Al-Mahdi Institute Podcasts

Is being depressed a sign of kufr? Is my anxiety due to sinning? In this episode of Thinking Islam, we explore how Islamic approaches towards mental health challenge traditional stigmas and modern psychological frameworks with Dr Zoheir Esmail. From examining the concepts of qalb, nafs, and ruh to investigating whether depression could indicate spiritual disconnection, this conversation unpacks the complex relationship between faith, Eurocentric reason, and mental wellness.We delve into the history of Islamic approaches towards mental wellness, their developments, from early medieval scholars to contemporary applications in modern therapeutic practice. The conversation tackles the stigma surrounding mental health in Muslim communities, examining fears around hellfire and spiritual disconnection, whilst investigating the fascinating realm of occult sciences, jinn, and evil eye, questioning whether these should be taken seriously as therapeutic tools or understood as sophisticated placebo mechanisms that nonetheless offer genuine healing benefits. Dr Esmail reveals how Islamic psychology creates mental health wellbeing through understanding the human self as naturally anxious by creation, whilst offering spiritually integrated therapy that addresses religiosity and faith to achieve holistic healing that secular approaches often overlook. Dr Zoheir Ali Esmail is a Lecturer in Islamic Mysticism and Head of the Department of Mysticism and Spirituality. After qualifying as a chartered accountant, he pursued full-time studies in the seminaries of Syria and Qum for 12 years, earning a doctorate focusing on the philosophy and mysticism of Mullā Ṣadrā from the University of Exeter. His research spans mysticism, spiritual psychology, transcendental philosophy, and Quranic exegesis, bringing academic rigour and traditional Islamic scholarship to contemporary discussions on mental health and spirituality.

In this thought-provoking seminar, Prof. Kristin Aune and Dr Hafza Iqbal from Coventry University present their research on interfaith learning in Christian and Muslim higher education colleges in the UK.The study, involving two Christian and two Muslim higher education institutions, examined how to foster positive college climates for interfaith engagement among students, staff, and faculty. Through a mixed-methods approach combining rich quantitative data and in-depth qualitative insights, the researchers identified key enablers and barriers to fostering religious and worldview diversity in academic settings.✅ Key topics covered:Creating inclusive environments in theological educationStudent and staff perspectives on interfaith engagementChallenges and opportunities in Muslim and Christian collegesActionable recommendations for religious institutions and belief-based organisations

How can hadith scholarship navigate modern challenges of authenticity while preserving its theological integrity? In this episode of Thinking Islam, we critically examine the journey of hadith from the Prophet to the present day with Dr Haidar Hobballah.From transmission methodologies to contemporary debates, this discussion unpacks the complexities of separating fact from fiction in a legacy spanning over 1,400 years. We discuss the science of hadith criticism, the shift from oral to written transmission, debates over canonical texts like Kutub al-Arbaʿa, the reliability of narrators, and the impact of theological bias and identity on the Shi'a tradition.Dr Haidar Hobballah brings decades of scholarly expertise, with advanced studies in hawza and a PhD in Comparative Religions and Christian Theology. As the author of more than two dozen books and numerous articles spanning jurisprudence, theology, philosophy, and hadith studies, Dr Hobballah has taught and supervised students at leading seminaries and universities, and served as editor-in-chief for several academic journals.

In this episode of Thinking Islam, we set out on a journey to explore the deeper mysteries of fasting and its connection to the month of Ramadhan with Shaykh Arif Abdulhussain. Beyond its physical form, fasting is a journey of spiritual refinement, mental discipline, and self-actualisation—but what does that truly mean in today's world? We discuss how fasting can free the mind, the spiritual benefits of the Laylatul Qadr nights, the challenges of moon sighting, and the evolution of the outward form of fasting and the realisation of its essence in the modern era.Shaykh Arif Abdul Hussain, founder and director of the Al-Mahdi Institute , is a Senior Lecturer in Legal Theory and Philosophy. A prolific author and speaker, he has extensively written and translated works on Islamic philosophy and legal theory, including the Islam and God-Centricity series and a translation of Durūs fī ʿilm al-uṣūl.

Dr Saeko Yazaki presents comparative research on the concept of the 'self' in Sufism and Zen Buddhism. The seminar, which drew scholars from multiple disciplines, examined striking parallels between these geographically and culturally distant traditions. Dr. Yazaki's presentation centered on a textual analysis of two foundational works: "The Revival of the Religious Sciences" by the Sufi scholar Abū Ḥāmid al-Ghazālī (d. 1111) and "The Treasury of the True Dharma-Eye" by Zen master Dōgen (d. 1253). The seminar highlighted how both traditions, despite their separation, share important theoretical and practical concerns, particularly regarding lived experience and the transformation of the self. Dr. Yazaki explained that al-Ghazālī emphasises disciplining the self (nafs) to purify the heart for divine remembrance, while Dōgen stresses the importance of learning and ultimately forgetting the self (jiko) in Buddhist practice. While previous scholarship has compared these influential figures to Jewish and Christian theologians or European philosophers, Dr. Yazaki's innovative approach places them in direct conversation with each other for the first time. Her analysis revealed not only remarkable similarities but also fundamental differences at both doctrinal and practical levels. A key insight from the seminar was the importance of faith in both traditions, balancing the widely recognised philosophical sophistication of these texts with their spiritual foundations.

Join Professor Ingrid Mattson in this insightful Book Talk as she explores her book 'The Story of the Qur'an: Its History and Place in Muslim Life.' Prof. Mattson delves into the historical, theological, and cultural significance of the Qur'an, examining its revelation, transmission, and impact on Muslim societies. Written for both Muslim and non-Muslim audiences, the book provides a comprehensive introduction to the Qur'an, making it accessible to students, scholars, and general readers. Professor Mattson discusses the historical context of revelation, key themes of the Qur'an, its tradition of memorisation and transmission, its influence on Muslim culture, and the different approaches to Qur'anic interpretation. Whether you are a student of Islam or simply curious about the Qur'an's role in shaping Muslim life, this book talk offers valuable insights.

In this thought-provoking seminar, Shaykh Arif Abdulhussain explores the meaning ofRabb (Lord) in the Qur'an and its connections to the Abrahamic scriptures. By examining key narratives involving Adam, Abraham, and Moses, he uncovers how the Qur'an and the Bible depict divine communication. The discussion delves into whetherRabb always refers to the ineffable God or if it sometimes denotes a distinct divine agency interacting with humanity.

Join Professor Eman Abdelhadi, an Assistant Professor at the University of Chicago) as she delves into her book "Everything for Everyone: An Oral History of the New York Commune, 2052–2072," a visionary speculative fiction novel co-written with Emy O'Brien. This book reimagines a world beyond capitalism and the nation-state, where societies are built on collectivised labour, mutual aid, and self-sustaining communes. Through a series of fictional oral history interviews, the novel presents a transformative future where markets, money, and oppressive systems no longer dictate human relationships. The conversation explores the novel's radical vision, addressing themes such as the collapse of capitalism, the role of climate change in global revolution, and the liberation of Palestine as a pivotal turning point in reshaping the world order. Structured as an oral history, 'Everything for Everyone..' chronicles the global revolution from 2052 to 2072, offering a compelling narrative that challenges the belief that capitalism is inevitable. Prof. Abdelhadi discusses the power of speculative fiction in inspiring radical imagination, urging us to envision a future where cooperation and shared abundance replace systems of exploitation. As the world grapples with crises of inequality and climate catastrophe, the book serves as a hopeful reminder that alternative futures are possible. Watch this engaging discussion to explore how literature can help us reclaim hope and reimagine a just and equitable world.

In this thought-provoking first episode of the 'Islam and Contemporary Challenges' series, Syed Arman Kazmi sits down with Dr Arash Naraghi, a Professor of Philosophy and Global Religion at Moravian University, to explore the nuanced relationship between science, mysticism, and Islamic reform. Dr Naraghi reflects on his transformative journey from pharmacology to philosophy, shedding light on his challenges with the Islamisation of science and his enduring fascination with Islamic mysticism, particularly the works of Rumi and Attar. The conversation delves deep into the societal impact of political Islam in post-Islamic Republic Iran, the solace offered by mysticism as a spiritual alternative, and the urgent need for reform in Islamic thought. Discover valuable insights into the complexities of reconciling faith with modern values, addressing the existential "love crisis," and finding meaning in today's fast-paced and fragmented world.

In this book talk, Farhana Mayer presents her book, 'An Introduction to Qur'anic Ecology and Resonances with Laudato Si', which explores Qur'an-based theological and ethical principles applicable to integral ecology. The book serves as a vital guide for Muslims addressing today's ecological and environmental challenges, drawing strong parallels with the themes in Pope Francis's 'Laudato Si'. Farhana delves into central Qur'anic concepts, such as the interconnected unity of all creation, the innate nature of God and humankind, and the principles of mercy, balance, justice, and moderation. She also discusses key critiques of human actions from an Islamic perspective, which align closely with Catholic teachings.

