Podcast appearances and mentions of mar hicks

In the third episode of the Conference on the Political Economy of Artificial Intelligence, we hear from speakers Marc Aidinoff, Institute for Advanced Study; Andy Russell, SUNY Polytechnic Institute; Mar Hicks, University of Virginia; and moderator Susannah Glickman, Stony Brook University on the topic of alternative models of technological innovation in history. The mission of the Roy and Lila Ash Center for Democratic Governance and Innovation is to develop ideas and foster practices for equal and inclusive, multi-racial and multi-ethnic democracy and self-government. Visit the Ash Center online, follow us on Twitter, and like us on Facebook. For updates on the latest research, events, and activities, please signup for our newsletter.Music is Wholesome by Kevin McLeod.

Repeat after me. Humans are friends, not food… or statistical data points in algorithmic targeting systems designed for warfare.

In this episode, we talk to Mar Hicks, an Associate Professor of Data Science at the University of Virginia and author of Programmed Inequality: How Britain discarded Women Technologists and Lost its Edge in computing. Hicks talks to us about the lessons that the tech industry can learn from histories of computing, for example: how sexism is an integral feature of technological systems and not just a bug that can be extracted from them; how techno-utopianism can stop us from building better technologies; when looking to the past is useful and when it's not helpful; the dangers of the 'move fast and break things' approach where you just build technology just to see what happens; and whether regulatory sandboxes are sufficient in making sure that tech isn't deployed unsafely on an unsuspecting public.

Today's Summer School episode from the IBI Archive is episode 39 with Timnit Gebru an artificial intelligence researcher. Timnit advocates for fair and just use of the technology we use everyday. A former employee of Google, Timnit consistently calls in and calls out a Big Tech industry that leverages power, capital, and bias in favor of, well, themselves and their wallets. From language to surveillance- Timnit knows the potential harms of artificial intelligence know no bounds.In a time when we're at war, today's episode calls into question for whom we are fighting? Whose wars are worthy of discussion and what harms are so deeply ingrained within our consciousness that we ignore our own civilian casualties. As the world witnesses the 16th month of a war in Ethiopia, Timnint's journey reminds us of the refugee, the warrior, and the heroes we often dismiss and determine unworthy of home. This conversation was recorded on Jan 27, 2022Learn More about this topic Rhua benjaminSimone browne (Dark Matters: on Surveillance of Blackness) Coded bias Tawana pettySupport regulations to safeguard Mar Hicks wrote op ed for Wired (tech historian)Who to follow? Algorithm justice league Data society Data for black livesAI Now DAIR Other Things we mention contentauthenticity.org The fairness doctrine Fairness doctrine washington post article Visit us on IBI Digital at blackimagination.com Watch other episodes on YouTube at The Institute of Black Imagination.Connect with us on Instagram at @blackimaginationHost Dario Calmese

Paris Marx is joined by Rosie Collington to discuss the consequences of outsourcing tech to the private sector, how it causes governments to lose important capacities to serve the public, and how the push for open government data empowered large tech firms.Rosie Collington is a PhD candidate at the Institute for Innovation and Public Purpose at University College London. She's also the co-author of The Big Con: How the Consulting Industry Weakens Our Businesses, Infantilizes our Governments and Warps our Economies with Mariana Mazzucato. You can follow Rosie on Twitter at @RosieCollingto.Tech Won't Save Us offers a critical perspective on tech, its worldview, and wider society with the goal of inspiring people to demand better tech and a better world. Follow the podcast (@techwontsaveus) and host Paris Marx (@parismarx) on Twitter, and support the show on Patreon.The podcast is produced by Eric Wickham and part of the Harbinger Media Network.Also mentioned in this episode:Rosie wrote a paper called “Disrupting the Welfare State? Digitalisation and the Retrenchment of Public Sector Capacity” for New Political Economy, and a report calling “Digital Public Assets” for Common Wealth.Palantir has a massive and controversial contract with the NHS. That hasn't stopped Peter Thiel from criticizing the UK's public healthcare system.Mar Hicks wrote about the masculinization of the computer workforce in Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing.Support the show

