Podcasts about counterfactuals

Frank Gavin, Giovanni Agnelli Distinguished Professor and Director of the Henry A. Kissinger Center for Global Affairs at Johns Hopkins University SAIS and author of Thinking Historically: A Guide to Statecraft and Strategy, joins the show to discuss the promise and perils of using history to guide today's statecraft. ▪️ Times 02:20 Political Science vs. History 05:37 The Importance of Historical Thinking 08:13 Historical Interpretation 11:22 Counterfactuals  14:26 The Misuse of History in Policy Making 17:19 Thinking in Time 22:27 Errors When Thinking Historically 31:57 Putin's View of History 40:01 Philosophical Understanding 47:05 Does History Have a Direction? 53:34 A Checklist for Historical Thinking Follow along on Instagram, X @schoolofwarpod, and YouTube @SchoolofWarPodcast Find more content on our School of War Substack

Cross-posted from Good Structures. For impact-minded donors, it's natural to focus on doing the most cost-effective thing. Suppose you're genuinely neutral on what you do, as long as it maximizes the good. If you're donating money, you want to look for the most cost-effective opportunity (on the margin) and donate to it. But many organizations and individuals who care about cost-effectiveness try to influence the giving of others. This includes: Research organizations that try to influence the allocation or use of charitable funds. Donor advisors who work with donors to find promising opportunities. People arguing to community members on venues like the EA Forum. Charity recommenders like GiveWell and Animal Charity Evaluators. These are endeavors where you're specifically trying to influence the giving of others. And when you influence the giving of others, you don't get full credit for their decisions! You should only get credit for how much better the thing you convinced them to do is compared to what they would otherwise do. This is something that many people in EA and related communities take for granted and find obvious in the abstract. But I think the implications of this aren't always fully digested by the [...] ---Outline:(03:34) Impact is largely a function of what the donor would have done otherwise.(04:36) Is improving the use of effective or ineffective charitable dollars easier?(06:14) How do people respond to these lower impact interventions?(08:14) What are the implications of paying a lot more attention to funding counterfactuals?(10:21) Objections to this argument. --- First published: November 12th, 2025 Source: https://forum.effectivealtruism.org/posts/YrMFHJm7mbswJd7Me/the-overall-cost-effectiveness-of-an-intervention-often --- Narrated by TYPE III AUDIO.

Today we talk about the most numerous bird on the planet - the chicken - and how the world might be different if we never domesticated it.

On today's episode, we talk about some of the first steel-hulled ships the United States ever built, and how those first few ships might have set the tone for the entire 20th century.

On today's episode, we venture to Asia to talk about a battle that determined the course of Chinese history, and that has become such an integral part of Chinese historical mythology that it is sometimes difficult to sort fact from fiction. What might have changed if the battle went a different way?

On today's episode we talk about one of the most ubiquitous human creations in the modern world: Concrete. What would the modern world look like without this grey material we all take for granted?

On today's episode, we talk about a little-remembered presidential visit in the wake of Pearl Harbor - Christmas, 1941, when Winston Churchill risked the U-boats of the Atlantic to visit his new allies in the White House.

Today we talk about a little remember battle that could have been a turning point in the First World War - a battle between the German High Seas fleet and the Russian Baltic fleet in the Gulf of Riga.

On today's episode we talk about the little remembered espionage side of teh civil war, particualrly the CSA's more outlandish ideas to take the war to the Union. And of course, we talk abotu what the world might look like if it all happened differently.

Pastor Dave asks us to put on our imagination hats and learn from Psalm #124 about how to use our brains “counterfactual mode” to stir up thankfulness and praise to our Maker. * SPOTIFY MUSIC PLAYLIST -- https://tinyurl.com/fkzpkjwh * SERMON PODCAST -- https://tinyurl.com/2sn3msmn * CONNECT WITH US -- https://siderischurch.com/connectcard * MORE GOSPEL RESOURCES -- https://siderischurch.com/resources

On today's episode we talk about a bird that was once so numerous that Americans thought it would be impossible to kill them all. Until, suddenly, they did. What might the world look like if the passenger pigeon hadn't gone extinct?

On today's episode we talk about the incredible popularity and influence of an odd product: Ketchup. What would the world be like without it?

On today's podcast we talk about the year 1983 - called by some “the most dangerous year” in modern history. In the fall of that year, Western and Communist powers may have nearly stumbled into the one thing that neither side wanted - all-out nuclear war. How might the world be different if that close call went another way?