On Tuesday, 26th November 2024, Dr Belal Alabbas presented a research seminar at AMI entitled ‘Similar Questions, Different Answers? Reading the Sunni and Imami Hadith Corpus Together.' In his presentation, Dr Alabbas addressed the phenomenon of contradictions in hadith within both Shia and Sunni traditions. He examined the methods and approaches employed by Imam Al-Shafi'i to address this issue in his book ‘Ikhtilaf Al-Hadith‘ and compared them to the methods and mechanisms adopted by Sheikh Abu Ja'far Al-Tusi in his book ‘Al-Istibsar fima Ikhtalafa min Al-Akhbar‘. Dr Alabbas attempted to draw comparisons between their solutions to the problem of conflicting reports and contradictions, concluding that there is a significant level of similarity in their approaches and methods. However, differences were observed, attributed to their respective doctrinal and intellectual foundations, such as the role of ‘qiyas‘ and the concept of ‘taqiyya‘ in resolving contradictions among narrations and hadith.

What connects Sufism, Shi'ism, and Mysticism—and what sets them apart? In this episode of 'The AMI Podcast,' Dr Zoheir Esmail is joined by Dr Seyed Amir Hossein Asghari, a Research Associate at Baylor University, to delve into the similarities and ongoing controversies within these areas of Islamic thought. Together, they explore the historical debates between the School of Najaf (School of Integration) and the School of Separation, the roles of dreams, intellect, and revelation, and the interplay between philosophy and spirituality in Islam. Tune in to discover the debates within Shia Islamic scholarship, unravel the mysteries of spiritual growth, and learn practical methods for inner transformation. Key topics include: The Differences between the School of Najaf (Integration) and the School of Separation Connections between Shi'ism and Sufism The Importance of Self-purification in Islamic Tradition Philosophical approaches to understanding God Modern Approaches to Spiritual Awakening

In this thought-provoking seminar, Jamier Turner delves into the evolving formulations of the design argument among Muslim thinkers, focusing on a non-Paleyan approach inspired by the ideas of the 14th-century theologian, Ibn Taymiyya (d. 1328 CE). Turner challenges traditional Paleyan models, often criticized for their vulnerability to Darwinian objections, by presenting a Taymiyyan framework emphasising non-inferential, metaphysical causality in nature's design. Discover how this innovative perspective circumvents the challenges faced by Paleyan inferences while maintaining compatibility with scientific explanations of biological phenomena. Turner also addresses three critical objections to the Taymiyyan model and explores its potential as a robust defense of design-based theistic belief.

In this insightful book talk, Dr Hossam Ouf, a Research Fellow at the University of Tübingen, presents his book, "Hadith Transmission and Confessionality: Al-Bukhārī's al-Jāmiʿ aṣ-Ṣaḥīḥ and al-Kulaynī's al-Kāfī in Sunni and Twelver Shi'i Hadith Scholarship." Dr Ouf delves into the pivotal role of Hadith transmission in shaping the theological and identity frameworks of Sunni and Shia traditions. By comparing the works of Imam Al-Bukhari and Al-Kulayni, this research fosters dialogue and understanding between these two major Islamic schools of thought. Written in German, Dr Ouf's research supports the growing field of Islamic theology in Europe, addressing key challenges in fostering understanding and collaboration.

Join Dr Muhammed Reza Tajri and special guest Dr Shabana Mir, Associate Professor at the American Islamic College, for an insightful discussion on the challenges faced by Muslim American women on college campuses and Muslim women across the West. Drawing from Dr Mir's acclaimed book, 'Muslim American Women on Campus,' this conversation delves into themes of surveillance, cultural identity, Western perceptions, and the layered significance of the hijab. Discover how young Muslim women navigate and assert their identities, resist stereotypes, and find resilience in a complex socio-political landscape. Tune in for an enlightening exploration of identity, agency, and strength in the modern world.

Among the various Muslim communities that were articulating their doctrinal positions in the early Islamic centuries, one in particular was known derisively as the Ghulat ('extremists'). This was owing to their specific interpretation of Islam, which included an 'extreme' devotion to the Shi'i Imams and the family of the Prophet, and controversial religious ideas, such as the transmigration of souls into other human or sub-human forms. Widely active in Iraq in the 8th and 9th centuries, the Ghulat developed a complex worldview and produced a rich religious literature. Until now, understanding of this community has mainly relied on sources produced outside of the group, which are inaccurate or polemical in nature. This book looks at newly recovered primary texts in order to study the Ghulat first hand. Mushegh Asatryan examines the development of the Ghulat writings, situating the community within a broader historical context and offering a comprehensive survey of their distinctive cosmology. Through his detailed analysis, the book offers insight into the formation of one of the earliest religious traditions in Islamic history and the nature of the community in which texts were produced and circulated.

Divorcing Traditions is an ethnography of Islamic legal expertise and practices in India, a secular state in which Muslims are a significant minority and where Islamic judgments are not legally binding. Katherine Lemons argues that an analysis of divorce in accordance with Islamic strictures is critical to the understanding of Indian secularism. Lemons analyzes four marital dispute adjudication forums run by Muslim jurists or lay Muslims to show that religious law does not muddle the categories of religion and law but generates them. Drawing on ethnographic and archival research conducted in these four institutions-NGO-run women's arbitration centers (mahila panchayats); sharia courts (dar ul-qazas); a Muslim jurist's authoritative legal opinions (fatwas); and the practice of what a Muslim legal expert (mufti) calls "spiritual healing"-Divorcing Traditions shows how secularism is an ongoing project that seeks to establish and maintain an appropriate relationship between religion and politics. A secular state is always secularizing. And yet, as Lemons demonstrates, the state is not the only arbiter of the relationship between religion and law: religious legal forums help to constitute the categories of private and public, religious and secular upon which secularism relies. In the end, because Muslim legal expertise and practice are central to the Indian legal system and because Muslim divorce's contested legal status marks a crisis of the secular distinction between religion and law, Muslim divorce, argues Lemons, is a key site for understanding Indian secularism.

This second volume in the series focuses on a critical and contentious theme: Women in the Qurʾan and traditional Qurʾanic commentaries. It comprises analysis of the female subject in the Qurʾan, annotated translations of Qurʾanic commentaries spanning twelve centuries, interviews of contemporary Muslim scholars and extensive introductory materials, which frame the work throughout and render these technically complex materials accessible to the reader. On Women begins with a critical introduction to the study of women and gender in the genre of Qurʾanic commentaries. A unique prolegomenon then follows key Qurʾanic terms in a chronological sequence, showing how the Qurʾan's world view on women developed from the earliest Meccan revelations, when women were addressed only implicitly as a part of households or in the course of anti-pagan polemic, to the period of the final revelations in Medina, when women were addressed directly as pious and social subjects. The remainder of the volume translates, critically annotates, and analyses interpretations of six select Qurʾanic verses on women. These verses, chosen because of their relevance to women's lived experience, speak of the creation of humankind beginning with a single soul (Q. 4:1); the exemplary figure of Mary, the mother of Jesus (Q. 3:35-6); women's status in marriage (Q. 4:34); women's legal testimony and hence legal capacity (Q. 2:282); and 'veiling' as it relates to Qurʾanic norms of modesty (Q. 24:31). While highlighting variation, continuity, and plurality in the genre of Qurʾanic commentaries, Volume II goes beyond medieval interpretive paradigms to include perspectives marginalised by that tradition, such as the voices of women themselves.

On Wednesday 11th September 2024, AMI's Dept. for Studies in Comparative Religion was privileged to host University of Birmingham's Dr. Sophia Butt, to lead a research seminar entitled “Securitising Muslim School Children”. The presentation, which centred on UK-based research, asked critical questions about the UK government's ‘deradicalisation' initiatives and how they were administered to schoolchildren. The presentation critically evaluated the theoretical basis, adequacy and application of questionnaires that were targeted at schoolchildren, as well as the lack of transparency involved with the initiative and the islamophobic underpinnings its consequences had. Some of the research questions relied on theories of cognitive development from western scholars, like Jean Piaget, implying that government questionnaire, trialled without parental consent, was inappropriate considering the children's underdeveloped psyche, and did not yield accurate or ethically defensible results. Research on this theme has a growing significance considering geopolitical tensions around the Middle East, and political scrutiny of Muslim responses in the UK.

On Wednesday, 4th September 2024, the Department for Islamic Legal Studies at the Al-Mahdi Institute (AMI) hosted a research seminar by Dr. Rafisah Mat Radzi (Universiti Sains Malaysia & AMI) on the topic of Islamic fintech innovations, focusing specifically on Shariah-compliant e-wallet transactions in Malaysia. The seminar was a highly informative session, providing valuable insights into the future of Islamic fintech and the practical steps needed to ensure Shariah compliance in digital finance. Dr. Mat Radzi's presentation delved into the rising prominence of e-wallets in Malaysia's financial landscape and the need for clear Shariah guidelines within the Islamic finance industry to address this growing trend. Highlighting a gap in Shariah-compliant frameworks for e-wallets, she examined existing practices in both Indonesia and Malaysia, and proposed a framework grounded in Shariah principles that could be adopted by service providers and regulatory authorities alike. Drawing from a wealth of primary research, including insights from Shariah advisors in the banking sector, Dr. Mat Radzi provided an in-depth analysis of the Shariah issues concerning e-money transactions. Her findings underscored the need for further alignment between fintech innovations and Islamic jurisprudence, ensuring that digital payment systems uphold the ethical and legal standards required by Shariah. The seminar concluded with a dynamic discussion among attendees, who engaged Dr. Mat Radzi on the challenges and opportunities in establishing a compliant framework for e-wallets. Her research, backed by international and national funding, showcased her expertise in Islamic finance, particularly in areas such as sukuk, crowdfunding, and Shariah-compliant financial products.