We're back for another installment of the “22 Lessons on Ethics and Technology” special series. In this week's episode of the series, I am joined by Dr. Mar Hicks. This episode tells the story of labor and gender discrimination in the tech industry. Dr. Hicks explains the historical background of gendered technological production that has influenced the development of computing. In her historical outline, she explains that while women were a hidden engine of growth in high technology from World War II to the 1960s, American and British computing in the 1970s experienced a gender flip, becoming male-identified in the 1960s and 1970s. What can this history teach us about the need for gender equity in technological production now? And what are the consequences of continued gender inequity for our future? Professor Mar Hicks is a historian of technology, gender, and labor, specializing in the history of computing. Dr. Hicks's book, Programmed Inequality (MIT Press, 2017) investigates how Britain lost its early lead in computing by discarding the majority of their computer workers and experts--simply because they were women. Dr. Hicks's current project looks at transgender citizens' interactions with the computerized systems of the British welfare state in the 20th century, and how these computerized systems determined whose bodies and identities were allowed to exist. Hicks's work studies how collective understandings of progress are defined by competing discourses of social value and economic productivity, and how technologies often hide regressive ideals while espousing "revolutionary" or "disruptive" goals. Dr. Hicks is also co-editing a volume on computing history called Your Computer Is On Fire (MIT Press, 2020). Dr. Hicks runs the Digital History Lab at Illinois Tech.

Dr. Abby Bajuniemi holds a PhD in applied linguistics from Minnesota University and is currently a user researcher in industry. We talk about language, design research and researcher self-care. Listen to learn about: How language and linguistics affect design The interaction of society and language Trauma-informed user research Researcher self-care The importance of asking for help Language and technology Being mindful about the language used in design Our Guest  Abby is the manager of UX Research and Content at Calendly. She holds a PhD in Hispanic and Lusophone Literatures, Cultures, and Linguistics with specialization in Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistics. She loves to nerd out with people about language and research methods, either together or separately. She loves the Oxford comma, but will never correct your grammar Show Highlights [00:57] How and why Abby moved from linguistics to user research. [02:06] The importance of taking the time to think about language as a designer. [03:30] Audience design. [04:15] Aspects of linguistics that are helpful for designers and researchers. [04:45] Being mindful of the language choices you're making. [05”07] Abby talks about the tone of language/voice. [06:14] Abby's “superpower.” [07:00] How people understand and use language. [10:03] Abby talks about what happens when stakeholders don't follow the user research recommendations. [11:22] You have to be a good storyteller for your stakeholders. [12:16] Ways Abby has seen her work come to fruition. [15:14] User research can be revelatory for organizations that have never used it before. [17:06] Trauma-informed research and researcher self-care. [18:03] User research can be intense and emotional. [20:05] Dawan and Abby talk about the importance of asking for help. [22:35] Asking for help is part of what collaboration is. [24:15] Asking for help is working smarter. [25:27] Abby talks about the book she's writing. [25:56] Cognitive language models. [26:42] Voice-activated assistants. [28:07] Language and chatbot design. [29:34] Thinking about the future of language design. [33:01] Books and resources for researchers and those wanting to learn more about language. [36:52] The way language can play into stigma. [39:39] Abby talks about an example of purposeful language design done at the 18F agency.  Links Abby on LinkedIn Abby on Medium Abby's website Abby on Women Talk Design On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots: Can Language Models Be Too Big?, by Emily Bender, Timnit Gebru, Angelina McMillan-Major 18F Book Recommendations  Universal Methods of Design, Expanded and Revised: 125 Ways to Research Complex Problems, Develop Innovative Ideas, and Design Effective Solutions, by Bruce Hanington and Bella Martin Measuring the User Experience: Collecting, Analyzing, and Presenting Usability Metrics, by Bill Albert and Tom Tullis Thinking Through Methods: A Social Science Primer, by John Levi Martin The Black Experience in Design: Identity, Expression & Reflection, By Anne Berry, Kareem Collie, Penina Acayo Laker, Lesley-Ann Noel, Jennifer Rittner, and Kelly Waters Your Computer Is on Fire, by Thomas Mullaney, Benjamin Peters, Mar Hicks, and Kavita Philip Mixed Methods: A short guide to applied mixed methods research, by Sam Ladner Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism, by Safiya Umoja Noble You Can Do Anything, Magic Skeleton!: Monster Motivations to Move Your Butt and Get You to Do the Thing, by Chuck Wendig and Natalie Metzger Language And Power, by Norman Fairclough Discourse and Social Change, by Norman Fairclough   Other Design Thinking 101 Episodes You Might Like User Research + Asking Better Questions with Michele Ronsen — DT101 E88 Teaching Yourself Design Thinking + Innovating in Government with Amy J. Wilson — DT101 E19 Design Thinking + Learning Science with Adam Royalty — DT101 E18

