GarimaKushwaha The Medico

Pulselessness (Cyanosis Petechial hemorrhages Congestion ) Hanging Strangulation | Autopsy findings in hanging | Suffocation | Traumatic Asphyxia | Drowning | Hydrocution | Immersion syndrome | Postmortem findings in drowning | Tests in drowning death #mbbs #forensicmedicine #medicos

Decomposition of human body , mummification, embalming of human corpse, Thanatopraxia , Forensic entomology #mbbs #forensicmedicine #medicos

Forensic medicine : Early postmortem changes : Eye changes , skin changes , Rigor mortis , Algor mortis , Livor mortis .

Autopsy procedures for forensic medicine students who are perusing there MBBS and right now want to revise forensic medicine. #Forensicmedicine #autopsy #mbbs #medicos

Self self editorial: Pratiyogita darpan Motivational talk Editorial UPSC motivational editorial UPSC

Rheumatoid Arthritis , Gout , Osteoarthritis, Psudogout . Robbins Pathology Book Podcast. Bone Pathology

Many diseases are caused or influenced by environmental factors. Broadly defined, the term ambient environment encompasses the various outdoor, indoor, and occupa- tional settings in which humans live and work. In each of these settings, the air people breathe, the food and water they consume, and the toxic agents they are exposed to are major determinants of health. Other environmental factors pertain to the individual (“personal environment”) and include tobacco use, alcohol ingestion, therapeutic and “recreational” drug consumption, diet, and the like. It is generally believed that factors in the personal environment have a larger effect on human health than that of the ambient environment, but new threats related to global warming (described later) may change this equation. The term environmental disease refers to disorders caused by exposure to chemical or physical agents in the ambient, workplace, and personal environments, includ- ing diseases of nutritional origin. Environmental diseases are surprisingly common. The International Labor Organi- zation has estimated that work-related injuries and ill- nesses kill more people per year globally than do road accidents and wars combined. Most of these work-related problems are caused by illnesses rather than accidents. The burden of disease in the general population created by nonoccupational exposures to toxic agents is much more difficult to estimate, mostly because of the diversity of agents and the difficulties in measuring the dose and dura- tion of exposures. Whatever the precise numbers, environ- mental diseases are major causes of disability and suffering and constitute a heavy financial burden, particularly in developing countries. Environmental diseases are sometimes the consequence of major disasters, such as the methyl mercury contamina- tion of Minamata Bay in Japan in the 1960s, the leakage of methyl isocyanate gas in Bhopal, India, in 1984, the Cher- nobyl nuclear accident in 1986, the Fukushima nuclear meltdown following the tsunami in 2011, and lead poison- ing resulting from contaminated drinking water in the city of Flint in the United States in 2016. Fortunately, these are unusual and infrequent occurrences. Less dramatic, but much more common, are diseases and injury produced by chronic exposure to relatively low levels of contaminants. It should be noted that a host of factors, including complex interactions between pollutants producing multiplicative effects, as well as the age, genetic predisposition, and dif- ferent tissue sensitivities of exposed persons, create wide variations in individual sensitivity. Disease related to mal- nutrition is even more pervasive. In 2010, it was estimated that 925 million people were malnourished—one in every seven persons worldwide. Children are disproportionately affected by undernutrition, which accounts for more than 50% of childhood mortality worldwide. In this chapter, we first consider the emerging problem of the health effects of climate change. We then discuss the mechanisms of toxicity of chemical and physical agents, and address specific environmental disorders, including those of nutritional origin.

Pathology : Robbins & Cotran : Adaptations of cellular growth & differentiation Hypertrophy| Hyperplasia| Atrophy | Metaplasia Hypertrophy Hypertrophy is an increase in the size of cells resulting in an increase in the size of the organ. In contrast, hyper- plasia (discussed next) is an increase in cell number. Stated another way, in pure hypertrophy there are no new cells, just bigger cells containing increased amounts of structural proteins and organelles. Hyperplasia is an adaptive response in cells capable of replication, whereas hypertro- phy occurs when cells have a limited capacity to divide. Hypertrophy and hyperplasia also can occur together, and obviously both result in an enlarged organ. Hypertrophy can be physiologic or pathologic and is caused either by increased functional demand or by growth factor or hormonal stimulation. Hyperplasia Hyperplasia is an increase in the number of cells in an organ that stems from increased proliferation, either of differentiated cells or, in some instances, less differenti- ated progenitor cells. As discussed earlier, hyperplasia takes place if the tissue contains cell populations capable of replication; it may occur concurrently with hypertrophy and often in response to the same stimuli. Hyperplasia can be physiologic or pathologic; in both situations, cellular proliferation is stimulated by growth factors that are produced by a variety of cell types.Metaplasia Metaplasia is a change in which one adult cell type (epi- thelial or mesenchymal) is replaced by another adult cell type. In this type of cellular adaptation, a cell type sensitive to a particular stress is replaced by another cell type better able to withstand the adverse environment. Metaplasia is thought to arise by the reprogramming of stem cells.Atrophy Atrophy is shrinkage in the size of cells by the loss of cell substance. When a sufficient number of cells are involved, the entire tissue or organ is reduced in size, or atrophic Although atrophic cells may have diminished function, they are not dead. Causes of atrophy include a decreased workload (e.g., immobilization of a limb to permit healing of a fracture), loss of innervation, diminished blood supply, inadequate nutrition, loss of endocrine stimulation, and aging (senile atrophy). Although some of these stimuli are physiologic (e.g., the loss of hormone stimulation in menopause) and others are pathologic (e.g., denervation), the fundamental cellular changes are similar. They represent a retreat by the cell to a smaller size at which survival is still possible; a new equilibrium is achieved between cell size and dimin- ished blood supply, nutrition, or trophic stimulation. Cellular atrophy results from a combination of decreased protein synthesis and increased protein degradation. • Protein synthesis decreases because of reduced meta- bolic activity. • The degradation of cellular proteins occurs mainly by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway. Nutrient deficiency and disuse may activate ubiquitin ligases, which attach multiple copies of the small peptide ubiquitin to cellular proteins and target them for degradation in protea- somes. This pathway is also thought to be responsible for the accelerated proteolysis seen in a variety of cata- bolic conditions, including the cachexia associated with cancer. • In many situations, atrophy also is associated with autophagy, with resulting increases in the number of autophagic vacuoles. As discussed previously, autoph- agy is the process in which the starved cell eats its own organelles in an attempt to survive.

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The hollow tube inside the neck that starts behind the nose and ends at the top of the trachea (windpipe) and esophagus (the tube that goes to the stomach). The pharynx is about 5 inches long, depending on body size.The pharynx, more commonly known as the throat, is a five cm long tube extending behind the nasal and oral cavities until the voice box (larynx) and the esophagus. Essentially, it forms a continuous muscular passage for air, food, and liquids to travel down from your nose and mouth to your lungs and stomach.Most sensory innervation of the pharynx is derived from the glossopharyngeal nerve, specifically the pharyngeal and tonsillar branches (cranial nerve IX), except for the anterior part of the nasopharynx, which is innervated by a branch of the maxillary nerve (cranial nerve V2) called the pharyngeal nerve.The pharynx is composed of mucous membrane, submucosal connective tissue, glands, lymphoid tissue, muscle and an outermost adventitial coating. The mucous membrane does not possess a muscular layer.The oropharynx and pharynx proper are lined by largely non-keratinizing stratified squamous epithelium. The nasopharynx is mainly lined by ciliated columnar epithelium but stratified squamous epithelium occurs at its lower end where it joins the oropharynx.

The Mendel's laws of inheritance include law of dominance, law of segregation and law of independent assortment. The law of segregation states that every individual possesses two alleles and only one allele is passed on to the offspring.The Mendel's four postulates and laws of inheritance are: (1) Principles of Paired Factors (2) Principle of Dominance(3) Law of Segregation or Law of Purity of Gametes (Mendel's First Law of Inheritance) and (4) Law of Independent Assortment (Mendel's Second Law of Inheritance).