The Centre for Intra-Muslim Studies (CIMS) presents its inaugural Urdu podcast episode, examining the critical question: "Is there Distortion (Taḥrīf) in the Qurʾan?." The discussion, hosted by Syed Arman Kazmi, features distinguished scholars from both Sunni and Shia traditions: Dr Muhammad Khalid, Mufti Muhammad Farooq Alvi, and Syed Muhammad Haider Naqvi, who offer a nuanced exploration of Quranic textual history and its preservation. Some of the key topics discussed include: Defining Taḥrīf and its various forms Historical narratives of Quranic compilation Critical examination of various traditions related to Taḥrīf Scholarly perspectives on Quranic preservation

This third podcast in the series by the Center for Intra-Muslim Studies (CIMS) features Dr Muhammed Reza Tajri and a panel of scholars discussing how to address abuse in Muslim communities. The panel discuss the complexities of balancing the need to confront abuse with concerns about fueling Islamophobia. They explore various forms of abuse, such as spiritual and sexual abuse, and the power dynamics that contribute to them. The discussion highlights the importance of implementing safeguards, developing community-based justice systems, and exploring restorative justice approaches. The panelists also stress the need for accountability among religious leaders and suggest practical steps for communities to prevent abuse. The Centre for Intra-Muslim Studies (CIMS) was established in 2015 to bring together Muslims from across the denominational spectrum to critically discuss ideas pertaining to Islamic theology, history, and contemporary issues affecting Muslims.

Whether or not non-Muslims are subject to Sharīʿa responsibilities has been treated in various contexts in works of uṣul al-fiqh and fiqh. Across schools of thought the prevalent view has been that non-Muslim are indeed subject to sharia responsibilities before God. This position is endorsed by Imāmī Shīʿa legal theorists such as Sharīf alMurtaḍā (d. 436/1044), Shaykh al-Ṭūsī (d. 460/1067), and ʿAllāma al-Ḥillī (d. 460/1067). Each of these considered the question within the context of the linguistic discussions of uṣul al-fiqh framed within enquiries regarding the scope of the imperative. Does the imperative include the non-Muslim and the slave as it includes the Muslim and the free person? This paper will examine how this position has been nuanced by some modern Shīʿī Uṣūlī's, in response to an Akhbārī rejections of the prevalent view, by distinguishing between universal moral responsibilities applicable to all and particular Sharīʿa addresses only incumbent upon believers. The paper will further point to some contemporary implications of this distinction for our understanding of the nature and practice of Sharīʿa in plural contexts.

The main question addressed in this paper is: “Can jurists rely on moral judgments to disregard or qualify scriptural evidence?” The standard answer to this question among later uṣūlī scholars is yes, provided that the moral judgment in question is “conclusive”. Otherwise, the scriptural evidence will retain its validity. In applying this principle to particular cases, such as child marriage, jurists working within this paradigm split into two groups: a minority who claim that the moral judgment in question is certain, and accordingly modify or set aside the conflicting scriptural evidence; and a majority who believe that the moral judgment in question is not certain, and consequently resolve the conflict in favour of scriptural evidence. Regarding the level of justification one can legitimately claim for moral judgments, the second group are correct in most cases. Therefore, granting the dominant paradigm, the path of moral reforms in jurisprudence is effectively closed. However, one can ask whether such a stringent condition as certainty for the permissibility of using moral judgments in jurisprudential arguments is rationally defensible. In this paper, I try to show that such a condition is indefensible, and hence the dominant paradigm lacks rational credibility. Based on the alternative paradigm that I propose and defend, the conflict we face here is of an epistemological and hermeneutical nature. Thus, the appropriate solution to this conflict is to weigh the evidence we have in favour of moral judgments against conflicting scriptural evidence and prioritise the stronger, i.e., the evidence with a higher probability of being true. Within this paradigm, for moral judgments to take precedence over opposing scriptural evidence, it is sufficient that the moral judgment has stronger rational support by virtue of being more probable than the conflicting scriptural evidence. This paradigm provides a rational basis for moral reforms in jurisprudence.

The linguistic principle of absoluteness leads to the absolutisation of a regulation in terms of the unrestricted scope of the applicability of its referent. Thus, the statement “respect the scholar” due to lack of qualifiers will yield the meaning of obligation as opposed to encouragement from the form of the imperative “respect” and this respect will be applicable to every type of scholar by virtue of the unqualified clause the “scholar”. The outcome is the obligation of respect to every scholar regardless of the scholar's denomination, field of expertise and piety. The principle of absoluteness is utilised as a legal hermeneutical tool for the interpretation of evidences across the chapters of jurisprudence. A fundamental assumption in the principle of absoluteness is that the lawgiver is in a position to explicate his intention fully including all possible qualifications pertinent to the regulation and scope of its application in relation to the subject. Thus, by not restricting qualifiable terms the implication is that there are no qualifications to the regulation and to its scope of application. Having stated this the unqualified clause can be qualified at any point within the timeframe of the lawgiver which is a period of over two centuries. Thus, an absolutised verse of the Quran due to lack of qualifications within the Quran may be qualified and restricted by the statements of the Prophet or anyone of the subsequent twelve Imams. Analysing the phenomena of post-absolutised restrictions demonstrates rationally that the absolutised regulation was not absolute in essence from the outset but yet was treated as an absolute prior to its qualification since the qualifications can be delayed for up to a couple of centuries. This phenomenon reflects on the fallibilism of the absolutised regulations. Additionally, it shows that the issuance of unqualified regulations was resorted to at a pragmatic level and on utilitarian basis. The regulations are designed to secure their values in an overall manner and for the majority of individuals. Existentially it is difficult to conceive of absolute regulations; all regulations are bound by their existential contexts. In light of the above it is argued that: 1. existentially the lawgiver cannot be in a position to explicate all the qualifications beyond the lawgiver's immediate context with a view to catering for the majority. 2. since the regulations are value-bearing the qualifications can be conceived through refined human learning and experience in every field of life. 3. existence being dynamic can effect change in relations of things to human beings. Such changes can qualify originally absolutised regulations and similarly restricted regulations may become absolutised by the same token.

Among contemporary scholars dedicated to examining the intersection of language and Islamic legal theory, Bernard G. Weiss' contributions to the study of Islamic law frequently emphasise the paramount importance of linguistic inquiries and language analysis (al-mabādiʾ al-lughawiyya or mabāḥith al-alfāẓ) within the uṣūl alfiqh literature. By taking into account a few late-19th/early-20th century digests and manuals used in the madrasa curriculum, his doctoral dissertation Language and Orthodox Muslim Thought: A Study of “Waḍʿ al-Lughah” and its Development and his subsequent articles on ʿilm al-waḍʿ (1966, 1976, and 1987) provided an initial general overview of a new science called ʿilm al-waḍʿ to a Western audience, underscoring its significance within the framework of legal methodology. Nevertheless, the extensive 14th - 20th century exegetical literature of ʿilm al-waḍʿ, originating from the foundational al-Risāla al-Waḍʿiyya of ʿAḍud al-Dīn al-Ījī (d. 756/1355), as well as the contexts in which this short text emerged, remain largely unexplored and understudied. The linguistic investigations of basic elements of language (nouns, verbs, and prepositions) undertaken by early commentators and glossators on al-Ījī's Risāla are mainly devoted to analysing the roots of signification but also to developing a semantic theory that filled critical gaps in various disciplines, like balāgha, uṣūl al-fiqh, and logic. In general, ʿilm al-waḍʿ (lit. the science of linguistic positing), which can be loosely rendered as “semantics of the parts of speech,” examines how terms come to convey their concepts and, particularly, how terms convey particular and individual, or universal and general concepts. The original scope of ʿilm al-waḍʿ aimed to elucidate how terms, such as prepositions and pronouns, are posited in a universal way yet ultimately convey particular and individual concepts. The innovative solutions provided by ʿilm al-waḍʿ for explaining the semantic properties of this group of terms were so influential that premodern scholars, mainly commentators and glossators on al-Ījī's Risāla, expanded the scope of this science, developing a comprehensive semantic theory that encompassed all parts of speech and simple sentence structures, while also engaging with the ḥaqīqa-majāz dichotomy. This presentation will first offer a heretofore unprecedented survey of the emergence and subsequent formation of ʿilm al-waḍʿ as an independent, and yet interdisciplinary, science between uṣūl al-fiqh and ʿilm al-maʿānī wa-l-bayān. It will then present some aspects of the linguistic investigations undertaken by legal theorists prior to the emergence and establishment of ʿilm al-waḍʿ, in order to highlight the innovative and original contributions that this new discipline introduced into the broader discourse of the linguistic inquiries. Finally, it will offer some preliminary reflections on how ʿilm al-waḍʿ has impacted legal theorists' analysis of language and uṣūl al-fiqh literature.