Dr. Abby Bajuniemi holds a PhD in applied linguistics from the University of Minnesota and is currently a user researcher in industry. We talk about language, design research and researcher self-care. Listen to learn about: How language and linguistics affect design The interaction of society and language Trauma-informed user research Researcher self-care The importance of asking for help Language and technology Being mindful about the language used in design Our Guest  Abby is the manager of UX Research and Content at Calendly. She holds a PhD in Hispanic and Lusophone Literatures, Cultures, and Linguistics with specialization in Second Language Acquisition and Sociolinguistics. She loves to nerd out with people about language and research methods, either together or separately. She loves the Oxford comma, but will never correct your grammar Show Highlights [00:57] How and why Abby moved from linguistics to user research. [02:06] The importance of taking the time to think about language as a designer. [03:30] Audience design. [04:15] Aspects of linguistics that are helpful for designers and researchers. [04:45] Being mindful of the language choices you're making. [05”07] Abby talks about the tone of language/voice. [06:14] Abby's “superpower.” [07:00] How people understand and use language. [10:03] Abby talks about what happens when stakeholders don't follow the user research recommendations. [11:22] You have to be a good storyteller for your stakeholders. [12:16] Ways Abby has seen her work come to fruition. [15:14] User research can be revelatory for organizations that have never used it before. [17:06] Trauma-informed research and researcher self-care. [18:03] User research can be intense and emotional. [20:05] Dawan and Abby talk about the importance of asking for help. [22:35] Asking for help is part of what collaboration is. [24:15] Asking for help is working smarter. [25:27] Abby talks about the book she's writing. [25:56] Cognitive language models. [26:42] Voice-activated assistants. [28:07] Language and chatbot design. [29:34] Thinking about the future of language design. [33:01] Books and resources for researchers and those wanting to learn more about language. [36:52] The way language can play into stigma. [39:39] Abby talks about an example of purposeful language design done at the 18F agency.  Links Abby on LinkedIn Abby on Medium Abby's website Abby on Women Talk Design On the Dangers of Stochastic Parrots: Can Language Models Be Too Big?, by Emily Bender, Timnit Gebru, Angelina McMillan-Major 18F Book Recommendations  Universal Methods of Design, Expanded and Revised: 125 Ways to Research Complex Problems, Develop Innovative Ideas, and Design Effective Solutions, by Bruce Hanington and Bella Martin Measuring the User Experience: Collecting, Analyzing, and Presenting Usability Metrics, by Bill Albert and Tom Tullis Thinking Through Methods: A Social Science Primer, by John Levi Martin The Black Experience in Design: Identity, Expression & Reflection, By Anne Berry, Kareem Collie, Penina Acayo Laker, Lesley-Ann Noel, Jennifer Rittner, and Kelly Waters Your Computer Is on Fire, by Thomas Mullaney, Benjamin Peters, Mar Hicks, and Kavita Philip Mixed Methods: A short guide to applied mixed methods research, by Sam Ladner Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism, by Safiya Umoja Noble You Can Do Anything, Magic Skeleton!: Monster Motivations to Move Your Butt and Get You to Do the Thing, by Chuck Wendig and Natalie Metzger Language And Power, by Norman Fairclough Discourse and Social Change, by Norman Fairclough   Other Design Thinking 101 Episodes You Might Like User Research + Asking Better Questions with Michele Ronsen — DT101 E88 Teaching Yourself Design Thinking + Innovating in Government with Amy J. Wilson — DT101 E19 Design Thinking + Learning Science with Adam Royalty — DT101 E18