R.H. Whittaker (1969) proposed a Five Kingdom Classification. The kingdoms defined by him were named Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia. The main criteria for classification used by him include cell structure, body organisation, mode of nutrition, reproduction and phylogenetic relationships. Table 2.1 gives a comparative account of different characteristics of the five kingdoms. The three-domain system has also been proposed that divides the Kingdom Monera into two domains, leaving the remaining eukaryotic kingdoms in the third domain and thereby a six kingdom classification. You will learn about this system in detail at higher classes. Let us look at this five kingdom classification.KINGDOM MONERA Bacteria are the sole members of the Kingdom Monera. They are the most abundant micro-organisms. Bacteria occur almost everywhere. Hundreds of bacteria are present in a handful of soil. They also live in extreme habitats such as hot springs, deserts, snow and deep oceans where very few other life forms can survive. Many of them live in or on other organisms as parasites. Bacteria are grouped under four categories based on their shape: the spherical Coccus (pl.: cocci), the rod-shaped Bacillus (pl.: bacilli), the comma-shaped Vibrium (pl.: vibrio) and the spiral Spirillum (pl.: spirilla).KINGDOM PROTISTA All single-celled eukaryotes are placed under Protista, but the boundaries of this kingdom are not well defined. What may be ‘a photosynthetic protistan' to one biologist may be ‘a plant' to another. In this book we include Chrysophytes, Dinoflagellates, Euglenoids, Slime moulds and Protozoans under Protista. Members of Protista are primarily aquatic. This kingdom forms a link with the others dealing with plants, animals and fungi. Being eukaryotes, the protistan cell body contains a well defined nucleus and other membrane-bound organelles. Some have flagella or cilia. Protists reproduce asexually and sexually by a process involving cell fusion and zygote formation. Amoeboid protozoans: These organisms live in fresh water, sea water or moist soil. They move and capture their prey by putting out pseudopodia (false feet) as in Amoeba. Marine forms have silica shells on their surface. Some of them such as Entamoeba are parasites. Flagellated protozoans: The members of this group are either free-living or parasitic. They have flagella. The parasitic forms cause diaseases such as sleeping sickness. Example: Trypanosoma. Ciliated protozoans: These are aquatic, actively moving organisms because of the presence of thousands of cilia. They have a cavity (gullet) that opens to the outside of the cell surface. The coordinated movement of rows of cilia causes the water laden with food to be steered into the gullet. Example: Paramoecium (Figure 2.4d). Sporozoans: This includes diverse organisms that have an infectious spore-like stage in their life cycle. The most notorious is Plasmodium (malarial parasite) which causes malaria, a disease which has a staggering effect on human population. KINGDOM FUNGI The fungi constitute a unique kingdom of heterotrophic organisms. They show a great diversity in morphology and habitat. You must have seen fungi on a moist bread and rotten fruits. The common mushroom you eat and toadstools are also fungi. White spots seen on mustard leaves are due to a parasitic fungus. Some unicellular fungi, e.g., yeast are used to make bread and beer. Other fungi cause diseases in plants and animals; wheat rust-causing Puccinia is an important example. Some are the source of antibiotics, e.g., Penicillium. Fungi are cosmopolitan and occur in air, water, soil and on animals and plants. They prefer to grow in warm and humid places. Have you ever wondered why we keep food in the refrigerator ? Yes, it is to prevent food from going bad due to bacterial or fungal infections. With the exception of yeasts which are unicellular, fungi are filamentous.Virus.

Blood groups and genetic linkage Red cell groups act as markers (inherited characteristics) for genes present on chromosomes, which are responsible for their expression. The site of a particular genetic system on a chromosome is called a locus. Each locus may be the site of several alleles (alternative genes). In an ordinary cell of the human body, there are 46 chromosomes arranged in 23 pairs, 22 pairs of which are autosomes (chromosomes other than sex chromosomes), with the remaining pair being the sex chromosomes, designated XX in females and XY in males. The loci of the blood group systems are on the autosomes, except for Xg, which is unique among the blood groups in being located on the X chromosome. Genes carried by the X chromosome are said to be sex-linked. Since the blood groups are inherited in a regular fashion, they can be used as genetic markers in family studies to investigate whether any two particular loci are sited on the same chromosome—i.e., are linked. The genes sited at loci on the same chromosome travel together from parent to child, and, if the loci are close together, the genes will rarely be separated. Loci that are farther apart can be separated by recombination. This happens when material is exchanged between homologous chromosomes (pair of chromosomes) by crossing over during the process of cell division (mitosis). The reproductive cells contain half the number of chromosomes of the rest of the body; ova carry an X chromosome and spermatozoa an X or a Y. The characteristic number of 46 chromosomes is restored at fertilization. In a classical pedigree linkage study, all the members of a family are examined for a test character and for evidence of the nonindependent segregation of pairs of characters. The results must be assessed statistically to determine linkage. Individual chromosomes are identified by the banding patterns revealed by different staining techniques. Segments of chromosomes or chromosomes that are aberrant in number and morphology may be precisely identified. Other methods for localizing markers on chromosomes include somatic cell hybridization (cell culture with alignment of single strands of RNA and DNA) and use of DNA probes (strands of radiolabeled DNA). These methods are useful in classical linkage studies to locate blood group loci. The loci for many red cell groups have been found on chromosomes and in many cases have been further localized on a particular chromosome.In some of the blood group systems, the amount of antigen produced depends on the genetic constitution. The ABO blood group gene codes for a specific carbohydrate transferase enzyme that catalyzes the addition of specific sugars onto a precursor substance. As a new sugar is added, a new antigen is produced. Antigens in the MNSs blood system are the products of genes that control terminal amino acid sequence. The amount of antigen present may depend on the amount of gene product inherited or on the activity of the gene product (i.e., transferase). The red cells of a person whose genotype is MM show more M antigen than do MN red cells. In the case of ABO, the same mechanism may also play a role in antigen expression, but specific activity of the inherited transferase may be more important. The amount of antigen produced can also be influenced by the position of the genes. Such effects within a genetic complex can be due to determinants on the same chromosome—they are then said to be cis—or to determinants on the opposite chromosome of a chromosome pair—trans. In the Rh combination cdE/cde, more E antigen is produced than in the combination cDE/cde. This may be due to the suppressor effect of D on E. An example of suppression in the trans situation is that more C antigen is detectable on the red cells from CDe/cde donors than on those of CDe/cDE people. The inheritance of the Rh system probably depends on the existence of operator genes, which turn the activity of closely linked structural genes on or off.

ANTERIOR TRIANGLE OF THE NECK The anterior triangle of the neck is bounded anteriorly by the median line of the neck and posteriorly by the anterior margin of sternocleidomastoid. Its base is the inferior border of the mandible and its projection to the mastoid process, and its apex is at the manubrium sterni. It can be subdivided into suprahyoid and infrahyoid areas above and below the hyoid bone, and into digastric, submental, muscular and carotid triangles by the passage of digastric and omohyoid across the anterior triangle (see Fig. 29.5). Digastric triangle The digastric triangle is bordered above by the lower border of the mandible and its projection to the mastoid process, posteroinferiorly by the posterior belly of digastric and by stylohyoid, and anteroinferiorly by the anterior belly of digastric. It is covered by the skin, superficial fascia, platysma and deep fascia, which contain branches of the facial and transverse cutaneous cervical nerves. Its floor is formed by mylohyoid and hyoglossus. The anterior region of the digastric triangle contains the submandibular gland, which has the facial vein superficial to it and the facial artery deep to it. The submental and mylohyoid arteries and nerves lie on mylohyoid. The submandibular lymph nodes are variably related to the submandibular gland. The posterior region of the digastric triangle contains the lower part of the parotid gland. The external carotid artery, passing deep to stylohyoid, curves above the muscle, and overlaps its superficial surface as it ascends deep to the parotid gland before entering it. The internal carotid artery, internal jugular vein and vagus nerve lie deeper and are separated from the external carotid artery by styloglossus,stylopharyngeus and the glossopharyngeal nerve.Submental triangle The single submental triangle is demarcated by the anterior bellies of both digastric muscles. Its apex is at the chin, its base is the body of the hyoid bone and its floor is formed by both mylohyoid muscles. It contains lymph nodes and small veins that unite to form the anterior jugular vein. The structures within the digastric and submental triangles are described in more detail with the floor of the mouth. Muscular triangle The muscular triangle is bounded anteriorly by the median line of the neck from the hyoid bone to the sternum, inferoposteriorly by the anterior margin of sternocleidomastoid and posterosuperiorly by the superior belly of omohyoid. The triangle contains omohyoid, sternohyoid, sternothyroid and thyrohyoid. Carotid triangle The carotid triangle is limited posteriorly by sternocleidomastoid, anteroinferiorly by the superior belly of omohyoid and superiorly by stylohyoid and the posterior belly of digastric. In the living (except the obese), the triangle is usually a small visible triangular depression, sometimes best seen with the head and cervical vertebral column slightly extended and the head contralaterally rotated. The carotid triangle is covered by the skin, superficial fascia, platysma and deep fascia containing branches of the facial and cutaneous cervical nerves. The hyoid bone forms its anterior angle and adjacent floor; it can be located on simple inspection and verified by palpation. Parts of thyrohyoid, hyoglossus and inferior and middle pharyngeal constrictor muscles form its floor. The carotid triangle contains the upper part of the common carotid artery and its division into external and internal carotid arteries. Overlapped by the anterior margin of sternocleidomastoid, the external carotid artery is first anteromedial, then anterior to the internal carotid artery. Branches of the external carotid artery are encountered in the carotid triangle. Thus the superior thyroid artery runs anteroinferiorly, the lingual artery anteriorly with a characteristic upward loop, facial anterosuperiorly,occipital,post.auricular,maxillary.

