tried to address this by artificially simulating NDEs in laboratories, using drugs. Even here though, the researchers are still not able to directly experience the NDE for the participant. However, by using a mixture of different methods which explore real-life experiences as well as laboratory-induced ones, it becomes possible to triangulate these findings in order to increase our understanding. Nonetheless, it is unlikely that research will give us a full understanding of NDEs and, even if it did, it is unlikely that everyone would accept these insights; whatever causes NDEs, the effect of having one seems to be highly profound, meaning people are likely to formulate their own explanations of what they experienced in order to draw meaning from their own vivid experience. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Are ‘ordinary' people capable of carrying out wicked and immoral acts against other individuals, if the context suggests that is what is expected of them? These are the questions that Philip Zimbardo was trying to answer in his infamous study, 50 years ago. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Just one week before I recorded this podcast, the FDA, the Food and Drug Administration authorised e-cigarette products for use in the US for the first time ever, claiming that...'the benefit to adults trying to quit smoking outweighs the risk to young'. Vaping is often seen as the 'safer' alternative but research suggests that this is simply not the case; in fact, inhalation of vapour is leading to irreversible lung damage, malignant transformation (cancers) and increasing the risk of CHD and other neurological conditions in those who vape. In this podcast, I'll explore these 'hidden dangers', and consider what options we have for protecting society - given the relentless advertising targeting young adults, and the sale of unregulated vaping devices, is this even possible?

How keen is your sense of smell? Well, according to new research published in Frontiers in Psychology, people who witnessed a crime are able to identify criminals by their smell. Police line-ups normally rely on sight, but nose-witnesses can be just as reliable as eye-witnesses. It's not quite time to replace the sniffer dogs, however; the 2010 America Vs Wade case highlights the significance of human scent evidence from canine trails and its importance to forensic investigations. In fact, understanding the pattern of change of the chemicals that make up the scent during the process of decomposition could be of huge benefit to forensic science. Not only could it help determining the time of death of a victim, it could also lead to more scientifically rigorous training of cadaver dogs. All of these ideas are explored further in this fascinating podcast about Forensic Odorology and the Science of smells.

Forensics labs are frequently asked to examine documents to determine if they have been altered or forged. An altered document is an original, valid document that has been changed in some way. For example, one common type of altered document is a cheque in which the numbers have been changed to increase the amount drawn. A forged document is one that is created from scratch to masquerade as a valid document, or a valid document to which a page or pages has been added to alter the meaning or intent of the original document. Forensic document examiners use several methods to determine the validity of a questioned document. The first step is always to examine the document with the naked eye and under low magnification. A surprisingly large percentage of forgeries are so crudely done that the forgery is obvious even on cursory examination. If the document passes this first “sniff test,” forensic document examiners have many other tools available.

COPD or chronic obstructive pulmonary disease is the term given to a group of diseases which affect the lungs. These include emphysema and chronic bronchitis. They are inflammatory diseases and will obstruct air flow to and from the lungs. There is no cure for COPD as it causes permanent lung damage. Treatment can slow down the progression of the condition. However, people with COPD are also at increased risk of developing heart disease, lung cancer and other chronic illnesses. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Obesity is rising dramatically across the world. Since 1975 it is estimated that the number of obese people has almost tripled. One of the chronic diseases that is linked to obesity is type 2 diabetes. The dramatic rise in individuals suffering from this disease is causing a global medical emergency. In a world where our knowledge of the importance of diet and exercise is at a peak, the battle against being overweight is being lost. Scientists worldwide have attempted to find a link between obesity and genotype. Individuals vary greatly in their tendency to lay down fat in the body. This suggests that there is a genetic predisposition to fat storage. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

By not being exposed to agents that stimulate our immune system in infancy, we are at greater risk of developing inflammatory responses and autoimmune diseases in later life. Some scientists vigorously reject the hypothesis, arguing that the term hygiene hypothesis was potentially dangerous. This is because it might lead people to believe that they were too clean and would neglect their cleanliness. The simple message is that neglecting personal hygiene will not reduce allergies or autoimmune diseases but could lead to an increase in infectious diseases. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Sepsis is a condition which results from an uncontrolled and disorganised reaction of the body to an infection. If it is caught at an early stage, a combination of treatments can help to cure it. However, sepsis has the power to kill if left either undiagnosed or untreated. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

How did people in the past treat illness, injury and disease? What medicines or 'magic' did they use? In this first of a series of short podcasts, I explore the concept of natural illness vs the supernatural in prehistoric times, the healers and priests of Ancient Egypt and their meticulous medical records on papyri, and how the Ancient Greeks moved from Asclepion medicine to Hippocratic medicine as their knowledge and understanding developed.  

English teacher Felicia Isaacs joins KYTOS once again, to discuss the Biology behind one of her favourite poems, 'Death of a Naturalist', by renowned Irish poet Seamus Heaney. In this seminal piece of work, small tadpoles undergo metamorphosis into frogs, and this inevitable change causes a young Seamus to question his love for nature, and the destiny awaiting all living things. 