Can a perfectly good and wise God impose “impossible obligations” (takīf bi mā lāyotāq), that is, obligations surpassing human ability? This question holds profound significance within Islamic theology and carries weighty implications in the realm of Islamic law and morality, particularly concerning the comprehension of divine commands. For example, if one concedes that a perfectly good and wise God cannot (or does not) mandate impossible obligations, then an individual may reasonably question the religious validity of any prescription of Sharia if it is demonstrated to exceed human capacity. As I have argued in this paper, one's position on this matter is tightly connected to the principle of Ultra posse nemo obligatur or “ought implies can” (from now on “the ability principle”). Historically, Muʿtazili, Shīʿī, and Māturīdi scholars have advocated for the ability principle and thus the notion that a perfectly good and wise God cannot issue impossible commands. Many of these scholars argued that the truth of the ability principle is necessary and evident to reason, while they also offered some textual and rational justifications for their position. In recent times, some modernist Shīʿī scholars have leveraged the ability principle and the concept of the immorality of impossible obligations not only as a guiding principle to reform traditional Islamic jurisprudence but also as a cornerstone for the revival of a morally sensitive understanding of religion in general, which they term "humane religion" or Dīn-e Insānī or Dīn-e Rahmānī. Conversely, Ashʿarī scholars have contested this principle and thus asserted that it falls within God's power and authority to impose obligations beyond human ability. This paper sets out to first analyse different types of “ought” and “can” to identify the most appropriate understandings of these concepts in the context of moral and legal obligations. Second, it explores the traditional Ashʿarī arguments, championed by Abu Hamid Muhammad Ghazali, challenging the ability principle and advocating for the moral permissibility of God's imposition of impossible obligations. Additionally, it delves into traditional Muʿtazili and Shīʿī responses to this notion, as articulated by Qazi Abdul Jabbar and Shaykh Tusi. However, it finally argues that the ability principle (and consequently, its theological and legal implications) faces some new philosophical challenges that warrant careful consideration. There are at least three scenarios that can be counted against the ability principle and its theological and legal implications: First, the phenomenon of psychological compulsion, such as kleptomania. Second, scenarios originally offered by Harry Frankfurt (known as “Frankfurt cases”), and finally, cases in which the moral status of one person's action depends on some other person's having a certain moral obligation. This paper briefly examines these new challenges and argues that there are ways to meet them.

Muslim jurists infer, or justify, knowledge of Sharia regulations by primarily taking recourse to the apparent linguistic indication (ẓāhir) of the scriptural sources of the Quran and hadith corpora. These scriptural injunctions of Sharia are regarded as being based on values, with adherence to them considered beneficial to humanity and capable of mitigating harm. While Sharia's scriptural injunctions originated in the context of physical reality, contemporary society is increasingly becoming familiar with virtual environments, including virtual reality, augmented reality, video games and virtual worlds, broadly referred to as the Metaverse. As virtual reality unfolds as a multifaceted digital environment with interactive capabilities akin to the physical world, and with new user interfaces and more realistic graphics, it inevitably introduces new dimensions of ethical and religious inquiry, intersecting with technology, ethics, and fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence). For instance, Sharia has plentiful injunctions relating to actual reality including injunctions concerning sexuality, violence, deception, economics/trade, unlawful social interaction etc; however, the question that arises is whether these injunctions are also applicable and extendable to human actions in virtual reality? In navigating this uncharted terrain, Muslim jurists and theologians must grapple with a spectrum of normative dilemmas pertaining to both deontological Sharia regulations (al-aḥkām al-taklīfiyya) and situational Sharia regulations (al-aḥkām al-waḍʿiyya). As such, they must meticulously scrutinise semantic and interpretative methodologies to decern the applicability of Sharia injunctions to the complexities of virtual reality. The paper will explore the applicability and extension of scriptural injunctions to the following areas: 1. Individuals' interaction with virtual objects and the virtual economy. 2. Individuals' interaction with virtual characters, known as NPCs (non-playable characters), or AI avatars. 3. Individuals' interaction with another real person's avatar This paper embarks on a thought-provoking inquiry: to what extent can scriptural injunctions of Sharia be extended from their original context to the domain of virtual reality? If such extension is deemed plausible, what implications arise regarding the applicability of these injunctions in assessing an individual's actions, interactions, and behaviours within virtual environments? Specifically, our analysis will focus on the relevance of technical Uṣūlī hermeneutical concepts, notably exploring linguistic principles such as the primacy of unrestricted meaning (aṣālat al-iṭlāq) and the primacy of generality (aṣālat al-ʿumūm) of scripture. We seek to determine whether these linguistic principles, traditionally applied in physical reality, retain their validity within virtual reality contexts. This examination encompasses existing virtual environments as well as potential future technologies, such as brain-computer interfaces or haptic suits, which augment users' sensory experiences within the virtual realm.

Absolute or unrestricted (muṭlaq) versus delimited (muqayyad) is a key area in the study of language and meaning (mabāḥith al-alfāẓ) in Islamic Legal Theory (uṣūl alfiqh). It deeply affects the understanding and interpretation of the apparent linguistic (ẓāhir) indication of Scripture and Tradition (Sunna), thereby deducing new, or justifying pre-existing, jurisprudential, ethical, and theological knowledge of Islam. This section in uṣūl al-fiqh includes three major chapters: preliminary discussions, the rulings of absolute expression (aḥkām al-iṭlāq), and the rulings when both absolute and delimited expressions coexist. The second chapter is divided into the utterances of absolute expression (alfāẓ al-iṭlāq) and the quality of indication of these utterances to absolute expression. This paper focuses on how the absolute (muṭlaq) indicates absolute expression (iṭlāq) and comprehensiveness (shumūl). Is this implication by designation (waḍʿ) or does it depend on context (qarīna)? Among Shi'ite Uṣūlis, the dominant approach since the 11th AH/17th AD century is the necessity of general context (qarīna ʿāmma) for absolute expression (iṭlāq). This general context depends on the realisation of a few necessary preliminaries, which are called “the necessary preliminaries of wisdom/ rationality” (muqadammāt al-ḥikma). There are at least three necessary preliminaries: first, the possibility of absolute and delimited expression; second, the speaker (mutakallim) must be in “the situation of a clear statement of complete intention” (maqām al-bayān li tamām al-murād) and not in “indetermination” (ihmāl) or ambiguity (ijmāl); third, the negation of what requires specification (ta'yīn). The focus has been on the second preliminary, analysing its boundaries and meaning. How can we determine if the speaker—here, the Lawmaker (Shāriʿ)—is in the “situation of a clear statement for complete intention”? What are its precise criteria? This paper examines holding absolute (al-tamassuk bi al-iṭlāq) in various fiqh cases and argues for a revision. If the Lawmaker's situation is unclear, what does the foundational principle (al-aṣl al-awwali) require? Focusing on Imāmi uṣūl al-fiqh, this paper also provides a comparative analysis with Sunni uṣūl al-fiqh and linguistic philosophy. It comprises three sections: an overview of absolute and delimited (muṭlaq wa muqayyad), a literature review of “the necessary preliminaries of wisdom” (muqadammāt al-ḥikma), and the criteria for “the situation of a clear statement of complete intention” (maqām al-bayān li tamām al-murād).

The intricate relationships among the various sources of Islamic legal reasoning have long constituted some of the most vigorously discussed and contentious subjects. These include the relationships between: The Qurʾān and Sunna; text (naṣṣ) and reason (ʿaql); consensus (ijmaʿ) and the Qurʾān and Sunna; the internal dynamics within the religious texts themselves; the connections between analogical reasoning (qiyās) and textual evidence (al-adilla al-lafẓiyya), and others. Notably, the question of how conjectural Sunna (al-sunna al-ẓanniyya) like solitary narrations (pl. al-akhbār al-āḥād) relate to and potentially qualify (taqyīd) or specify (takhṣīṣ) the Qurʾān has been a pivotal topic extensively debated throughout the history of Islamic legal theory. Carrying profound implications on whether or not such solitary narrations possess the epistemic authority to specify and/or qualify the general indication of the Qurʾān or not. This paper aims to trace the historical evolution of the theory permitting ‘specifying of the Qurʾān through solitary reports' (takhṣīṣ al-Qurʾān bil-khabr al-wāḥid) , analysing perspectives from both Sunnī and Shīʿī traditions. Among Sunnī scholars, the issue sparked numerous debates and stark scholarly divisions. In contrast, the Imāmī Shīʿī majority endorsed such qualification/specification, albeit with certain significant exceptions from early scholars. I will review the major critiques levelled against this specification theory and the responses from its proponents, as well as examine both the methodological and epistemological grounds underlying its construction within Sunnī and Shīʿī legal theories. Additionally, I will address the crucial issue of delineating the relationship between qualifying or specifying the Qurʾān through solitary reports, and the theory of abrogation (naskh) of the Qurʾān through such narrations, along with the consequent implications. Building upon this analysis, I will evaluate and critique the fundamental premises of the specification theory and uncover the extent to which the specification or qualification of the Qurʾān by solitary narrations is present in the practise of ijtihād. This will be done by examining whether the Qurʾān actually contains any general indications (ʿumūmāt), such that a jurist is able to qualify or specify the general indication of the Qurʾān by a solitary report. This entails analysing the legal (sharʿī) nature of the Qurʾānic texts regarding their amenability to generalisation. Ultimately, conclusions will be drawn regarding the extent to which rejecting the theory of specifying or qualifying the Qurʾān through solitary narrations impacts the overall corpus of Islamic legal theory and the juristic edicts (pl. fatāwa) in contemporary times.