anteriorly in the lower neck, level with the fifth cervical to the first thoracic vertebrae (see Fig. 29.17). It is ensheathed by the pretracheal layer of deep cervical fascia and consists of right and left lobes connected by a narrow, median isthmus. It usually weighs 25 g but this varies. The gland is slightly heavier in females and enlarges during menstruation and pregnancy. Estimation of the size of the thyroid gland is clinically important in the evaluation and management of thyroid disorders and can be achieved non-invasively by means of diagnostic ultrasound. Mean thyroid volume increases with age (Chanoine et al 1991). No significant difference in thyroid gland volume has been observed between males and females from 8 months to 15 years. The lobes of the thyroid gland are approximately conical. Their ascending apices diverge laterally to the level of the oblique lines on the laminae of the thyroid cartilage, and their bases are level with the fourth or fifth tracheal cartilages. Each lobe is usually 5 cm long, its greatest transverse and anteroposterior extents being 3 cm and 2 cm, respectively. The posteromedial aspects of the lobes are attached to the side of the cricoid cartilage by a lateral thyroid ligament (Berry's ligament). The isthmus connects the lower parts of the two lobes, although occasionally it may be absent. It measures 1.25 cm transversely and vertically, and is usually anterior to the second and third tracheal cartilages, although it can be higher or even sometimes lower because its site and size vary greatly. A conical pyramidal lobe often ascends towards the hyoid bone from the isthmus or the adjacent part of either lobe (more often the left). It is occasionally detached or in two or more parts. A fibrous or fibromuscular band, the levator of the thyroid gland, musculus levator glandulae thyroideae, sometimes descends from the body of the hyoid to the isthmus or pyramidal lobe. For further reading, see Mohebati and Shaha (2012). Ectopic thyroid tissue is rare but may be found around the course of the thyroglossal duct or laterally in the neck, as well as in distant places such as the tongue (lingual thyroid), mediastinum and the subdiaphragmatic organs (Noussios et al 2011). The most frequent location of ectopic thyroid tissue is at the base of the tongue, in particular at the region of the foramen caecum; often it is the only thyroid tissue present. Small, detached masses of thyroid tissue may occur above the lobes or isthmus as accessory thyroid glands. Vestiges of the thyroglossal duct may persist between the isthmus and the foramen caecum of the tongue, sometimes as accessory nodules or cysts of thyroid tissue near the midline or even in the tongue, where they are called thyroglossal duct cyst.PARATHYROID GLANDS The parathyroid glands are small, yellowish-brown, ovoid or lentiform structures, usually lying between the posterior lobar borders of the thyroid gland and its capsule. They are commonly 6 mm long, 3–4 mm Neck 472SECTION 4 across and 1–2 mm from back to front, each weighing about 50 mg. Typically, there are two on each side, superior and inferior, but there may be more or there may be only three or many minute parathyroid islands scattered in connective tissue near the usual sites. Very occasionally, an occult gland may follow a blood vessel into a groove on the surface of the thyroid. Normally, the inferior parathyroids migrate only to the inferior thyroid poles, but they may descend with the thymus into the thorax or they may be sessile and remain above their normal level near the carotid bifurcation. The anastomotic connection between the superior and inferior thyroid arteries that occurs along the posterior border of the thyroid gland usually passes very close to the parathyroids, and is a useful aid to their identification. The superior parathyroid glands are more constant.

External acoustic meatus The temporal bone contains the bony (osseous) part of the external acoustic meatus. Ossification The four temporal components ossify independently (Fig. 37.2). The squamous part is ossified in a sheet of condensed mesenchyme from a single centre near the zygomatic roots, which appears in the seventh or eighth week in utero. The petromastoid part has several centres that appear in the cartilaginous otic capsule during the fifth month; as many as 14 have been described. These centres vary in order of appearance. Several are small and inconstant, soon fusing with others. The otic capsule is almost fully ossified by the end of the sixth month. The tympanic part is also ossified in mesenchyme from a centre identifiable about the third month; at birth, it is an incomplete tympanic ring, deficient above, its concavity grooved by a tympanic sulcus for the tympanic membrane. The malleolar sulcus for the anterior malleolar process, chorda tympani and anterior tympanic artery inclines obliquely downwards and forwards across the medial aspect of the anterior part The superior border of the mastoid part is thick and serrated for articulation with the mastoid angle of the parietal bone. The posterior border is also serrated and articulates with the inferior border of the occipital bone between its lateral angle and jugular process. The mastoid element is fused with the descending process of the squamous part; below, it appears in the posterior wall of the tympanic cavity. Petrous part The petrous part is a mass of bone that is wedged between the sphenoid and occipital bones in the cranial base; it contains the labyrinth. It is inclined superiorly and anteromedially, and has a base, apex, three surfaces (anterior, posterior and inferior) and three borders (superior, posterior and anterior). The base would correspond to the part that lies on the base of the skull and is separated from the squamous part by a suture. However, this suture disappears soon after birth. The subsequent development of the mastoid processes means that the precise boundaries of the base are no longer identifiable. The apex, blunt and irregular, is angled between the posterior border of the greater wing of the sphenoid and the basilar part of the occipital bone. It contains the anterior opening of the carotid canal and limits the foramen lacerum posterolaterally. The anterior surface contributes to the floor of the middle cranial fossa (Ch. 28) and is continuous with the cerebral surface of the squamous part (although the petrosquamosal suture often persists late in life). The whole surface is adapted to the inferior temporal gyrus. Behind the apex is a trigeminal impression for the trigeminal ganglion. Bone anterolateral to this impression roofs the anterior part of the carotid canal but is often deficient. A ridge separates the trigeminal impression from another hollow behind, which partly roofs the internal acoustic meatus and cochlea. This, in turn, is limited behind by the arcuate eminence, which is raised by the superior (anterior) semicircular canal but is not necessarily directly over it. Laterally, the anterior surface roofs the vestibule and, partly, the facial canal. Between the squamous part laterally and the arcuate eminence and the hollows just described medially, the anterior surface is formed by the tegmen tympani, a thin plate of bone that forms the roof of the mastoid antrum, and extends forwards above the tympanic cavity and the canal for tensor tympani. The lateral margin of the tegmen tympani meets the squamous part at the petrosquamosal suture, turning down in front as the lateral wall of the canal for tensor tympani and the osseous part of the pharyngotympanic tube; its lower edge is in the squamotympanic fissure. Anteriorly, the tegmen bears a narrow groove related to the greater petrosal nerve (which passes pos.