Show Notes  Timnit Gebru is an artificial intelligence researcher.  Timnit advocates for fair and just use of the technology we use everyday. A former employee of Google, Timnit consistently calls in and calls out a Big Tech industry that leverages power, capital, and bias in favor of, well, themselves and their wallets. From language to surveillance- Timnit knows the potential harms of artificial intelligence know no bounds. In a time when we're at war, today's episode calls into question for whom we are fighting? Whose wars are worthy of discussion and what harms are so deeply ingrained within our consciousness that we ignore our own civilian casualties. As the world witnesses the 16th month of a war in Ethiopia, Timnint's journey reminds us of the refugee, the warrior, and the heroes we often dismiss and determine unworthy of home.  This conversation was recorded on Jan 27, 2022 Learn More about this topic  https://www.ruhabenjamin.com/ (Rhua benjamin) https://www.dukeupress.edu/dark-matters (Simone browne (Dark Matters: on Surveillance of Blackness) ) https://www.netflix.com/title/81328723 (Coded bias)  https://pacscenter.stanford.edu/person/tawana-petty/#:~:text=She%20is%20the%20National%20Organizing,and%20shared%20by%20government%20and (Tawana petty) https://www.politico.com/news/2021/06/02/senate-democrats-google-racial-equity-491605 (Support regulations to safeguard)  https://www.wired.com/story/facebook-ford-fall-from-grace/ (Mar Hicks wrote op ed for Wired (tech historian)) Who to follow?  https://www.ajl.org/ (Algorithm justice league)  https://datasociety.com/ (Data society)  https://d4bl.org/ (Data for black lives) https://ainowinstitute.org/ (AI Now)  https://www.dair-institute.org/ (DAIR ) Other Things we mention   https://contentauthenticity.org/ (contentauthenticity.org ) https://www.britannica.com/topic/Fairness-Doctrine (The fairness doctrine )  https://www.washingtonpost.com/outlook/2021/02/04/fairness-doctrine-wont-solve-our-problems-it-can-foster-needed-debate/ (Fairness doctrine washington post article ) Host https://www.instagram.com/dario.studio/ (Dario Calmese) 

Alina Utrata talks to Dr Siân Brooke, a Leverhulme Fellow in the Department of Methodology at the London School of Economics and an associate at the Oxford Internet Institute and the Alan Turing Institute. They discuss gender, memes and hackathons: What exactly is a meme? Do geeks have toxic masculinity? How does gender and femininity get marginalized in tech spaces? And how do fedoras lead down the road to incels?You can follow Siân Brooke on Twitter @SianJMBrooke, Alina Utrata @alinautrata and the Anti-Dystopians podcast on @AntiDystopians. Sign up for the Anti-Dystopians email newsletter at bit.ly/3kuGM5XAll episodes of the Anti-Dystopians are hosted and produced by Alina Utrata and are freely available to all listeners. To support the production to the show, visit: bit.ly/3AApPN4Other articles by Siân:Siân's Website: https://www.sianbrooke.com/Siân's Thesis: https://ora.ox.ac.uk/objects/uuid:76f836bf-880b-4902-9226-8d668726f4cfTrouble in Programmers Paradise: gender-biases in sharing and recognising technical knowledge on Stack Overflow: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/1369118X.2021.1962943“There are no girls on the Internet”: Gender performances in Advice Animal memes: https://journals.uic.edu/ojs/index.php/fm/article/view/9593Further ReadingOII's Anti-Racists Annotated Bibliography: https://docs.google.com/document/d/146XaYuhUAng6rGV9mChDkvWdYIfwpSXlle1RUxUaBUE/edit?usp=sharingHacking Diversity by Dunbar Hester: https://press.princeton.edu/books/hardcover/9780691182070/hacking-diversityProgrammed Inequality by Mar Hicks: https://mitpress.mit.edu/books/programmed-inequalityNowhere Land by Kevin MacLeodLink: https://incompetech.filmmusic.io/song/4148-nowhere-landLicense: http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/ Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Paris Marx is joined by Mar Hicks to discuss why we need to know the history of tech and how the British history of sexism and colonialism in computing has lessons for the present-day US tech industry.Mar Hicks is the co-editor of “Your Computer Is on Fire,” along with Thomas S. Mullaney, Benjamin Peters, and Kavita Philip. They are also the author of “Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing” and an Associate Professor of the History of Technology at Illinois Tech. Follow Mar on Twitter as @histoftech.Tech Won’t Save Us offers a critical perspective on tech, its worldview, and wider society with the goal of inspiring people to demand better tech and a better world. Follow the podcast (@techwontsaveus) and host Paris Marx (@parismarx) on Twitter, and support the show on Patreon.Find out more about Harbinger Media Network at harbingermedianetwork.com.Also mentioned in this episode:Mar wrote about the story of COBOL computer systems in the early months of the pandemic and how Britain killed its tech industry.Google fired top AI ethicists Timnit Gebru and Margaret Mitchell after their research was critical of the company’s practices. Diversity recruiter April Christina Curley was also fired in September 2020.Support the show (https://patreon.com/techwontsaveus)