This episode delves into the use of substitute questions—simpler queries we use to answer more complex ones—and the crucial concept of cohesion between these substitutes and our true objectives. You'll learn how to leverage counterfactual thinking to scrutinize your assumptions and enhance the effectiveness of your decisions. Discover two powerful counterfactual techniques: asking "what else could be true?" to reveal alternative explanations, and employing thought experiments to, for example, precisely define your desires and career aspirations. The discussion offers practical applications, from refining hiring processes by identifying high-cohesion interview criteria to avoiding confirmation bias in debugging. By adopting counterfactual thinking, you can significantly improve your analytical skills, make more informed choices, and build robust strategies.Uncover how cognitively taxing questions lead us to use substitute questions as heuristics, and why understanding the cohesion between these is vital for accurate decision-making.Learn to implement "counterfactual thinking" to rigorously check your heuristics and substitute questions, ensuring they effectively align with your actual goals and underlying evaluations.Discover two key counterfactual techniques: exploring "what else could be true?" to identify alternative explanations for observations, and conducting thought experiments to clarify nuanced personal and professional desires.Explore practical applications of counterfactuals to drastically improve processes like hiring, by challenging low-signal interview criteria (e.g., LeetCode problems) and making more predictive assessments of candidates.Understand how counterfactuals can combat biases like confirmation bias in problem-solving, such as debugging, by prompting you to consider alternative causes and avoid poor pathways of biased logic.Realise the transformative power of counterfactual thinking in refining your thinking process, improving your career trajectory, and enhancing departmental operations by identifying and improving low-cohesion substitutions.

On today's episode, we talk about one of the most famous battle in Roman history, when 50,000 Romans were killed in a single day. How would the world be different if that battle went differently?

On today's episode, we talk about one of the largest naval battles in history, Leyte Gulf, and the task group that was never created: Task Force 34. A series of decisions often called mistakes led to one of the most famous underdog fights when the small force called Taffy 3 faced down Japanese battleships in the Battle off Samar. If any of those decisions had gone differently, the world might have taken a different path.

This week on Mel & Floyd: Are straws “unmanly”?; The Darwinian jungle of ideas; And other random topics. The post The Ability to Visualize Counterfactuals appeared first on WORT-FM 89.9.

Today we discuss one of the most powerful earthquakes to strike Europe in recorded history, an earthquake which knocked down Lisbon in a single, violent day in 1755. The aftershocks would be felt throughout history, however, as a shocked Europe came to terms with the power of nature. What might have happened if it went a little differently?

This week Raza is joined by Amit Jain, CEO and co-founder of Luma AI, to explore why the future of artificial intelligence lies beyond language. Amit shares Luma's bold mission to build world models through multimodal training and why video is the most overlooked and critical data source in AI today.Chapters:00:00 - Introduction03:40 - Competing with Big AI Labs: Language vs. Multimodality08:09 - Joint Training and Why Current Multimodal Models Fall Short11:01 - Language is Discrete, the World is Continuous14:36 - Do These Models Have World Models?18:18 - Planning, Counterfactuals, and Causal Reasoning in AI22:08 - Capabilities of Ray 2 and Real-World Use Cases26:14 - Rethinking Video Length and Creative Workflows29:18 - Solving Coherence Across Shots and Characters30:00 - When Will AI Create a Feature-Length Film?31:27 - What You Can Build with Luma's API Today35:49 - Overlooked Ideas and Noise in the AI Industry38:34 - Why Video is the Missing Link in AI

On today's episode, we tackle a forgotten empire that once ruled the Red Sea and the Horn of Africa, and that once ranked with the likes of Persia, China, and Rome. The mighty Aksum declined before 1000 AD - but what might have happened if it all went a bit differently?