SCLERA The sclera accounts for approximately 93% of the outer coat of the eye. Anteriorly, it is continuous with the cornea at the corneoscleral junction (see Fig. 42.1). It is punctured by a number of foramina containing nerves and blood vessels, most notably the optic foramen, which lies 3 mm medial to the midline and 1 mm below the horizontal, and houses the optic nerve. Smaller openings contain anterior ciliary arteries that penetrate anteriorly, vortex veins that cross the sclera equatorially, and the long and short ciliary nerves and arteries that enter posteriorly. There is considerable individual variation in scleral dimensions. The sclera is thickest at the posterior pole (approximately 1 mm) and decreases anteriorly, reaching a minimum equatorially at about half this thickness. It also thins approaching the optic nerve. The sclera is thinner when the eye is elongated in myopia. The external surface of the sclera is covered by a delicate episcleral lamina of loose fibrovascular tissue, which contains sparse blood vessels and is in contact with the inner surface of the fascial sheath of the eyeball. Anteriorly, the external scleral surface is covered by conjunctiva, which is reflected on to it from the posterior surfaces of the eyelids. The scleral internal surface adjacent to the choroid is attached to it by a delicate fibrous layer, the suprachoroid lamina, which contains numerous fibroblasts and melanocytes. Anteriorly, the inner sclera is attached to the ciliary body by the lamina supraciliaris. Posteriorly, the sclera is pierced by the optic nerve. Here, the outer half of the sclera turns back to become continuous with the dura mater, while the inner half is modified to form a perforated plate, the lamina cribrosa sclerae. The optic nerve fascicles pass through these minute orifices, while the central retinal artery and vein pass through a larger, central aperture. The lamina cribrosa sclerae is the weakest part of the sclera and bulges outwards (a cupped disc) when intraocular pressure is raised chronically, as in glaucoma. Like the cornea, the scleral stroma is composed mainly of densely packed collagen embedded in a matrix of proteoglycans, which are mixed with occasional elastic fibres and fibroblasts. However, in contrast to the cornea, scleral collagen fibrils show a large variation in diameter and spacing, and the lamellae branch and interlace extensively. This arrangement of fibres results in increased light scatter, which is responsible for the opaque, dull-white appearance of the sclera, and also imparts a high tensile strength to the sclera to resist the pull of the extraocular muscles and contain the intraocular pressure. Collagen fibre bundles are arranged circumferentially around the optic disc and the orifices of the lamina cribrosa. The fibres of the tendons of the recti intersect scleral fibres at right angles at their attachments, and then interlace deeper in the sclera. Collagen fibres of the scleral spur are orientated in a circular fashion, and there is an increased incidence of elastic fibres here (Figs 42.2–42.3A). Although the sclera acts as a conduit for blood vessels, scleral vessels are few and mainly disposed in the episcleral lamina, especially close to the limbus. Its nerve supply is surprisingly rich, accounting for the intense pain associated with scleral inflammation (Watson and Young 2004). Scleral development is under active regulation to ensure an eye of the correct axial length to produce a focused image (Wallman and Winawer 2004). Filtration angle and aqueous drainage Aqueous humour is produced by the ciliary epithelium; it passes through the pupil and circulates within the anterior chamber, supplying the avascular cornea and lens with nutrients and removing metabolic waste products. It drains from the eye mainly through the trabecular meshwork into the canal of Schlemm.

Horner's syndrome Any condition or injury that destroys the sympathetic trunk ascending from the thorax through the neck into the face results in Horner's syndrome, characterized by a drooping eyelid (ptosis), sunken globe (enophthalmos), narrow palpebral fissure, contracted pupil (meiosis), vasodilation and lack of thermal sweating (anhydrosis) on the affected side. Classically, this is seen in patients with bronchial carcinomas that have invaded the sympathetic trunk and is also a recognized complication of cervical sympathectomy or a radical neck dissection. Avulsion of the first thoracic nerve from the spinal cord may be diagnosed by development of the syndrome after closed traction lesion of the supraclavicular brachial plexus. Congenital Horner's syndrome has been reported in association with ipsilateral internal carotid artery agenesis (Fons et al 2009). Special features of congenital Horner's syndrome are iris heterochromia, a difference in colour between the two eyes that results from interference with melanocyte pigmentation of the iris by a lack of sympathetic stimulation during development, and unilateral straight hair.

The superficial fascia of the scalp is firm, dense, fibroadipose, and closely adherent to the skin and to the underlying muscle, epicranius and the epicranial aponeurosis. Posteriorly, the fascia is continuous with the superficial fascia of the back of the neck, and laterally it is prolonged into the temporal region, where it is looser in texture. Three fascial layers (a subcutaneous fibroadipose tissue, a superficial musculoaponeurotic system (SMAS) and the parotid–masseteric fascia) are recognized on the face superficial to the plane of the facial nerve and its branches. On the lateral side of the head, above the zygomatic arch, the temporoparietal fascia lies in the same plane as, but does not blend with, the superficial musculo-aponeurotic system. It is superficial to the temporal fascia and blends superiorly with the epicranial aponeurosis. The parotid gland is surrounded by a fibrous capsule derived from the deep cervical fascia.

On the morning of 14 July 1789, the city of Paris was in a state of alarm. The king had commanded troops to move into the city. Rumours spread that he would soon order the army to open fire upon the citizens. Some 7,000 men and women gathered in front of the town hall and decided to form a peoplesí militia. They broke into a number of government buildings in search of arms. Finally, a group of several hundred people marched towards the eastern part of the city and stormed the fortress-prison, the Bastille, where they hoped to find hoarded ammunition. In the armed fight that followed, the commander of the Bastille was killed and the prisoners released ñ though there were only seven of them. Yet the Bastille was hated by all, because it stood for the despotic power of the king. The fortress was demolished and its stone fragments were sold in the markets to all those who wished to keep a souvenir of its destruction. The days that followed saw more rioting both in Paris and the countryside. Most people were protesting against the high price of bread. Much later, when historians looked back upon this time, they saw it as the beginning of a chain of events that ultimately led to the execution of the king in France, though most people at the time did not anticipate this outcome. How and why did this happen?Can politics change the clothes people wear, the language they speak or the books they read? The years following 1789 in France saw many such changes in the lives of men, women and children. The revolutionary governments took it upon themselves to pass laws that would translate the ideals of liberty and equality into everyday practice. One important law that came into effect soon after the storming of the Bastille in the summer of 1789 was the abolition of censorship. In the Old Regime all written material and cultural activities ñ books, newspapers, plays ñ could be published or performed only after they had been approved by the censors of the king. Now the Declaration of the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed freedom of speech and expression to be a natural right. Newspapers, pamphlets, books and printed pictures flooded the towns of France from where they travelled rapidly into the countryside. They all described and discussed the events and changes taking place in France. Freedom of the press also meant that opposing views of events could be expressed. Each side sought to convince the others of its position through the medium of print. Plays, songs and festive processions attracted large numbers of people. This was one way they could grasp and identify with ideas such as liberty or justice that political philosophers wrote about at length in texts which only a handful of educated people could read.The French Revolution was a period of major social upheaval that began in 1787 and ended in 1799. It sought to completely change the relationship between the rulers and those they governed and to redefine the nature of political power.The upheaval was caused by widespread discontent with the French monarchy and the poor economic policies of King Louis XVI, who met his death by guillotine, as did his wife Marie Antoinette.The definition of the French Revolution is an uprising in France against the monarchy from 1789 to 1799 which resulted in the establishment of France as a republic. An example of the French Revolution is the storming of the Bastille by the French citizens.The ideals of the French Revolution are Liberty, Equality, and Fraternity.After Napoleon abdicated as emperor in March 1814, Louis XVIII, the brother of Louis XVI, was installed as king and France was granted a quite generous peace settlement, restored to its 1792 boundaries and not required to pay war indemnity.The French Revolution of 1789 was a key turning point in the history of France and indeed a good portion of Europe as well. Hastened by Enlightenment philosophies, the revolution.

The hypoglossal nerve is one of 12 cranial nerves. It's also known as the 12th cranial nerve, cranial nerve 12 or CNXII. This nerve starts at the base of your brain. It travels down your neck and branches out, ending at the base and underside of your tongue.

The accessory nerve is the eleventh paired cranial nerve. It has a purely somatic motor function, innervating the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles.This nerve supplies the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, which have the following functions: Rotation of head away from the side of the contracting sternocleidomastoid muscle. Tilting of the head toward the contracting sternocleidomastoid muscle. Flexion of the neck by both sternocleidomastoid muscles.The Spinal Accessory Nerve (SAN) or Cranial Nerve 11 is termed a cranial nerve as it was originally believed to originate in the brain. It has both a cranial and a spinal part, though debate still rages regarding if the cranial part is really a part of the SAN or part of the vagus nerve.