This research paper consists of two steps. Firstly, it introduces a new perspective on the problem of the relationship between expression and meaning, thereby contributing to linguistic discussions in uṣūl al-fiqh. Secondly, it discusses some drawbacks of the principle of authoritativeness of apparent meaning. The process of assigning (al-waḍʿ) vocal expressions (alfāẓ) to meanings and the topic of denotation (dalāla) has been one of the oldest subjects discussed by scholars in the field of uṣūl al-fiqh since its inception. In this context, assigning and imposing refer to a particular correlation between an expression and its corresponding meaning. It involves the speaker and the audience inherently associating the intended meaning upon encountering the expression. Therefore, assignation is the sole factor through which a text or utterance signifies a specific meaning. Also, according to Islamic logicians, denotation is a state wherein recognising something elicits recognising something else. Scholars in uṣūl al-fiqh agree on assignation as a distinct link between expression and meaning, offering varied explanations of its workings. Al-Ṣaymarī sees assignation as natural, while Mohaghegh Isfahani deems the relation arbitrary. Mohaghegh Nāīnī refutes both, asserting God posits the connection, revealing languages to humankind. Al-Khoei, influenced by Nahavandi, highlights dependency on the positer's intention. This study introduces a new perspective on the relationship between expression and meaning. The relationship between meaning and expression in a given source text can have three modalities: textually explicit, implicit synoptic, and apparent. The principle asserting the primacy of apparent meaning as authoritative evidence underpins most principles in uṣūl al-fiqh. However, this principle necessitates scrutiny, as it has specific limitations. This essay addresses these issues by examining the following questions: Firstly, it analyses whether the audience of the source text confines to the immediate addressees from the first generation when the text was initially uttered or it extends to contemporary individuals in subsequent generations. Secondly, it contemplates whether, if the addressees of source texts encompass contemporary people, the criterion for the authoritative apparent meaning should be what could be comprehended at the time of utterance or what could be understood in the context of contemporary circumstances. Finally, despite Islamic theologians maintaining that the Quran's text is God's speech, this essay raises the following questions: does the same hold true for the texts of hadiths? Do hadith texts correspond to the speeches of the Imams? Or can they be considered paraphrased quotes? If so, applying the linguistic principles from uṣūl al-fiqh, especially the principle of apparent meaning, to hadiths could be methodologically controversial.

Legal and normative discourse has been integral to the fabric of Shīʿism since its inception. Revered across nearly all schools of Islam, the sixth Shīʿī Imām, Imām Jaʿfar b. Muḥammad al-Ṣādiq (d. 765), stands as a paragon of juridical scholarship. The legal doctrines elucidated by Imām Jaʿfar and his immediate successors have purportedly been meticulously preserved by eminent figures such as al-Kulaynī (d. 941), Qāḍī al-Nuʿmān (d. 974), al-Ṣudūq (d. 991), and al-Ṭūsī (d. 1067) within their respective ḥadīth collections. These compendia collectively form a coherent corpus of legalistic discourse, distinctively associated with the Jaʿfarī school of thought. Within this corpus, a specific legal persona of the Imām is presupposed, wherein the linguistic formulation of legal pronouncements is contingent upon the recipient, while the underlying legal principles remain immutable and accessible solely to the Imām. Numerous traditions assert that God has conferred upon the Imām the authority of legal guardianship (al-wilāyah al-tashrīʿiya), enabling them to legislate per divine knowledge, thus allowing flexibility in expressing their legal rulings through various linguistic forms. The embodiment of this principle becomes evident when the Imām issues divergent rulings on the same matter due to specific circumstances, illustrating the dynamic nature of legal language. By recognizing the parallels between legal guardianship and other prevalent Jaʿfarī themes such as dissimulation (taqiyya) and intellectual accommodation (kalām ʿalā qadr ʿuqūl al-nās), one can argue that the aforementioned Shīʿī corpus posits a perspective on legal principles and legal language that is characterized by realism yet subject-dependency. Within this framework, the Imām not only receives legal principles but also interprets and applies them, emphasising the nuanced interplay between linguistic expression and the application of legal principles. Due to this, the Imām embodies a ‘proto-Uṣūlī' role, applying consistent principles but issuing varied judgments based on circumstances, akin to a 'legal demiurge' endowed with divine authority. This meta-ethical stance, akin to ‘Platonic Moral Realism', underscores the constancy of principles amidst changing moral judgments. Such a view significantly impacts the legal language used by the Imām, with specific rulings tailored for ‘common' followers and general principles revealed to legally ‘qualified' ones. The rejection of analogical reasoning (qiyās), attributed to the Imām, is also rooted in the belief that only he holds the necessary knowledge for accurate interpretation, ensuring clarity in legal meaning. Viewing the Imām as a ‘Divine Jurist' reveals disparities in Jaʿfarī legal thought before and after the Occultation, shedding light on evolving synthetic legal trends amongst later Twelver communities. This perspective highlights Imāms' distinct stance on the relationship between legal language and meaning, affirming the adaptability of the former and the permanence of the latter.

For centuries, under the rubrics of dalīl al-khiṭāb, mafhūm al-mukhālafa, and al-istidlāl bi-l-ḥaṣr, Muslim legal theorists debated the validity of affirming for what is unspoken the contradictory of the ruling for what is spoken. Put differently, if revelation links a ruling to a specified attribute of a thing, does this entail (linguistically, logically, or in some other way) the opposite ruling for what lacks that attribute? Referring to a common example: Does the Prophet's assertion that zakāt is due on free-grazing sheep (fī sāʾimat al-ghanam zakāt) entail that zakāt is not due on fodder-fed sheep? Navigating the confluence of linguistic and logical implication, uṣūlist discourse on this issue reached a considerable degree of refinement, and has inspired a number of informative studies in past decades. So far, however, some important linguistic-logical parallels seem to have escaped notice. First is the fact that propositions which link a ruling to a specified attribute may be formally rendered as conditionals, and the inference “If p then q, not-p, therefore not-q” (with a conditional major premise) constitutes the formal fallacy of denying the antecedent (aka the inverse fallacy); whereas the inference “If and only if p then q, not-p, therefore not-q” (with a biconditional major premise) is valid. Second is the fact that in some cases contextual factors dictate that propositions formulated as mere conditionals (if p then q) should be understood as biconditionals (if and only if p then q), thus allowing valid inferences of the inverse (if not-p then not-q). Third, and on top of these older, logical observations, modern pragmaticians have developed a lively discourse around “conditional perfection”: our tendency to hear conditionals as biconditionals (subconsciously “perfecting the conditional”) and thus to accept inferences of the inverse. As is too often the case with modern theorists, however, they have proceeded in evident ignorance of very rich and relevant premodern discourses. This talk therefore aims first to present select definitions, typologies, and controversies of the uṣūlist discourse on dalīl al-khiṭāb, mafhūm al-mukhālafa, and al-istidlāl bi-lḥaṣr, second to understand these with reference to their logical parallels, and third to juxtapose all this with a summary of the modern discourse on conditional perfection, suggesting (as in previous studies) how centuries of refined, premodern Islamic theorising and debate can complement and contribute to the (sometimes re-inventive) efforts of modern theorists.

While the task of jurisprudence (fiqh) is to determine what people are supposed to do in their daily affairs by inference from premises that involve the divine rulings of Sharia, the science of the principles of jurisprudence (uṣūl) is intended to facilitate such transitions by providing the relevant methodological principles and rules of validity for such inferences. In that sense, the science of usūl can be regarded as the logic of jurisprudence. One of the principles that a jurist needs to rely on to derive religious (Sharia) rulings concerns the evidence at their disposal. This evidence either directly comes from the Qurʾān and the Sunna or is grounded in reason. The former comes into two varieties: linguistic evidence which involves statements of the Qurʾān and the non-linguistic variety which includes, among other things, the actions of the māʿṣūm (infallible). For linguistic evidence to fulfil its role, however, three things must be determined: (i) the prima facia meaning of the evidence and what it denotes, (ii) its reliability (ḥujjiyya), and (iii) whether evidence did, in fact, issue from the legislator. The questions that arise from the role of linguistic evidence in the process of deriving particular Sharia rulings have, however, spawned an important chapter in the science of uṣūl about the foundations of meaning. These investigations include discussions about the characterisation of meaning, its apparent arbitrary character as well as its different varieties. More fundamental questions concern the origin of meaning i.e., what renders words or expressions meaningful. Here, discussions of such concepts as convention, usage, and intention feature prominently. Although important insights are fleshed out in these uṣūlī investigations, the overall results are often fragmentary and disconnected. It is here that the contemporary analytic philosophy of language can fruitfully interact with the science of uṣūl. In this paper, focusing on the works of Mohammad Bagher Sadr, I shall try to bring some of the discussions of meaning in the philosophy of language to bear on the issues of linguistic meaning discussed in the science of uṣūl. Hopefully, investigations along these lines may result in the mutual enrichment of both disciplines.