Matt Slick Live (Live Broadcast of 04-29-2025) is a production of the Christian Apologetics Research Ministry (CARM). Matt answers questions on topics such as: The Bible, Apologetics, Theology, World Religions, Atheism, and other issues! You can also email questions to Matt using: info@carm.org, Put "Radio Show Question" in the Subject line! Answers will be discussed in a future show. Topics Include:Biblical Marriage Situation/ Email Question from The Book of Revelation/ A Recent False Prophet Claiming to Be Christ/What About Bible Codes?/ Why Did Jesus Curse The Fig Tree?/What are Counterfactuals?/ Clean and Unclean Principles of The Old Testament, How Does this Relate to Us?/ April 29, 2025

Matt Slick Live (Live Broadcast of 04-29-2025) is a production of the Christian Apologetics Research Ministry (CARM). Matt answers questions on topics such as: The Bible, Apologetics, Theology, World Religions, Atheism, and other issues! You can also email questions to Matt using: info@carm.org, Put "Radio Show Question" in the Subject line! Answers will be discussed in a future show. Topics Include:Biblical Marriage Situation/ Email Question from The Book of Revelation/ A Recent False Prophet Claiming to Be Christ/What About Bible Codes?/ Why Did Jesus Curse The Fig Tree?/What are Counterfactuals?/ Clean and Unclean Principles of The Old Testament, How Does this Relate to Us?/ April 29, 2025

Matt Slick Live (Live Broadcast of 04-29-2025) is a production of the Christian Apologetics Research Ministry (CARM). Matt answers questions on topics such as: The Bible, Apologetics, Theology, World Religions, Atheism, and other issues! You can also email questions to Matt using: info@carm.org, Put "Radio Show Question" in the Subject line! Answers will be discussed in a future show. Topics Include:Biblical Marriage Situation/ Email Question from The Book of Revelation/ A Recent False Prophet Claiming to Be Christ/What About Bible Codes?/ Why Did Jesus Curse The Fig Tree?/What are Counterfactuals?/ Clean and Unclean Principles of The Old Testament, How Does this Relate to Us?/ April 29, 2025

On today's episode we talk about one of the most important naval events in modern history: the pivotal battle of Tsushima, fought during the Russo-Japanese war. The battle was crucial in the rise of Japan as a military and imperial power, setting the stage for huge parts of the 20th century. But what might have happened if it all went different?

On today's episode, we talk about Calendars - specificall the Gregorian Calendar, and how and why it became the calendar we all use today. What does the calendar mean to us, and what might it mean if we used a different one?

On today's episode, we visit one of the most significant maritime accidents of the middle ages, when William Adelin, grandson of William the Conqueror and the only legitimate male heir to the throne of England, was killed with the sinking of the White Ship in 1120. His death would have dramatic consequences for the European continent and English history. But what if it had all gone differently?

On today's episode, we travel to 1943, and one of the earliest battles American soldiers fought with Nazi Germany, in the mountainous regions of Tunisia. There, the fortuitous arrival of artillery stemmed the tide after German forces broke through American defenses at Kasserine pass. But what might have happened if it all went differently?

A casino offers you a game. A coin will be tossed. If it comes up heads on the first flip you win $2. If it comes up on the second flip you win $4. If it comes up on the third you win $8, the fourth you win $16, and so on. How much should you be willing to pay to play?The standard way of analysing gambling problems, ‘expected value' — in which you multiply probabilities by the value of each outcome and then sum them up — says your expected earnings are infinite. You have a 50% chance of winning $2, for '0.5 * $2 = $1' in expected earnings. A 25% chance of winning $4, for '0.25 * $4 = $1' in expected earnings, and on and on. A never-ending series of $1s added together comes to infinity. And that's despite the fact that you know with certainty you can only ever win a finite amount!Today's guest — philosopher Alan Hájek of the Australian National University — thinks of much of philosophy as “the demolition of common sense followed by damage control” and is an expert on paradoxes related to probability and decision-making rules like “maximise expected value.”Rebroadcast: this episode was originally released in October 2022.Links to learn more, highlights, and full transcript.The problem described above, known as the St. Petersburg paradox, has been a staple of the field since the 18th century, with many proposed solutions. In the interview, Alan explains how very natural attempts to resolve the paradox — such as factoring in the low likelihood that the casino can pay out very large sums, or the fact that money becomes less and less valuable the more of it you already have — fail to work as hoped.We might reject the setup as a hypothetical that could never exist in the real world, and therefore of mere intellectual curiosity. But Alan doesn't find that objection persuasive. If expected value fails in extreme cases, that should make us worry that something could be rotten at the heart of the standard procedure we use to make decisions in government, business, and nonprofits.These issues regularly show up in 80,000 Hours' efforts to try to find the best ways to improve the world, as the best approach will arguably involve long-shot attempts to do very large amounts of good.Consider which is better: saving one life for sure, or three lives with 50% probability? Expected value says the second, which will probably strike you as reasonable enough. But what if we repeat this process and evaluate the chance to save nine lives with 25% probability, or 27 lives with 12.5% probability, or after 17 more iterations, 3,486,784,401 lives with a 0.00000009% chance. Expected value says this final offer is better than the others — 1,000 times better, in fact.Ultimately Alan leans towards the view that our best choice is to “bite the bullet” and stick with expected value, even with its sometimes counterintuitive implications. Where we want to do damage control, we're better off looking for ways our probability estimates might be wrong.In this conversation, originally released in October 2022, Alan and Rob explore these issues and many others:Simple rules of thumb for having philosophical insightsA key flaw that hid in Pascal's wager from the very beginningWhether we have to simply ignore infinities because they mess everything upWhat fundamentally is 'probability'?Some of the many reasons 'frequentism' doesn't work as an account of probabilityWhy the standard account of counterfactuals in philosophy is deeply flawedAnd why counterfactuals present a fatal problem for one sort of consequentialismChapters:Cold open (00:00:00)Rob's intro (00:01:05)The interview begins (00:05:28)Philosophical methodology (00:06:35)Theories of probability (00:40:58)Everyday Bayesianism (00:49:42)Frequentism (01:08:37)Ranges of probabilities (01:20:05)Implications for how to live (01:25:05)Expected value (01:30:39)The St. Petersburg paradox (01:35:21)Pascal's wager (01:53:25)Using expected value in everyday life (02:07:34)Counterfactuals (02:20:19)Most counterfactuals are false (02:56:06)Relevance to objective consequentialism (03:13:28)Alan's best conference story (03:37:18)Rob's outro (03:40:22)Producer: Keiran HarrisAudio mastering: Ben Cordell and Ryan KesslerTranscriptions: Katy Moore