Vagus nerve, also called X cranial nerve or 10th cranial nerve, longest and most complex of the cranial nerves. The vagus nerve runs from the brain through the face and thorax to the abdomen. It is a mixed nerve that contains parasympathetic fibres.

The glossopharyngeal nerve is the ninth set of 12 cranial nerves (CN IX). It provides motor, parasympathetic and sensory information to your mouth and throat. Among its many functions, the nerve helps raise part of your throat, enabling swallowing.

The vestibulocochlear nerve (8th cranial nerve) is a sensory nerve. It is made up of two nerves, the cochlear, which transmits sound and the vestibular which controls balance.

The facial nerve is the 7th cranial nerve and carries nerve fibers that control facial movement and expression. The facial nerve also carries nerves that are involved in taste to the anterior 2/3 of the tongue and producing tears (lacrimal gland).Intracranial branchesGreater petrosal nerve, communicating branch with otic ganglion, nerve to stapedius, chorda tympaniExtracranial branchesPosterior auricular nerve, branch to posterior digastric belly, branch to stylohyoid muscle, temporal branch, zygomatic branch, buccal branch, marginal mandibular branch, cervical branch.Field of innervationMotor: facial expression muscles, posterior belly of digastric muscle, stylohyoid muscle, stapedius muscle Special sensory: taste from anterior two-thirds of the tongue Parasympathetic: submandibular gland, sublingual gland, lacrimal glandsClinical relationsPalsy, inferior medial pontine syndome.

Abducent nerve: 6th cranial nerve : Gray's anatomy It's also known as the abducens nerve. This condition causes problems with eye movement. The sixth cranial nerve sends signals to your lateral rectus muscle. This is a small muscle that attaches to the outer side of your eye. When this muscle contracts, your eye moves away from your nose.

The trigeminal nerve is the part of the nervous system responsible for sending pain, touch and temperature sensations from your face to your brain. It's a large, three-part nerve in your head that provides sensation. One section called the mandibular nerve involves motor function to help you chew and swallow.each of the fifth and largest pair of cranial nerves, supplying the front part of the head and dividing into the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular nerves. The nerve has three divisions: the ophthalmic, maxillary, and mandibular nerves (Figure 61.1). The innervation includes the cornea and conjunctiva of the eye; mucosa of the sinuses, nasal and oral cavities; and dura of the middle, anterior, and part of the posterior cranial fossae.

The trochlear nerve is one of 12 sets of cranial nerves. It enables movement in the eye's superior oblique muscle. This makes it possible to look down. The nerve also enables you to move your eyes toward your nose or away from it.

The oculomotor nerve is the third cranial nerve (CN III). It allows movement of the eye muscles, constriction of the pupil, focusing the eyes and the position of the upper eyelid. Cranial nerve III works with other cranial nerves to control eye movements and support sensory functioning.

The optic nerve is a bundle of more than 1 million nerve fibers that carry visual messages. You have one connecting the back of each eye (your retina) to your brain. Damage to an optic nerve can cause vision loss. The type of vision loss and how severe it is depends on where the damage occurs.

The olfactory nerve is the first cranial nerve (CN I). It is a sensory nerve that functions for the sense of smell. Olfaction is phylogenetically referred to as the oldest of the senses. It is carried out through special visceral afferent nerve.

Gray's anatomy:Cranial nerves & Pharyngeal arches. 12 cranial nerves Pick your favorite study tool Videos   Quizzes   Both 12 cranial nerves Author: Jana Vasković MD • Reviewer: Nicola McLaren MSc Last reviewed: March 03, 2022 Reading time: 23 minutes  Facial nerve (lateral right view) You know when someone mentions cranial nerves and you roll your eyes all the way back to your midbrain? We know that cranial nerves have always been a challenging subject among anatomy students. So we're here to make it easier for you. Cranial nerves anatomy is essential for almost any medical specialty since they control so many body functions, such as rolling your eyes when you're annoyed by something. So let's break the stigma of them being hard to understand, and learn this important neuroanatomy topic once and for all. Types of nerves- Sensory: Olfactory nerve (CN I), optic nerve (CN II), vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII) - Motor: Oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), abducens nerve (CN VI), accessory nerve (CN XI), hypoglossal nerve (CN XII). - Mixed (both): trigeminal nerve (CN V), facial nerve (CN VII), glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), vagus nerve (CN X). Mnemonic (by the numerical order): Some Say Money Matters, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter Most.NervesOlfactory nerve (CN I), optic nerve (CN II), oculomotor nerve (CN III), trochlear nerve (CN IV), trigeminal nerve (CN V), abducens nerve (CN VI), facial nerve (CN VII), vestibulocochlear nerve (CN VIII), glossopharyngeal nerve (CN IX), vagus nerve (CN X), accessory nerve (CN XI), and hypoglossal nerve (CN XII). Mnemonics:  -  Oh, Oh, Oh, To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet, such-A Heaven -  On, On, On, They Traveled And Found Voldemort Guarding Very Ancient Horcruxes.

Subdural haematoma Separation of the arachnoid and dura mater requires little physical force, which means that damage to small bridging veins in the space can result in subdural haematoma after even relatively mild head trauma. In cases of chronic or subacute subdural haematomas, the accumulation is of relatively low pressure and seldom presents as a medical emergency; even sizeable accumulations may be tolerated on a chronic basis with mild or no symptoms, and can be surgically drained through small openings in the skull (burr-holes). In many cases, there is some predisposing factor, such as cerebral atrophy or increased size of the underlying subarachnoid space. In cases of acute subdural haematoma, there is rapid accumulation of blood in the subdural space, typically after severe head trauma, which requires emergency neurosurgical drainage through a large craniotomy or craniectomy. The distinction between subdural and extradural haematoma on a CT scan relies on the anatomical features of the clot. Extradural collections tend to be lentiform in shape, reflecting the pressure required to separate the dura and periosteum. They will not pass deep to any major dural sinus and cannot extend along the falx cerebri or tentorium cerebelli. In contrast, acute subdural haematomas tend to be biconcave in shape and often follow the line of the dura along the falx or tentorium. Gray's anatomy

Cavernous sinus : Gray's anatomy The cavernous sinus is part of the brain's dural venous sinus and contains multiple neuro-vasculatures. It is situated bilaterally to the sella turcica and extends from the superior orbital fissure anteriorly to the petrous part of the temporal bone posteriorly, and is about 1 cm wide and 2 cm long.The cavernous sinus is located on either side of the pituitary fossa and body of the sphenoid bone between the endosteal and meningeal layers of the dura. It spans from the apex of the orbit to the apex of the petrous temporal bone.The cavernous sinus in turn drains to the superior and inferior petrosal sinuses. Both sinuses join the sigmoid sinus, which then becomes the internal jugular vein. The internal jugular vein meets with the subclavian vein to become the left (or right) brachiocephalic vein.The cavernous sinuses are irregularly shaped, trabeculated cavities located at the base of the skull. The cavernous sinuses are the most centrally located of the dural sinuses and lie on either side of the sella turcica.It can be life-threatening. The cavernous sinuses are hollow spaces located under the brain, behind each eye socket. A major blood vessel called the jugular vein carries blood through the cavernous sinuses away from the brain.