Medieval Muslim legal theorists devised increasingly complex categorisations of linguistic clarity and ambiguity. This paper traces the emergence of key terms including muḥkam, mutashābih, mujmal, and ẓāhir, which eventually crystalised in a four-fold Shāfiʿī classification and an eight-fold Ḥanafī one. Both these systems treated clarity and ambiguity not as features of the words and sentences of scripture, but as interpretive claims about the hermeneutical relationship between a text and a proposed interpretation of it. Both the Shāfiʿī and Ḥanafī systems served the same purpose, which was not to pin down meanings but to give the jurists as much interpretive power and flexibility as they reasonably could within the bounds of ordinary linguistic usage. Those legal theorists who resisted this combination of power and flexibility, including Ẓāhirīs and Akhbārīs, could not prevail against the flexible mainstream paradigm that took hold among Sunnīs and Imāmīs alike, and that still tacitly undergirds most legal discourse today. Today modern reformers and traditionalists alike exploit the vocabulary of clarity and ambiguity to support their interpretations. One highly original reformulation of these concepts comes from the Egyptian thinker Hassan Hanafi, who compounds the flexibility of the classical hermeneutic by retaining the flexible mainstream legal theorists' analysis of ambiguity, albeit transposed into the language of twentieth-century European phenomenology, and then adding two more layers of ambiguity or subjectivity through his theory of how language relates to phenomenal reality and human action. This aspect of Hanafi's hermeneutic has been much appreciated in some quarters, but all by itself interpretive flexibility is not the panacea some reformers take it to be, for flexibility cuts both ways: it can be used to justify reform or to uphold the status quo, and if anything is more readily amenable to the latter. As Hanafi himself illustrates, those who seek to justify the most radical reinterpretations cannot pin their hermeneutical hopes on the ambiguity of language, but are compelled to reconsider the whole theory of language and meaning on which classical legal theory rested.

Muslim scriptural text seems to pose contemporary challenges as to how its reader may mitigate tension between what text says and what it means. This tension defines the hermeneutical problem represented in the potential opposition between language and meaning, such opposition which Muslim jurists, and Arabic philologists for that matter, sought to resolve by referring to the idea of ‘context'. Particularly in juristic literature, Muslim scholars tend to use the word ‘context' in two meanings: 1) ‘context' in the sense of the linguistic context of the scriptural text; that is to read a text semantically and thematically according to its language-use and in connection with the surrounding texts which come before and after (aka sawābiq and lawāḥiq), where syntactical structure and speech arrangement are detrimental in the meaning-making process, and 2) ‘context' as referring to the specifics of a given situation, where a text is read in connection with its speaker's (authorial) intent and its surrounding historical and cultural circumstances. Based on these two meanings, ‘context' can be classified into two types: context of language and context of situation, to borrow Malinowski's term for the latter type. This paper seeks to demonstrate that the Muslim jurists relegated ‘context of situatio' to an ancillary but instrumental role in determining meaning, as they do not seem to envisage the possibility of meaning beyond text or outside the context of language-use. It is possible however, I argue, to redeem a space within classical Islamic tradition, where ‘context of situation' can be said to play an equally active role in the meaning-making process, hence balancing/reconciling the notion of language with the notion of meaning. Toward that end, the current paper seeks to expand the idea of ‘context' to include another type of ‘context', i.e., the context of interpreting religious text in connection with concrete reality. That is, a text – to be intelligible – is to be understood in connection with the way the text applies to a concrete situation. With this, the paper shall refer to three types of ‘context': context of language, context of situation, and context of application. The paper shall draw on perspectives not only from classical Islamic knowledge but also from the philosophy of language and philosophical hermeneutics that may inform discussions on the attempt to develop such hermeneutics of application from within Islamic tradition. As it proceeds to situate its argument within Islamic tradition and modern knowledge, this paper will make references to 1) classical Islamic scholars such as al-Shāṭibī, Ibn al-Qayyim, and other philologists and jurists from Islamic tradition and 2) modern scholars of language and hermeneutics such as Firth, Wittgenstein, Malinowski, and Gadamer from modern times.

One of the pivotal issues in contemporary philosophy of language is the nature of linguistic meaning: what is it in virtue of which a word or a phrase has a specific linguistic meaning it actually does? A foundational theory of meaning aims to provide a systematic answer to this question. Although this question has not been explicitly raised in Shiite uṣūl al-fiqh, the uṣūlīs have long been concerned with a related problem, namely, the nature of convention (waḍʿ), and have proposed several theories in this regard. It seems that by “waḍʿ,” the uṣūlīs mean (at least implicitly) the process or condition that bestows words and phrases with their meanings. Thus, from the uṣūlīs' theories of convention, we can infer their foundational theories of meaning, even if these theories are not explicitly formulated in uṣūl texts. One prominent uṣūlī theory of convention is the commitment (taʿahhud) theory, proposed by Nahāvandī (d. 1322), Ḥā'irī (d. 1355), Isfihānī (d. 1362), and most notably Khūʾī (d. 1413), among others. Given the close connection between the notions of convention and linguistic meaning in uṣūl al-fiqh, we can construct a foundational theory of meaning from the commitment theory of convention. At first approximation, such a theory of meaning runs as follows: Commitment Theory of Meaning: S means M in a group G if and only if the members of G are committed that whenever they intend to induce M (or induce a particular attitude relevant to M) in their audience, they utter S. This formulation is a schematic statement; depending on whether S is a word, a declarative sentence, or a non-declarative sentence, the parenthetic phrase (namely, “induce a particular attitude relevant to M”) will take a more specific form. The commitment theory of meaning is particularly interesting as it closely aligns with the basic idea of use theories of meaning, especially the intention-based theory of meaning developed by Paul Grice. In this paper, I will provide a detailed comparison between the commitment theory of meaning and the Gricean theory of meaning. I will then argue that although the commitment theory of meaning represents a significant step towards a sophisticated theory of meaning in uṣūl al-fiqh, it suffers from important problems in its accounts of both word meaning and sentence meaning. As we shall see, the Gricean theory of meaning fares better regarding at least some of these criticisms. Finally, I will tentatively propose that the notion of commitment might be employed in the context of William Alston's theory of meaning (another form of the use theory of meaning) to shed light on the nature of illocutionary rules.

The Simulation Hypothesis, by best-selling author, renowned MIT computer scientist and Silicon Valley video game designer Rizwan Virk, explains one of the most daring and consequential theories of our time.Drawing from research and concepts from computer science, artificial intelligence, video games, quantum physics, and referencing both speculative fiction and ancient eastern spiritual texts, Virk shows how all of these traditions come together to point to the idea that we may be inside a simulated reality like the Matrix.The Simulation Hypothesis is the idea that our physical reality, far from being a solid physical universe, is part of an increasingly sophisticated video game-like simulation, where we all have multiple lives, consisting of pixels with its own internal clock run by some giant Artificial Intelligence. Simulation Theory explains some of the biggest mysteries of quantum and relativistic physics, such as quantum indeterminacy, parallel universes, and the integral nature of the speed of light.

In this second episode of the CIMS podcast, Dr Muhamemd Reza Tajri and a panel of scholars delve into the challenges Muslim societies face regarding unorthodox positions on sexuality, including the inclusion of LGBTQ+ individuals and sexual diversity. The discussion explores internal challenges within Muslim communities and the added complexities for Muslim diasporic communities navigating broader societal interactions. This episode offers a thought-provoking examination of how evolving perspectives on sexuality impact traditional values, cultural identity, and religious beliefs. The Centre for Intra-Muslim Studies (CIMS) was established in 2015 to bring together Muslims from across the denominational spectrum to critically discuss ideas pertaining to Islamic theology, history, and contemporary issues affecting Muslims.

The discovery of the pulmonary transit of blood was a ground-breaking discovery in the history of the life sciences, and a prerequisite for William Harvey's fully developed theory of blood circulation three centuries later. This book is the first attempt at understanding Ibn al-Nafīs's anatomical discovery from within the medical and theological works of this thirteenth century physician-jurist, and his broader social, religious and intellectual contexts. Although Ibn al-Nafīs did not posit a theory of blood circulation, he nevertheless challenged the reigning Galenic and Avicennian physiological theories, and the then prevailing anatomical understandings of the heart. Far from being a happy guess, Ibn al-Nafīs's anatomical result is rooted in an extensive re-evaluation of the reigning medical theories. Moreover, this book shows that Ibn al-Nafīs's re-evaluation is itself a result of his engagement with post-Avicennian debates on the relationship between reason and revelation, and the rationality of traditionalist beliefs, such as bodily resurrection. Breaking new ground by showing how medicine, philosophy and theology were intertwined in the intellectual fabric of pre-modern Islamic societies, Science and Religion in Mamluk Egypt will be of interest to students and scholars of the History of Science, the History of Medicine and Islamic Studies.