On today's episode of the History Guy Podcast, we talk about one of the most important parts of the Columbian exchange, and possibly the reason that Europe was able to colonize and dominate much of the world in the early modern period: The Potato.

On today's episode we tackle the counterfactuals of some of the most popular peoples in history: The Vikings. In the tenth century norse colonists began settling in Greenland, where they found surprising success in some far-northern reaches, before making landfall in North America. The settlements had all faded away by the 1400s, but what might have happened if it had all gone differently?

On this special, 100th episode of The History Guy Podcast, we head back to the 1800s and the beginning of America's expansion into the Rocky Mountains by taking a look at Ashley's 100, a group of trappers, mountain men, and explorers who ventured into the West, helping to define an era and open up the land for settlement. How might things be different if they didn't?

This is the second episode in the trilogy of a lectures by Professor Sarah Paine of the Naval War College.In this second episode, Prof Paine dissects the ideas and economics behind Japanese imperialism before and during WWII. We get into the oil shortage which caused the war; the unique culture of honor and death; the surprisingly chaotic chain of command. This is followed by a Q&A with me.Huge thanks to Substack for hosting this event!Watch on YouTube. Listen on Apple Podcasts, Spotify, or any other podcast platform.SponsorToday's episode is brought to you by Scale AI. Scale partners with the U.S. government to fuel America's AI advantage through their data foundry. Scale recently introduced Defense Llama, Scale's latest solution available for military personnel. With Defense Llama, military personnel can harness the power of AI to plan military or intelligence operations and understand adversary vulnerabilities.If you're interested in learning more on how Scale powers frontier AI capabilities, go to scale.com/dwarkesh.Buy Sarah's Books!I highly, highly recommend both "The Wars for Asia, 1911–1949" and "The Japanese Empire: Grand Strategy from the Meiji Restoration to the Pacific War".Timestamps(0:00:00) - Lecture begins(0:06:58) - The code of the samurai(0:10:45) - Buddhism, Shinto, Confucianism(0:16:52) - Bushido as bad strategy(0:23:34) - Military theorists(0:33:42) - Strategic sins of omission(0:38:10) - Crippled logistics(0:40:58) - the Kwantung Army(0:43:31) - Inter-service communication(0:51:15) - Shattering Japanese morale(0:57:35) - Q&A begins(01:05:02) - Unusual brutality of WWII(01:11:30) - Embargo caused the war(01:16:48) - The liberation of China(01:22:02) - Could US have prevented war?(01:25:30) - Counterfactuals in history(01:27:46) - Japanese optimism(01:30:46) - Tech change and social change(01:38:22) - Hamming questions(01:44:31) - Do sanctions work?(01:50:07) - Backloaded mass death(01:54:09) - demilitarizing Japan(01:57:30) - Post-war alliances(02:03:46) - Inter-service rivalry Get full access to Dwarkesh Podcast at www.dwarkeshpatel.com/subscribe

On today's episode, we talk about the development of one of some of teh most important communication technologies in history, from the telegraph to the transistor, and what the world might be like if we went without them.