ll iabetes mellitus is the third leading cause lJ of death (after heart disease and cancer) in many developed countries. lt affects about 2 to 3% of the general population. The complications of diabetes affect the eye, kidney and nervous system. Diabetes is a major cause of blindness, renal failure, amputation, heart attacks and stroke. (The term diabetes, whenever used, refers to diabetes mellitus. lt should, however, be noted that diabetes insipidus is another disorder characterized by large volumes of urine excretion due to antidiuretic hormone deficiency). Diabetes mellitus is a clinical condition characterized by increased blood glucose level (hyperglycemia) due to insufficient or inefficient (incompetent) insulin. ln other words, insulin is either not produced in sufficient quantity or inefficient in its action on the target tissues. As a consequence, the blood glucose level is elevated which spills over into urine in diabetes mellitus (Creek : diabetes-a siphon or running through; mellitus-sweet). An important feature of diabetes is that the body cells are starved of glucose despite its very high concentration around i.e. scarcity in plenty. For a comprehensive understanding of diabetes, the relevant hormones, namely insulin and glucagon, homeostasis of blood glucose, besides the biochemical aspects of diabetes, are discussed in this chaoter. lnsufin is a polypeptide hormone produced by the B-cells of islets of Langerhans of pancreas. lt has profound influence on the metabolism of carbohydrate, fat and protein. Insulin is considered as anabolic hormone, as it promotes the synthesis of glycogen, triacylglycerols and proteins. This hormone has been implicated in the development of diabetes mellitus. Insulin occupies a special place in the history of biochemistry as well as medicine. Insulin was the first hormone to be isolated, purified and synthesized.Clucagon, secreted by a-cells of the pancreas, opposes the actions of insulin. lt is a polypeptide hormone composed of 29 amino acids (mol. wt. 3,500) in a single chain. Clucagon is actually synthesized as proglucagon (mol. wt. 9,000) which on sequential degradation releases active glucagon. Unlike insulin, the amino acid sequence of glucagon is the same in all mammalian species (so far studied). Clucagon has a short half-life in plasma i.e. about 5 minutes. f, ++qu[et i tr ! af q! Nle;t g€'re li€rcrr!.f idi*l The secretion of glucagon is stimulated by Iow blood glucose concentration, amino acids derived from dietary protein and low levels of epinephrine. Increased blood glucose level markedly inhibits glucagon secretion. ftiletahe;iit: ei'fe:lts oi qgir.l*;: r';nn Clucagon influences carbohydrate, lipid and protein metabolisms. In general, the effects of this hormone oppose that of insulin. 1. Effects on carbohydrate metabolism : Glucagon is the most potent hormone that enhances the blood glucose level (hyperglycemic). Primarily, glucagon acts on liver to cause increased synthesis of glucose (gluconeogenesis) and enhanced degradation of glycogen (glycogenolysis). The actions of glucagon are mediated through cyclic AMP (Chapter t3). 2. Effects on lipid metabolism : Clucagon promotes fatty acid oxidation resulting in energy production and ketone body synthesis (ketogenesis). 3. Effects on protein metabolism : Glucagon increases the amino acid uptake by liver which, in turn, promotes gluconeogenesis. Thus, glucagon lowers plasma amino acids. Meehanisrn of ;.icti*"rri #[ g{e.E$fil{g}f, Clucagon binds to the specific receptors on the plasma membrane and acts through the mediation of cyclic AMP, the second messenger. The details are given elsewhere Diabetes mellitus is a metabolic dr'sease, more appropriately adisorder of fuel metabolism. lt is mainly characterized by hyperglycemia that leads to several long term complications. Diabetes mellitus is broadly divided into 2 groups, IDDM & NIDDM.

f nvironment constitutes the non-living (air, Lwater, land, energy etc.) as well as the living (biological and social) systems surrounding man. Environmental biochemistry primarily deals with the metabolic (biochemical) responses and adaptations in man (or other organisms) due to the environmental factors. A healthy environment is required for a healthy life which is however, not really possible or practicable. This is mainly because of the atmospheric (climatic) changes and environmental pollution. Environmental biochemistry is a very vast subject. The basic concepts regarding the atmospheric changes and environmental oollution on humans are dealt with here. The climatic changes include cold, heat etc. . The body makes every effort to maintain its normal temperature (despite cold and surroundings) for optimal physiological biochemical functions. EXPOSURE TO COLD Short-term exposure to cold causes shivering (mainly due to skeletal muscle) to produce extra heat. Heat is generated by the hydrolysis of ATP' tw,+. g,,:t:t; j,i+'r e "t: 94 r:li:*s;ie Chronic exposure to cold results in non- shivering phase which is characterized by several metabol ic adaPtations. heat and Energy metabolism : Heat generation by a process called chemical thermogenesis occurs in non-shivering phase. The foodstuffs undergo oxidation to generate heat at the expense of growth and other anabolic processes. Elevation in BMR, and increased intake oi foods are observed. Lipid metabolism : Stored fat (triacylglycerol) in the adipose tissue is mobilized to supplyfree fatty acids for oxidation and production of energy. Brown edipose tissue, particularly in neonatal life, significantly contributes to thermogenesis. . Hormonal changes : Thyroxine, a hormone closely associated with energy metabolism, is elevated. Further, corticosteroids are increased on exoosure to cold. EXPOSURE TO HEAT There is a continuous generation of heat by the body due to the ongoing biochemical processes, referred to as metabolic heat. This heat has to be exchanged with the environment to maintain a constant body temperature. On exposure to heat in surroundings, as happens in sLrmmer, the body is subjected to an uncomfortable situation (since temperature of the surroundings is much higher than that of the body). However, heat is still lost from the body through sweating and evaporation. Normally, the body (thermoregulation) gets acclimatized to higher temperature within 3-5 days. Heat stroke : lt is characterized by the failure of the heat regulatory system (thermoregulation) of the body. The manifestations of heat stroke include high body temperature, convulsions, partial (some times total) loss of consciousness. In extreme cases, heat stroke may cause irreversible damage to brain. The treatment for the heat stroke involves rapid cooling of the body. The milder form of heat stroke is referred to as heat syncope. Although the body temperature is not raised much in this condition, the blood pressure falls and the person may collapse suddenly. Heat syncope is easily reversible. Environmental pollution may be regarded as the addition of extraneous (foreign) materials to air, water or land which adversely affects the quality of life. Pollution may be caused by physical, chemical or biological processes. The term pollutant refers to a substance which increases in quantity due to human activity and adversely affects the environment (e.9. carbon monoxide, sulfur dioxide, lead). A substance which is not present in nature but released during human activity is the contaminant (e.g. methyl isocyanate, DDT, malathion). A contaminant however, is regarded as a pollutant when it exerts detrimental effects. Environmental pollution may be considered in different ways-industrial pollution; agricultural pollution; pollution due to gaseous wastes, liquid wastes and solid wastes.

A cquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) Awas first reported in 1981 in'homosexual men. AIDS is a retroviral disease caused by human immunodeficiency virus (HlV). The disease is characterized by immunosuppression, secondary neoplasma and neurological manifestations. AIDS is invariably fatal since there is no cure. In the USA, it is the fourth leading cause of death in men between the ages 15 to 55 years. No other disease has attracted as much aftention as AIDS by the governments, public and scientists. AIDS has stimulated an unprecedented amount of biomedical research which led to a major understanding ofthis deadfy disease within a short period of time. So rapid is the research on AIDS (particularly relating to molecular biofogy), any review is destined to be out of date by the time it is published! The isolation of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) from lymphocytes of AIDS patients was independently achieved by Gallo (USA) and Montagnier (France) in 1984. Epidemiology AIDS was first described in USA and this country has the majority of reported cases. The prevalence of AIDS has been reported from almost every country. The number of people living with HfV worldwide is estimated to be around 40 million by the end of the year 2005. (lndia alone has about 5 million persons). At least 5 million deaths occurred in 2005, due to AIDS. AIDS is truely a global disease with an alarming increase in almost every country. Transmission of HIV : Transmission of AIDS essentially requires the exchange of body fluids (semen, vaginal secretions, blood, milk) containing the virus or virus-infected celfs. There are three major routes of HIV transmission- sexual contact, parenteral inoculation, and from infected mothers to their newborns. The distribution of risk factors for AIDS trans- mission are as follows. Sex between men (homosexuals) Sex between men and women - 60"/" -15%Intravenous drug abusers - 15"/" Transfusion of blood and blood products - 6% All others - 4o/o The predominant methods of HIV transmission (about 75o/") are through anal or vaginal intercourse. The risk for the transmission is much higher with anal than with vaginal intercourse. The practice of 'needle sharing' is mainly responsible for the transmission of HIV in drug abusers. Pediatric AIDS is mostly caused by vertical transmission (mother to infant). It should, however, be noted that HIV cannot be transmitted by casual personal contact in the household or work place. Further, the transmission of AIDS from an infected individual to health personnel attending on him is extremelv rAre. Virology of HIV AIDS is caused by a retrovirus, namely human immunodeficiency virus (HlY), belonging to lentivirus family. Retroviruses contain RNA as the genetic material. On entry into the host cell, they transcribe DNA which is a complementary copy of RNA. The DNA, in turn is used, as a template to produce new viral RNA copies. Two different forms of HlV, namely HIV-I and HIV-2 have been isolated from AIDS patients. HIV-1 is more common, being found in AIDS patients of USA, Canada, Europe and Central Africa while HIV-2 is mainly found in West Africa. Both the viruses are almost similar except they differ in certain immunological properties. HIV-1 is described in some detail. Structure of HIV : The viruse is spherical with a diameter of about 110 nm. lt contains a core, surrounded by a lipid envelop derived from the host pfasma membrane (Fig.3fl.l). The core of the HIV has two strands of genomic RNA and four core proteins, PZq, PtB, reverse tranScriptase (poolpsr) and endonuclease (p32). Note that the naming of the proteins is based on the molecular weight. For instance, a protein with a molecular weight of 24,0OO is designated as p2,4. The lipid membrane of the virus is studded with two glycoproteins Bprzo and gpot. The surface antigen 8p126 is very important for the viral infection CD4.