On the 8th of May, The Department of Mysticism and Spirituality hosted a seminar by AMI's visiting fellow, Seyed Amir Hossein Asghari, exploring Sufism and Philosophy in Shi'i Seminaries. He examined the relationship between the School of Najaf and the School of Separation and the connection between Shi'ism, Philosophy and Sufism in the contemporary seminaries of Najaf, Mashhad, and Qom. He traced lines of spiritual heritage through teacher-student relationships to introduce the main figures in both schools and discuss lines of transmission of mystical knowledge. He also discussed the early Shi'i Sufi tradition through figures such as Kumayl b. Ziyad, Ibn Tawus, Hasan b. Hamza al-Palasi al-Shirazi, Ibn Mi'mar and Sayyid Haydar Amuli. Al-Palasi is a key figure who is understudied, and Seyed Amir Hossein spent some time explaining his background and thoughts. The seminar brought to light the effect of debates on the validity of mysticism and philosophy in the traditional seminary on the Shi'i diaspora in modern times.

This episode of the CIMS Podcast brings together a panel of Muslim scholars to deliberate on the impact of gender roles and expectations on Muslim societies. The panel discusses the extent of the truth behind allegations of women's disempowerment directed at Muslim societies and the challenges they pose. The claims of patriarchy come from outside the Muslim community as well as from within it. This podcast offers some eye-opening responses to these claims of misogyny. The Centre for Intra-Muslim Studies (CIMS) was established in 2015 to bring together Muslims from across the denominational spectrum to critically discuss ideas pertaining to Islamic theology and history.

The impact of Artificial Intelligence (AI) on our lives prompts profound questions beyond the technical realm. While shaping the future of humanity, AI also challenges diverse worldviews, reducing rich human experiences to data analysis. This pragmatic lens can overshadow aspects of our reality, marginalizing or, at worst, destroying what isn't understood. Understanding is paramount because, in human-machine interactions, misunderstandings may harm only the vulnerable human side. With Islam being integral to many lives, its worldviews, imaginations, and values should be considered in AI development beyond simplistic pattern-recognition and statistical approaches. Therefore, it is important to consider the integration of Islamic epistemological perspectives into AI as a crucial aspect of future research.

The revival of Shi‘ite Sufism, after the destruction of Safavid empire, occurred during the Zand dynasty (1163-1209/1750-1794) and continued through the Qājār era. As Zarrīnkub has pointed out, the Qājār era was a time of nostalgia for the noble past. Of course, their mystical philosophy had to fit the theological standards of Shi‎‘ite society. The two leading Sufi orders in this revival movement were the Ni‘matullāhīs and the Dhahabīs. These two orders had much in common, as both of them highly emphasized the importance of following Islamic laws and Shi‎‘ite beliefs. They were known to be the propagators of Akbarian philosophy in Persia. Dhahabīs and Ni‘matullāhīs were strong promoters of the school of “Unity of Being” (Waḥdat al-wujūd). Mīrzā Muḥammad Taqī, with the spiritual title of Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh (d.1215/1800) is one of the most influential masters in the history of Ni‘matullāhiyya order. This Shi‘ite Sufi master is one of the most active and knowledgeable masters of the Ni‘matullāhīs during this era. He is the first master after the return of the order to Persia who wrote about its cosmological views, based on the philosophy of “Unity of Being”. In his youth, he began studying the rational and traditional seminary sciences (‘ulūm ‘aqlī wa naqlī) and became well-versed in them. Muẓaffar was more of a mystic philosopher (ḥakīm) than a jurist (faqīh), and extremely well-versed in speculative Sufism, following the school of “Unity of Being”. Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh's mystical poetry had in-depth mystical meanings, with heavy reliance of Ibn ‘Arabī's philosophy and terminology. Muẓaffar was very influential for the development of the Ni‘matullāhī order and as a propagator of Ibn ‘Arabī's thoughts. His beliefs about the perfect man, insān-i kāmil, were highly influenced by Akbarian (Ibn ‘Arabī's) philosophy. Muẓaffar passed away in 1215/1800. He wrote numerous books and literary papers, which are tremendously valuable for a better understanding of Ni‘matullāhī thought. Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh wrote poetry lamenting over his separation from his master, Mushtāq, to whom he dedicated a compendium of his poetry, calling it Diwān-i Mushtāqīyya. In this paper, we will examine two of Muẓaffar's writings: “Sea of the Secrets” (baḥr al-asrār) and “Compendium of the Seas” (majma‘ al-biḥār) which are both interpretations of the first chapter of Quran. “Sea of the Secrets” (baḥr al-asrār) is in verse form of Mathnawī and “Compendium of the Seas” (majma‘ al-biḥār) is written in prose. In these two works, Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh heavily relied on the chapter of Prophet Adam in Fuṣūṣ al-ḥikam of Ibn ‘Arabī. He had numerous references to Ibn ‘Arabī and his writings. Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh explains the relationship between Nubuwwa (prophethood), Risāla (apostleship) and Wilāya (sainthood) based on Ibn ‘Arabī's teachings using his terminology like the disclosure of Attributes of Divine Majesty (jalāl) and disclosure of Attributes of Divine Beauty (jamāl). This paper investigates the importance of Muẓaffar ‘Alī Shāh for survival of the school of “Unity of Being” among practicing Shi‘ite Sufis in general and the Ni‘matullāhī Sufi in particular as one of the most important Shi‘ite Sufi orders in Iran.

The metaphysical perspective of Ibn ʿArabī oscillates constantly between the distinction of the different relations that determine being, and the constant return to the indistinction of being itself. According to Ibn ʿArabī, only perplexity (ḥayra) is suited to the apperception of being, while the distinction and articulation of the relations that weave themselves into being seem, for their part, to require a mode of knowledge that allows for differentiation. This presentation will show how the articulation of the various elements of Ibn ʿArabī's metaphysical system is based on a “correlative ontology”, according to which existing realities are distinguished within a web of relations woven within the single being, while having no existence of their own, since they ultimately refer to the relation that being maintains with itself. It will then explain how this correlative ontology allows Ibn ʿArabī to found different levels of relationships, within which the notions of Creation and Divinity and their different modalities of correlation emerge. This circular conception of being, in which the fundamental status of existing things is qualifiable only by perplexity, corresponds also to the circular movement that Ibn ʿArabī associates with “the perplexity of the muḥammadan” (ḥayrat al-muḥammadī). This movement of rotation around the pole of being, by which the latter is envisaged in an infinitely renewed way, is opposed by Ibn ʿArabī to the “linear” path (mustaṭīl), which for its part always necessarily relates to a particular determination of being, and thereby prevents it from being envisaged in itself.

There is no doubt in the claim that the foremost interpreter of Ibn ‘Arabi (d. 638/1240) within Twelver Shi'ism is Sayyid Haydar al-Amuli (d. 787/1385), who in his Jami' al-Asrar thoroughly filtered the Akbarian doctrine in such a way that it emerged in accordance with the theological demands of the Twelver tradition. While Amuli's accomplishments in these regards are acknowledged, it is not known whether any schools arose within the intellectual centers of Iran and Iraq loyal specifically to his ideology; it is instead in the Islamic periphery of India, where demonstrable evidence exists to indicate the existence of such a school therein. Sayyid Nur Allah Shushtari (d. 1019/1620), the martyred Mughal chief justice, quite openly aligns with Amuli in his Majalis al-Mu'minin (Gathering of the Believers), labeling him as Sayyid al-Muti'allihin (Lord of the heavenly ones) whilst openly appropriating ideas from Amuli's Jami' al-Asrar to develop the thesis of his majlis-i shishum (sixth gathering) on Sufi believers. Shushtari argues that in essence Sufism and Shi'ism are one and the same, one is an inward expression whereas the other is outward. Furthermore, in his Majalis al-Mu'minin, Shushtari includes a lengthy entry on Ibn ‘Arabi, providing illumination on his supposed hidden Shi'ism, as well as a defense of Akbarian monism. Shushtari's views have routinely been categorized as aberrational by mainstream Usulis, like al-Wahid al-Bihbahani (d. 1205/1791), who decried him as a Shi'ah-tarash (Shi'ah fabricator); it is thus of great intrigue that when Bihbahani's student, Sayyid Dildar ‘Ali Naqawi Nasirabadi (d. 1235/1820), returned to North India in 1781 with the aim of spreading Usulism, he met stiff resistance by Twelver Chishtis (Sufis), who claimed to follow a supposed ideological school of Haydar al-Amuli linked with Shushtari. This occurs more than 150 years after the execution of Shushtari, indicating that such an Akbarian-Amulian lineage potentially existed in North India; also giving credence to the Sufi-Shi'i nexus claims of majlis-i shishum. In order to delve further into this matter, Nasirabadi's polemic against this group, titled al-Shihab al-Thaqib, and the rejoinder prepared by this Akbarian-Amulian group, Radd-i al-Shihab al-Thaqib, will be analyzed and expounded upon in this paper.