How do we challenge techno-utopianism? How do we dismantle systems of oppression in technology?  To answer these questions and more we welcome to the show two editors of the new collection from MIT Press Your Computer Is on Fire, Mar Hicks and Kavita Philip. Mar Hicks is an author, historian, and professor doing research on the history of computing, labor, and how hidden technological dynamics change the core narratives of the history of computing in unexpected ways. Hicks's multiple award-winning book, Programmed Inequality, looks at how the British lost their early lead in computing by discarding women computer workers, and what this cautionary tale tells us about current issues in high tech. Their current project looks at resistance and queerness in the history of technology. Kavita Philip is a historian of science and technology who has written about nineteenth-century environmental knowledge in British India, information technology in post-colonial India, and the intersections of art, science fiction, and social activism with science and technology. She is author of Civilizing Natures (2004), and Studies in Unauthorized Reproduction (forthcoming, MIT Press), as well as co-editor of five volumes curating new interdisciplinary work in radical history, art, activism, computing, and public policy. Full show notes for this episode can be found at Radicalai.org.  If you enjoy this episode please make sure to subscribe, submit a rating and review, and connect with us on twitter at twitter.com/radicalaipod

It’s November 22nd. On this day in 2016, Barack Obama awarded the Presidential Medal of Freedom to computer programmer Grace Hopper, who entered the Navy in the mid-1940s and helped pioneer a lot of modern electronic computing. Jody and Niki are joined by Mar Hicks of Illinois Tech University to discuss Hopper’s legacy, her knack for storytelling, and the other women whose stories may not be as popular. Hick’s book is Programmed Inequality Find a transcript of this episode at: https://tinyurl.com/esoterichistory This Day In Esoteric Political History is a proud member of Radiotopia from PRX. Get in touch if you have any ideas for future topics, or just want to say hello. Our website is thisdaypod.com Follow us on social @thisdaypod

With all that is going on in the world this month—the uncertainty, the fear—we still want to take a moment to celebrate Women’s History Month this March. Because it is worth taking a moment to listen to inspiring stories. It’s important to sow uplifting, interesting, and even funny moments in times like these. This episode features some of our favorite clips from 9 of our women and non-binary guests, following two themes. We focus in on these two ideas: first, the vast differences in experience between those coming into this field in different times in history, and second, the bias that some women have encountered (but not all) and their suggestions for fighting that bias. These women, and indeed the women around all of us right now, are worth celebrating and hearing from. Enjoy this celebration of Women’s History Month. HERE ARE SOME OF OUR FAVORITE MOMENTS with Jacqueline Harper, Ellen Petry Leanse, Sherry Wei, April Wensel, Laura Yecies, Coraline Ada Ehmke, Linda Popky, Mar Hicks, and Paula Buchanan.

In the popular imagination, computers are not only superior to humans in speed and accuracy, but they do their work free from prejudice, treating users equally without regard to race or gender. NHC Fellow Mar Hicks, associate professor of history at Illinois Institute of Technology, is helping complicate our understanding of how computers shape our world as she works this year on a new book exploring how technological systems in Great Britain continue to perpetuate social inequalities. In this podcast, Hicks discusses the deep history of algorithmic bias and how technology constructs certain people—specifically women and transgender persons—as non-normative, with far-reaching discriminatory consequences for these groups. Building on her previous research on the often forgotten history of technology’s rise and fall in the United Kingdom, Hicks’ scholarship focuses not only on the transphobia programmed into computer systems, but also how resistance to such discrimination cultivated a political class.