l-h" supply of oxygen is absolutely essential I for the existence of higher organisms. As the saying goes too much of even the best is bad. Very high concentrations of 02 are found to be toxic, and can damage tissues. The present day concept of oxygen toxicity is due to the involvement of oxygen free radicals or reactive oxygen species (ROS). In fact, the generation of reactive metabolites of 02 is an integral part of our daily life. A free radical is defined as a molecule or a mof ecular species that contains one or more unpaired electrons, and is capable of independent existence. Types of free radicals Oxygen is required in many metabolic reactions, particularly for the release of energy. During these processes, molecular O2 is completely reduced, and converted to water. However, if the reduction of 02 is incomplete, a series of reactive radicals are formed, as shown in the next column. r,r,.. (Molecular orygen) re- Y O, (Superoxide) h€,2H+ J H rO, (Hydrogen peroxide) l. e-,H' Hzo+1 + OH- (Hydroxyl radicat) h e-'H* + ,-r,r'(Water) Besides the above (O2, H2O2, OH-), the other free radicals and reactive oxygen species of biological importance include singlet oxygen (1O2), hydroperoxy radical (HOO-), lipid peroxide radical (ROO-), nitric oxide (NO-) and peroxyn itrite (ONOO-). The common characteristic features of free radicals are listed . Highly reactive o Very short half-lifeCan generate new radicals by chain reaction Cause damage to biomolecules, cells and tissues Free radicals and reactive oxygen species (ROS)-not synonymous : By definition, a free radical contains one or more unpaired electrons. e.g. Or, OH-, ROO-. There are certain non- radical derivatives of 02 which do not contain unpaired electrons e.g. H2O2, 102. The term reactive oxygen species is used in a broad sense to collectively represent free radicals, and non- free radicals (which are extremely reactive) of the biological systems. However, most authors do not make a clear distinction between free radicals and ROS, and use them inter- changebly. SOURCES AND GEI{ERATION OF FREE RADICALS The major sources responsible for the generation of free radicals may be considered under two categories l. Due to normal biological processes (or cellular metabolism). ll. Due to environmental effects. It is estimated that about 1-4o/o of the 02 taken up by the body is converted to free radicals. A summary of the sources for generation of free radicals is given in the Tahle 34.1 , and a couple of the processes are briefly described. Lipid peroxidation Free radical-induced peroxidation of membrane lipids occurs in three stages-initiation, propagation and termination Initiation phase : This step involves the removal of hydrogen atom (H) from polyunsaturated fatty acids (LH), caused by hydroxyl radical LH + OH- -----+ L- + H2O Propagation phase : Under aerobic conditions, the fatty acid radical (L-) takes up oxygen to form peroxy radical (LOO-). The I Cellular metabolism . Leakage of electrons lrom the respiratory chain (ETC). . Productionf HrO, or O, by oxidase enzymes (e.9. xanthine oxidase, NADPH oxidase). . Due to chain reactions ofmembrane lipid peroxidation. . Peroxisomal generation of O, and HrOr. . During the synthesis ofprostaglandins. . Productionf nitric oxide from arginine. . During the course of phagocytosis (as a pad of bactedcidal action). . In the oxidation ofheme to bile pigments. . As a result of auteoxidation e.g. metal ions [Fd*, Cu2*]; ascorbic acid, glutathione, flavin coenzymes. II Environmental effects . As a result of drug melabolism e.g. paracetamol, halothane, cy{ochrome P* rehted reactions. . Due to damages caused by ionizing radiations (e.9. X-rays) on tissues. . Photolysis of O, by light. . Photoexcitation of organic molecules . Cigarette smoke contains free radicals, and trace metals that generate OH-.Alcohol, promoting lipid peroxidation.

The term detoxication or detoxificafion refers to fhe series of biochemical reactions occurring in the body to convert the foreign (often toxic) compounds to non-toxic or less toxic, and more easily excretable forms.Knowledge of the metabolism ol xenobiotics is essenfial for the understanding of toxicology, pharmacology and drug addiction. The bodV possesses the capabilitg to get rid of the foreign subsfonces by conuerting them into more easily excretoble forms. Detoxit'ication is not necessarily associated with the conuersion ol toxic into non-toxic compounds. For instance, methonol is metabolized to a more toxic formaldehyde. Detoxification primarily occurs in the liuer through one or more of the reactions, namely oxidation, reduction, hydrolysis and conjugation. British antilewisite (BAL), o compound deueloped during Second World Wsn uros used to detoxify certain uror poison.Oxidation Reduction Hydrolysis & Conjugation.

prostaglandins and their related compounds- I prostacyclins (PGl), thromboxanes (TXA), leukotrienes (LT) and lipoxins are collectively known as eicosaniods, since they all contain 20 carbons (Creek : eikosi-twenty). Eicosanoids are considered as locally acting hormones with a wide range of biochemical functions. History : Prostaglandins (PCs) were first discovered in human semen by Ulf von Euler (of Sweden) in 1930. These compounds were found to stimulate uterine contraction and reduce blood pressure. von Euler presumed that they were synthesized by prostate gland and hence named them as prostaglandins. lt was later realized that PCs and other eicosanoids are synthesized in almost all the tissues (exception- erythrocytes). By then, however, the name prostaglandins was accepted worldwide, and hence continued. The prostaglandins E and F were first isolated from the biological fluids. They were so named due to their solubility in ether (PCE) and phosphate buffer (PCF, F for fosfat, in Swedish). All other prostaglandins discovered later were denoted by a letter-PCA, PCH etc. Structure o{ prostaglandins Prostaglandins are derivatives of a hypothetical 2O-carbon fatty acid namely prostanoic acid hence known as prostanoids. This has a cyclopentane ring (formed by carbon atoms 8 to 12) and two side chains, with carboxyl group on one side. Prostaglandins differ in their structure due to substituent group and double bond on cyclopentane ring. The different prostaglandins are given in Fig.32.l. The structures of the most important prostaglandins (PGF2 and PGF2o), prostacyclins (PCl2), thromboxanes (TXA2) and leukotrienes (LTA+) along with arachidonic acid are depicted in Fi9.32.2. A subscript numeral indicates the number of double bonds in the two side chains. A subscript c-denotes that the hydroxyl group at Ce of the ring and the carboxyl group are on thesame side of the ring.Synthesis of prostaglandins Arachidonic acid (5,8,1 1,1 4-eicosatetraenoic acid) is the precursor for most of the prostaglandins inhumans. The biosynthesis of PCs was described by scene Bergstrom and Bengt Samuelsson (1960). lt occurs in the endoplasmic reticulum in the following stages, as depicted in Fi9,32.3. 1. Release of arachidonic acid from membrane bound phospholipids by phospho- lipase A2-this reaction occurs due to a specific stimuli by hormones such as epinephrine or bradykinin. 2. Oxidation and cyclization of arachidonic acid to PGG2 which is then converted to PCH2 by a reduced glutathione dependent peroxidase. 3. PGH2 serves as the immediate precursor for the synthesis of a number of prostaglandins, including prostacyclins and thromboxanes. The above pathway is known as cyclic pathway of arachidonic acid. ln the linear pathway of arachidonic acid, leukotrienes and lipoxins are synthesized (details given later). Cyclooxygenase-a suicide enzyme : lt is interesting to note that prostaglandin synthesis can be partly controlled by suicidal activity ofthe enzyme cyclooxygenase. This enzyme is capable of undergoing self-catalysedestruction to switch off PG synthesis. lnhibition of PG synthesis : A number of structurally unrelated compounds can inhibit prostaglandin synthesis. Corticosteroids (e.g. cortisol) prevent the formation of arachidonic acid by inhibiting the enzyme phospholipase 42. Many non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins, prostacyclins and thromboxanes. They do so by blocking the action of the enzyme cyclo' oxygenase. Aspirin inhibits PG synthesis :Aspirin (acetyl salicylic acid) has been used since nineteenth century as an antipyretic (fever-reducing) and analgesic (pain relieving). The mechanism of action of aspirin however, was not known for a Iong period. lt was only in 1971, John Vane discovered that aspirin inhibits the synthesis of PC from arachidonic acid. Aspirin irreversibly inhibits the enzyme cyclooxygenase.