Hormones are chemical messengers that have a specific physiological effect in the body. Research suggests that hormones also have considerable influence on behaviour and emotion in both human and non-human animals. This supports the notion that behaviour and emotion have physiological origins. It is not appropriate, however, to say that hormones cause behaviour but that hormones influence behaviour. Research highlights the interaction between physiological factors and environmental stimuli, supporting a correlational effect. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

In the hope that it might provide a solution to the growing problem of antibiotic resistance, a new treatment is currently receiving a lot of attention. Based on a naturally occurring phenomenon this potential solution lies with a group of viruses called bacteriophages. When most people think of viruses, they usually imagine the ones that infect humans and cause diseases like flu, measles, rabies or Ebola. However, humans are not the only organisms that suffer from viral infections. Viruses can also infect plants, fungi and more crucially - bacteria. Bacteria infected by phages are turned into virus-making factories, producing and releasing huge numbers of new bacteriophages when they burst open (lyse) and die. Incredibly, Bacteriophages cannot infect human cells. Scientists are interested in the potential use of phages as an alternative to antibiotics for treating bacterial infections. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

There is evidence that, when the solar system was young, conditions on Mars and Venus may have been suitable for life. The surface of Mars has clearly been altered by water in the past and it may still exist deep underground. Venus is the nearest planet to Earth and is almost identical to Earth in both size and geological composition. Recent research has suggested that, long ago, Venus could have been Earth’s sister planet, complete with rivers and life. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Coral reefs are widely regarded as some of the most diverse ecosystems on the planet. They provide habitat for approximately 25% of all marine species but surprisingly account for a microscopic 0.1% of the world’s ocean surface. Coral reefs are continually under threat from both natural and anthropogenic (human) factors. In this podcast, I will explore the different types of coral along with their specific growth requirements, the various and very real threats they face, and more importantly, the wide-ranging conservation efforts underway to protect these valuable resources. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

In this podcast, I discuss the characteristics of Dissociative Identity Disorder (DID), also known as Multiple Personality Disorder and review the evidence presented in Thigpen and Cleckley’s’ (1954) case study of a person with three distinctly different personalities. It is called a dissociative disorder because there is a division , or dissociation between areas of the person’s conscious awareness. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

The prostate gland grows in men at puberty and secretes the fluid that carries the sperm. It remains a constant size until about the age of forty, then it begins to grow again. About 50% of men aged 60 have some enlargement of the prostate gland and this rises to 90% at the age of 80. This enlargement may be benign – effectively harmless. However, it may be a sign of prostate cancer, the most common type of cancer in men. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

The biology behind Shelley's Frankenstein in an unquestionably fascinating subject. Since the bicentenary of the novel, Frankenstein or The Modern Prometheus, the field of Medicine has progressed beyond recognition. Yet the overwhelming message that comes across to the reader, and indeed the world, is that we can never allow our egos to presume that we, mere mortals, can play God; this was Victor's terrifying downfall. In this thought-provoking podcast, I explore ideas such as tissue preservation, decay prevention and stimulation of tissues using electrical currents. (With thanks to English teacher Felicia Isaacs for conducting the research and providing the content for this podcast)

Many biologists consider the microbes in our bodies to be, effectively, another body organ. The bacteria in our intestines help to release nutrients from the food we ingest, manufacture crucial vitamins, protect against infection by out-competing other, harmful bacteria and interact genetically with the immune system reducing inflammation, to name but a few examples. These undisputed benefits are the basis for the adverts that claim we should all be taking probiotics - live microorganisms, which when ingested in adequate amounts, improve a person’s heath. In this podcast, I explore how we can all keep our microbiomes healthy (the genetic material of all the microbes - bacteria, fungi, protozoa and viruses that live on and inside the human body) and critically assess the evidence that probiotics can improve overall gut health. (With thanks to our sponsor 'Curriculum Press' for providing content for this podcast)

Actions taken at the outset of an investigation at a fire and arson scene can play a pivotal role in the resolution of a case. Careful, thorough investigation is key to ensuring that potential physical evidence is not tainted or destroyed, or potential witnesses overlooked. Arthur Conan Doyle’s literary detective Sherlock Holmes is quoted as saying, 'It is a capital mistake to theorise before one has data. Insensibly, one begins to twist facts to suit theories instead of theories to suit facts.' As Holmes pointed out, many types of investigations are susceptible to prejudgment, but few as often as fire scene investigations. Fires, by their destructive nature, consume the evidence of their initiation and progress as they grow. Investigations are compromised, and often scenes are further destroyed by the activities of the fire service, whose primary responsibilities are to save lives and protect property against further damage. In this podcast, I explore how cases of arson are determined, the motivating factors for someone to commit such an attack and what fire patters can reveal to the trained eye. I also make reference to a number of high profile cases involving fire investigations.

Forensic entomology involves the application of insect and other arthropod biology in legal investigations. Imagine a scenario whereby a dead body has been discovered in a wood - one way of estimating how long it has been there is to identify the insects that have colonised it. The first insects to colonise an above-ground body are true flies (order Diptera). They may arrive within minutes of death and deposit maggots (in the case of flesh-flies) or lay their eggs (blowflies) in wounds or in the mouth, eyes or nostrils; houseflies arrive a little later. Blowflies undergo metamorphosis and their life cycle has four stages; egg, larva (maggot), pupa and adult. The larval stage has three distinct substages, instars, and because we know how long each stage lasts, the presence of any stage can be used to date the arrival of the colonising fly. In this podcast, I explore this process of faunal succession, and give details of two real-life murder cases where entomological evidence proved critical.