In this episode April Glaser is joined once again by guest co-host Meredith Broussard, a data journalism professor at NYU and author of Artificial Unintelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World.  First, historian Mar Hicks joins the show to talk about the tech industry’s long-time aversion to organized labor and how that’s clashing with recent worker actions at major tech companies like Google and Uber.  Then Alexis Madrigal joins the hosts to talk about his recent piece in the Atlantic called “The End of Cyberspace” where he argues that the 90s dream of an unregulated internet is starting to fade. According to Madrigal, it’s time to create a new alluring vision for what cyberspace should be.   Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

In this episode April Glaser is joined once again by guest co-host Meredith Broussard, a data journalism professor at NYU and author of Artificial Unintelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World.  First, historian Mar Hicks joins the show to talk about the tech industry’s long-time aversion to organized labor and how that’s clashing with recent worker actions at major tech companies like Google and Uber.  Then Alexis Madrigal joins the hosts to talk about his recent piece in the Atlantic called “The End of Cyberspace” where he argues that the 90s dream of an unregulated internet is starting to fade. According to Madrigal, it’s time to create a new alluring vision for what cyberspace should be.   Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

In this episode we finish up our interview with Historian Mar Hicks and talk about contemporary issues facing women in computing, the impact of globalization on IT, and how pink-collar jobs impact everyone.Tip: the answer to all of our problems may be labor organizing.

We interrupt our two-part interview with Mar Hicks to bring you this episode. Liz sits down with guest co-host, Amy Drayer (@amydrayer) to talk about WTF is going on in politics today, the state of women in the world, and how we can resist the patriarchy.Follow Amy on Twitter @amydrayerShow notes and links on our webpage: http://shewhopersisted.com

In celebration of women's history month and the 30th anniversary of the world wide web, we are kicking of our third season with a two part interview with historian Mar Hicks (@histoftech). Mar's research explores the intersection of computing, gender, and labor and this first part of our interview looks at how important it is to include gender in our explorations of the past.For more information on their research check out mariehicks.net

Mar Hicks, Associate Professor of  History at Illinois Institute of Technology, drops in to talk about the history of technology and how algorithmic bias has evolved over the years. They discuss topics from how women were purposefully excluded from the tech industry to how transgender algorithmic bias began in the 70’s. Mar shares insights about bias in tech that you have probably experienced but might have only given a passing thought. Mar tells an anecdote about one of the earliest examples of institutionally trans algorithmic bias by the British government in the early 70’s. This episode is as thought-provoking as it is entertaining.   LINKS MENTIONED IN THIS EPISODE: Mar’s Book: Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing Female Chauvinist Pigs: Women and the Rise of Raunch Culture, by Ariel Levy Automating Inequality: How High-Tech Tools Profile, Police, and Punish the Poor, by Virginia Eubanks Artificial Unintelligence: How Computers Misunderstand the World, by Meredith Broussard Algorithms of Oppression: How Search Engines Reinforce Racism, by Safiya Umoja Nobles   MUSICAL INSPIRATION FOR THIS EPISODE ON SPOTIFY: "We Belong" by Pat Benatar   ABOUT THIS PODCAST Stayin' Alive in Tech is an oral history of Silicon Valley and technology. Melinda Byerley, the host, is a 20-year veteran of Silicon Valley and the founder of Timeshare CMO, a digital marketing intelligence firm, based in San Francisco. We really appreciate your reviews, shares on social media, and your recommendations for future guests. And check out our Spotify playlist for all the songs we refer to on our show.

In the 1940s, programming was viewed as women's work. However, as electronic computing matured the proportion of women working in this field declined. Mar Hicks, author of Programmed Inequality: How Britain Discarded Women Technologists and Lost Its Edge in Computing, explained why programming was viewed as women's work and how the labor conditions in Britain and the perception of computing pushed women out of the field. We talked about the role of programming during World War II and how women were using computers. Mar also explained the impact that forcing women out of the tech field had on Britain's technological power.