The notion of the unity of being and its self-manifestation as elaborated upon by Mahmood Dawud al-Qaysari, the illustrious interpreter of Ibn Arabi, assumes on the one hand an essential state of hiddenness and unknowableness of the ipseity whilst on the other, it permeates all being . Allah as the epiphanic self-recognition of the ipseity is the fullest expression of the ipseity to itself and is a source of all manifestations in forms of the unending names of Allah. However Allah as the fullest expression of the ipseity is curtailed to the domain of what the ipseity conceives of itself in relation to what it wishes to reveal of itself as God. Thus ipseity is simply is-ness whereas God is is-ness in manifestation. Accordingly the name Allah is simultaneously a designation of the unknowable ipseity and of God who is the author of the world: its beginning and end, the apparent and its hidden. Therefore there is a distinction between the unknowable ipseity termed Allah and its self-recognition as Allah. The ipseity qua itself is beyond the notion of God whereas the Ipseity through the process of self-revelations and descents from the rank of Allah acquires the meaning of being God. Through this distinction it becomes clear that the unity of being from the perspective of the ipseity is beyond the notion of God and does not recognise God-world distinction; it simply is all things and beyond all things. The distinction between God and the world only arises through a relationship that exists between Allah and the world which is in need of being governed (ma'luh). This paper will explore how the lack of nuance between Allah depicting the Absolutely unknowable ipseity and Allah as the manifester of the ipseity within the emanationist scheme has led to ambiguity and conflation between descriptions of the Author of the world and the Absolutely unknowable in the thoughts of likes of Sadra. Thus at times the arguments from contingency to prove the Necessary being simply lead to the notion of Allah as God but not Allah as the ipseity which does not allow for any distinction. Similarly the idea of the proximity through emanation of the first intellect with Allah and the distance of prim-matter from Allah whilst maintaining that all are His reflections equally at once beyond the consideration of time, place and causality fails to clarify that proximity and distance is in relation to Allah as God and lack of distance and proximity is in relation to Allah as the hidden ipseity. Additionally this distinction will be used identify the differing ranks of God mentioned within the Quran and the spiritual literature of the Prophet and the Imams through the variety of functions and descriptions of God.

This study delves into "Risāla-yi Nūr-i Waḥdat" (Treatise of the Light of Oneness) by Khwāja Khurd (b. 1010/1601), a seminal work in the Naqshbandi Sufi tradition that has also been influential in the Sufi School of Najaf within the Shia Seminary. Renowned for its eloquent yet accessible language, Khurd's treatise advocates the Akbarian doctrine of Waḥdat al-Wujūd (Unity of Being) over Sirhindī's Waḥdat al-Shuhūd. A central tenet of the Sufi School of Najaf is the understanding of self-knowledge as the gateway to the Gnosis of God. Khurd's treatise deeply explores this concept, suggesting that the journey (Suluk) to recognizing the Real Being in the universe is through understanding the self, which is inherently intertwined with the Divine. Through his poetic language, Khurd captures the essence of this transformative realization, offering insights into the relationship between lover and beloved, and their union in the divine context. Under the influence of figures like Sayyid ʿAlī Qāḍī Ṭabāṭabāʾī (1866-1947) and ʿAllāmah Sayyid Muḥammad Ḥusayn Ṭabāṭabāʼī (1321/1904-1402/1981), the Sufi School of Najaf has integrated Khurd's treatise into its spiritual pedagogy. This work serves as one of the foundational texts for spiritual development, emphasizing meditation, memorization, and the internalization of its teachings. It guides disciples in practices such as Muraqabah (meditation), Khalwah (seclusion), and Arba`in (the forty-day spiritual retreat), facilitating their journey in embracing the concept of Unity and transcending the self within the framework of Waḥdat al-Wujūd. Finally, this paper examines the role of "Risāla-yi Nūr-i Waḥdat" in the Sufi School of Najaf, its impact on the spiritual formation of practitioners, and its broader implications in expanding the Akbarian doctrine of Waḥdat al-Wujūd in the Shia Irfān.

Sayyid Ḥaydar Āmulī was one of the most important, overtly Twelver, pre-Safavid interlocutors of the theoretical strand of mysticism developed by the school of Ibn ʿArabī. He critically contributed to the development of a more precise articulation of waḥdat al-Wujūd and elucidated a project which sought to bridge the gap between Ṣūfism and Shīʿism. Yet his inclusive, synergistic contribution remains understudied, despite an increasing stream of works of varying scope and depth, both within traditional Twelver circles and in modern scholarship. In this paper I trace Āmulī's use of waḥdat al-Wujūd in his largest surviving work of Qurʾānic exegesis, Al-Muḥīṭ al-aʿẓam fī taʾwīl kitāb Allāh al-muḥkam (completed in 777/1376) which remains an under investigated yet significant contribution to esoteric exegesis (taʾwīl) of the Qurʾān. This paper will show how dependant Āmulī's esoteric method of exegesis is on the framework of manifestation and correspondence which are key presuppositions of waḥdat al-Wujūd. For Sayyid Ḥaydar, the centrality of waḥdat al-Wujūd to esoteric interpretation is such that an exegete cannot be considered of those who are firmly established in knowledge (al-rāsikhūn fī al-ʿilm), the group identified in the Qurʾān (3:7) as knowing the esoteric meaning, without a sound knowledge if its principles. Thereafter, the paper will show the explanatory power of waḥdat al-Wujūd in positing alternative meanings to the scriptural sources in specific surviving sections of Āmulī's exegesis.

This paper proposes to delve into the profound legacy of the Akbarian tradition, an intellectual tradition rooted in the works of Ibn ʿArabī, which extensively contemplates the central doctrine of tawḥīd (the oneness of God) and has exerted a lasting influence on subsequent Islamic theological discourse. However, the reception of this tradition within Muslim scholarship has engendered multifarious responses, sparking contentious debates primarily revolving around the perceived incompatibility of distinguishing between the Creator and the created. These ongoing debates have seen scholars either championing Ibn ʿArabī as the "The Greatest Saint" (Shaykh al-Akbar) or denouncing him as a heretic. Within this context, Qāsim Nānotwī, a pivotal figure in the formation of the Deobandi school of thought, emerges as a noteworthy scholar who engages with the Akbarian tradition. His scholarly pursuits are steeped in the kalām tradition, where he seeks to reconcile apparent theological inconsistencies in revealed texts, the Quran and hadith literature, employing the methodology of burhān (demonstrative logical knowledge) while also incorporating a mystical perspective. Nānotwī's writings unveil not only his profound reverence for Ibn ʿArabī but also his intimate familiarity with the conceptual paradigms of the Akbarian tradition. It is this reverence for Ibn ʿArabī that motivates Nānotwī to offer a rejoinder to prevalent misconceptions surrounding the doctrine of waḥdat al-wujūd (oneness of being) and to clarify its differentiation from waḥdat al-mawjūd (oneness of existents). This presentation aims to explore Nānotwī's writings, not only in terms of his comprehension of waḥdat al-wujūd but also in his innovative use of this concept to establish the existence of God, elucidating how all facets of creation are inherently ontologically dependent on their Creator and derive their reality from the Divine existence. As a scholar hailing from the Indian subcontinent during the late Mughal and early British Raj era, this paper endeavours to illuminate the interpretation and integration of the Akbarian tradition within the corpus of Sunni Muslim literature, particularly through the lens of one of the founding figures of the Deoband school of thought.

Numerous studies have explored the concepts emphasized by the School of Ibn al-ʿArabī, with a particular focus on Waḥdat al-wujūd as the central ontological theory of the School. However, only a small number have delved into the analysis of the scriptural hermeneutics within the School. This paper seeks to contribute to scholarly discussions by elucidating Akbarī hermeneutics in relation to the foundational concept of Waḥdat al-wujūd. Through an examination of key writings, including Ibn al-ʿArabī's al-Futuḥāt, Ṣadr al-Dīn al-Qūnawī's Iʿjāz al-bayān, and Shams al-Dīn al-Fanārī's ʿAyn al-aʿyān, this paper traces the evolution of Ibn al-ʿArabī's exegetical and ontological ideas within subsequent Akbarī writers. This evolution culminates in a comprehensive hermeneutical theory that integrates Akbarian ontology, epistemology, and spirituality. The argument suggests that upon close investigation, Akbarī exegesis harmonizes seamlessly with the concept of Waḥdat al-wujūd, not only justifying this concept through Qur'anic interpretation but also establishing a synthesis of ontology, epistemology, and spirituality. The paper not only sheds light on the ontological and exegetical ideas of the School of Ibn al-ʿArabī but also addresses Akbarī prophetology. Akbarī scriptural hermeneutics and prophetology, which emphasize the dynamic role of the Muslim community in the interpretative process, are presented as potential solutions to contemporary challenges faced by modern Muslims.