Ivan the Terrible transformed Russia during his rule, but in a fit of insanity, he seems to have killed his eldest son and heir, leaving the future of the realm uncertain. His youngest, Dmitry, died years later under suspicious circumstances. When Ivan's second son, the Tsar Feodor, died without heir, the tsardom faced catstrophe. And into the choas came not one, not two, but at least three people claiming to be Dmitry, who had miraculousy escaped death.  The Time of Troubles, as the Russians called it, was defined in part by a series of wars called the "Dmitriads". But what might have happened if it had gone differently?

On today's episode, we talk about one of the most talked about battles in European History: The 732 battle of Tours. Variously called one of the most important battles in European history or a minor skirmish, the battle had a large impact on the minds of Medieval Europeans. But what might have happened if it had gone different?

On today's episode, we talk about cats. While today they are usually just pets, they played a vital role in the history of civilization. So what might have happened if cats were never domesticated?

Matt Slick Live (Live Broadcast of 12-3-2024) is a production of the Christian Apologetics Research Ministry (CARM). Matt answers questions on topics such as: The Bible, Apologetics, Theology, World Religions, Atheism, and other issues! You can also email questions to Matt using: info@carm.org, Put "Radio Show Question" in the Subject line! Answers will be discussed in a future show. Topics Include:Caller Comments on Matt's Recent Debate on Unconditional Election/ If Christ Lives In Us--Why Do We Have to Watch and Be Ready?/We Have a World Wide Knowledge Increase-But Are We Coming Closer to The Truth?/Traveling and Learning/Do Any Jews Believe in Jesus?/ Caller Says a Unitarian Claimed That Matthew 28:19 was Added by The Catholic Church/ Priscilla and Aquilla Had a Church at Their Home—Was Priscilla Therefore a Pastor?/ Matt Discusses—What is a Counterfactual?/What Kind of Bible Does The Roman Catholic Church Use?/Critique of The Apocrypha/ Matt Discusses How Authority is Used in Exorcisms/ December 3, 2024

Matt Slick Live (Live Broadcast of 12-3-2024) is a production of the Christian Apologetics Research Ministry (CARM). Matt answers questions on topics such as: The Bible, Apologetics, Theology, World Religions, Atheism, and other issues! You can also email questions to Matt using: info@carm.org, Put "Radio Show Question" in the Subject line! Answers will be discussed in a future show. Topics Include:Caller Comments on Matt's Recent Debate on Unconditional Election/ If Christ Lives In Us--Why Do We Have to Watch and Be Ready?/We Have a World Wide Knowledge Increase-But Are We Coming Closer to The Truth?/Traveling and Learning/Do Any Jews Believe in Jesus?/ Caller Says a Unitarian Claimed That Matthew 28:19 was Added by The Catholic Church/ Priscilla and Aquilla Had a Church at Their Home—Was Priscilla Therefore a Pastor?/ Matt Discusses—What is a Counterfactual?/ What Kind of Bible Does The Roman Catholic Church Use?/Critique of The Apocrypha/ Matt Discusses How Authority is Used in Exorcisms/ December 3, 2024

Matt Slick Live (Live Broadcast of 12-3-2024) is a production of the Christian Apologetics Research Ministry (CARM). Matt answers questions on topics such as: The Bible, Apologetics, Theology, World Religions, Atheism, and other issues! You can also email questions to Matt using: info@carm.org, Put "Radio Show Question" in the Subject line! Answers will be discussed in a future show. Topics Include:Caller Comments on Matt's Recent Debate on Unconditional Election/ If Christ Lives In Us--Why Do We Have to Watch and Be Ready?/We Have a World Wide Knowledge Increase-But Are We Coming Closer to The Truth?/Traveling and Learning/Do Any Jews Believe in Jesus?/ Caller Says a Unitarian Claimed That Matthew 28:19 was Added by The Catholic Church/ Priscilla and Aquilla Had a Church at Their Home—Was Priscilla Therefore a Pastor?/ Matt Discusses—What is a Counterfactual?/What Kind of Bible Does The Roman Catholic Church Use?/Critique of The Apocrypha/ Matt Discusses How Authority is Used in Exorcisms/ December 3, 2024

On today's episode, we travel to the lofty heights of the Andes, where in the early 1500s Spanish under Francisco Pizarro came across the Inca Empire. The Spanish found the Inca at an opportune time, immediately following the end of a civil war, while wounds were still fresh and tensions ran high, soon culminating in the destruction of the empire. But it was a near thing: and the world could have turned out a lot different if events had gone differently.

On today's episode, we journey back to the fourth century BC on the shores of an Indian river, where an army that had set out from Macedon, more than 3000 miles away had a choice: cross and battle a new Empire and a new army, or turn back home. The ramifications of that decision would be massive. It is history that deserves to be remembered.

Imagine an alternate universe in which the American Revolution fails or where Russia rejects Leninism in its infant stage. Live from the Hoover Institution's Fall Retreat, Lord Andrew Roberts, renowned historian and the Hoover Institution's Bonnie and Tom McCloskey Distinguished Visiting Fellow, joins Hoover senior fellows Niall Ferguson, John Cochrane, and H.R. McMaster to discuss various historical counterfactuals, including British forces winning the pivotal Battle of Saratoga in 1777; Vladimir Lenin being assassinated before Communism takes root in Russia; John F. Kennedy surviving his motorcade through Dallas; plus China rejecting economic reforms and instead refashioning itself as a second North Korea.   Recorded on October 17, 2024.

On today's episode, we discuss the impacts of the largest volcanic eruption in human history - the 1815 eruption of Mount Tambora, which would impact the entire world and bring on a volcanic winter: the so called “year without a summer”.

Send a Message to the TeamThe team further extends the alternate timeline following a November 1996 assassination of President Clinton.Panel:Don, Chris, Dylan, EricLinks to previous episodes in this arc.Episode 205 Clinton Cut DownEpisode 212: Gore Steps InEpisode 213: Gore Steps In (continued)You can follow and interact with A Fork In Time on….Discord: https://discord.com/invite/xhZEmZMKFSFacebook: https://www.facebook.com/aforkintimeTwitter: @AFITPodcastOur YouTube ChannelIf you enjoy the podcast and want to support it financially, you can help by:Supporting us monthly via Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/aforkintime....or, make a one-time donation via Podfan to A Fork In TimeWebsite: www.aforkintimepodcast.comE-Mail: aforkintimepodcast@gmail.comTheme Music: Conquer by Shane Ivers - https://www.silvermansound.comSupport the show

On today's episode, we talk about the series of events that connect several duels in the life of Alexander Hamilton, and about how the history of the early American republic could have hinged on the choices of a series of prominent men who couldn't keep their guns in their pockets.

Welcome to the second episode of our new take on the podcast: Counterfactuals. This is part 2 of our season opener, talking about what might have happened if a significant president died at a moment where in real life he narrowly escaped death. After talking about Franklin Pierce and Teddy Roosevelt, we turn to the only president who was elected to four terms, who might have been killed before he was inauguarated to his first.

In 1902, Teddy Roosevelt was involved in a carriage accident which nearly killed him. In 1853, President-Elect Franklin Pierce watched hs son die in a train accident mere weeks before his inauguration. But what if those events went differently, and those presidents were killed?What is a counterfactual? In the context of studying history, it is a kind of analysis where we examine what might have happened had historical events gone differently. As a thought experiment, the goal is too learn and understand history as it is by talking about what it could have been.

Even when a decision is clear, and things turn out badly, the lack of a counterfactual allows endless second guessing. This is a public episode. If you'd like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit www.sensible-med.com/subscribe

To kick off our new series on counterfactual histories David talks to the geneticist and science writer Adam Rutherford about whether ‘What Ifs' make sense in science. If one person doesn't make the big discovery, will someone else do it? Are scientific breakthroughs the product of genius or of wealth and power? And how might the world have been a completely different place if the Haber-Bosch process had not been developed in Germany in 1913?Sign up now to PPF+ to get ad-free listening and all our bonus episodes: 24 bonuses per year for just £5 a month or a £50 annual subscription www.ppfideas.com Next time: What if… the French Revolution had happened in China? Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

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