T h" plasma membrane is an envelope I surrounding the cell Refer Fig.l.l). lt separates and protects the cell from the external hostile environment. Besides being a protective barrier, plasma membrane provides a connecting system between the cell and its environment. The subcellular organelles such as nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes are also surrounded by membranes. Chemical cormpcsitron The membranes are composed of lipids, proteins and carbohydrates. The actual compo- sition differs from tissue to tissue. Among the lipids, amphipathic lipids (containing hydro- phobic and hydrophilic groups) namely phos- pholipids, glycolipids and cholesterol, are found in the animal membranes. Manv animal cell membranes have thick coating of complex polysaccharides referred to as glycocalyx. The oligosaccharides of glycocalyx interact with collagen of intercellular matrix in the tissues. $trsscture, of r*terit&'ra$:s :' A lipid bilayer model originally proposed for membrane structure in 1935 by Davson and Danielle has been modified. Fluid mosaic model, proposed by Singer and Nicolson, is a more recent and acceptable model for membrane structure. The biological membranes usually have a thickness of 5-8 nm. A membrane is essentially composed of a lipid bilayer. The hydrophobic (nonpolar) regions of the lipids face each other at the core of the bilayer while the hydrophilic (polar) regions face outward. Clobular proteins are irregularly embedded in the lipid bilayer (Fi9.33.1). Membrane proteins are categorized into two Broups. 1. Extrinsic (peripheral) membrane proteins are loosely held to the surface of the membrane and they can be easily separated e.g. cytochrome c of mitochondria. 2. Intrinsic (integral) membrane proteins are tightly bound to the lipid bilayer and they can be separated only by the use of detergents ororganic solvents e.g. hormone receptors, cytochrome P45g. The membrane is asymmetric due to the irregular distribution of proteins. The lipid and protein subunits of the membrane give an appearance of mosaic or a ceramic tile. Unlike a fixed ceramic tile, the mernbrane freely changes, hence the structure of the membrane is considered as fluid mosaic. Fig.33,l : The fluid mosaic model of membrane structure. Tvamsport &crqlss Fsnembrames The biological membranes are relatively impermeable. The membrane, therefore, forms a barrier for the free passage of compounds across it. At least three distinct mechanisms have been identified lor the transoort of solutes (metabolites) through the membrane (Fi9.33.A. I . Passive diffusion 2. Facilitated diffusion 3. Active transoort; 1. Fassive diffusion : This is a simple process which depends on the concentration gradient of a oarticular substance across the membrane. Fassage of water and gases through membrane occurs by passive diffusion. This process does not require energy. 2. Facilitated diffusion : This is somewhat comparable with diffusion since the solute moves along the concentration gradient (from higher to lower concentration) and no energy is needed. But the most important distinguishing feature is that facilitated diffusion occurs through the mediation of carrier or transport proteins. Specific carrier proteins for the transport of glucose, galactose, leucine, phenylalanine etc. have been isolated and characterized. Mechanism of facilitated diffusion : A ping- pong model is put forth to explain the occurrence of facilitated diffusion (Fig.33.3). According to this mechanism, a transport (carrier) protein exists in two conformations. In the pong conformation, it is exposed to the side with high soluteconcentration. This allows the binding of solute to specific sites on the carrier protein. The protein then undergoes a conformational change (ping state) to expose to the side with low solute concentration where the solute molecule is released. Hormones regulate facilitated diffusion.

By Rabbi Ezekiel Isaac Malekar Swami Vivekananda always stood for harmony of religions. He spoke about acceptance of all religions as true and appealed to religious and spiritual leaders to shun all forms of religious fanaticism, persecution, and violence – this he said in a speech at the World Parliament of Religions in Chicago 125 years ago, and it is urgently needed even today. Swami ji believed that Hinduism is a way of life and in no way related to any political ideology. He also said that we need to lead mankind to the place where there is neither the Vedas nor the Bible nor the Quran, yet this has to be done by harmonising the Vedas, the Bible and the Quran. Mankind ought to be taught that religions are but varied expressions of religion that is Oneness, so that each may choose the path that suits him best. In his concluding speech in Chicago, he said that the Christian is not to become a Hindu or a Buddhist nor a Hindu or Buddhist to become a Christian. But each must assimilate the spirit of the others in his individuality and grow according to his own law of growth.The doctrine of road map of Swami Vivekananda was laid down by his spiritual master, Ramakrishna Paramhansa, who espoused the doctrine of ‘Jato Mat, Tato Path', recognising the potential of all religions to act as means of attaining spiritual enlightenment, and ‘Ekm sad vipraha bahuda vadanti', there is only one truth and learned person call it by many names.Swami Vivekananda also narrated the story of ‘Kupa Manduka' – frog in the well, to explain the closed minds of religious bigots. His central message was that holiness, purity and charity are not exclusive mansions of any particular religion and that every religion has produced men and women of the most exalted character. To those who dream of the exclusive survival of their own religion and destruction of the others, he said: “I pity them from the bottom of my heart and point out to them that upon the banner of every religion will soon be written ‘in spite of resistance, help and not fight, assimilation and not destruction, harmony and peace and not dissension.'”Swami Vivekananda turned the universalist philosophy of Vedanta into a driver of social change. True religion taught people to recognise the divinity of man and woman and to be of service to the poor – Daridra Narayan Seva. He raised money for the construction of Belur Math to feed the famine hit in Mushirabad in 1897 and again in 1898, to serve plague victims in Calcutta. Belur Math temple incorporates the architectural style associated with the places of worship of each religion. There are monks in the Ramakrishna order who are Muslim, Christians, Jews and Hindus, and they live together in the service of humanity.Swami ji believed that there never was “my religion or yours, my national religion or your national religion”, there is only one infinite religion that has existed all through eternity and will ever exist. When purity and spirituality disappear, leaving the soul dry, quarrels begin and not before. Therefore, he said, “Follow one and respect“Follow one and respect all.” The essence of religion is God-consciousness. To Swami Vivekananda, our watchword should be acceptance and not exclusion.(The writer is head, Judah Hyam Synagogue, New Delhi) Today is Swami Vivekananda's birth anniversary.

Faith In God, The Self, And In The World Around By: C L Gulati Jan 10, 2022, 17:08 IST Whenever we require something in life, we acquaint ourselves with its known attributes and characteristics for an objective test to affirm our faith in its genuineness. Once the attributes are testified, it becomes all the more reason to pin faith on it and accept it to serve our purpose. Faith does not work apart from intellect but gives soul to the intellect; it gives a power that the mind can never measure. Faith and intellect are like two wings on which the human spirit rises to identify the truth. Faith stands for affirmation of truth, followed by acceptance of the truth affirmed. Without the first, faith is blind, and without the second, it is meaningless.All the evolved persons agree that God is one and that man's first duty is to realise Him. If a man loses faith in God, he loses faith in himself. It spells a crisis of character. The attributes and characteristics of God given in all the acknowledged scriptures are the same. Seeing God face to face by the grace of a satguru, man clinches his faith and gives assent to this divine testimony. While the beauty is said to be skin deep, the enlightened faith enters the bones and prompts the man, "Love the Lord, your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. This is the first and greatest commandant,” (St Matthew 22:37-38). In times of difficulty, the devotee with such an abiding faith never says, ‘Hey God, I have a big problem.' Instead he says, ‘Hey problem, I have a big God.'Satguru plays a pivotal role in a man's life. The singular objective factor identifying a satguru, true master, is the instantaneous, direct introduction of man with the all-pervading God. This enlightenment marks the seed of faith in the satguru. Thereafter, the devotee completely surrenders to the master. Nirankari Satguru Mata Sudiksha ji says, "If a person has a strong urge for God-realisation, he will find a true master to bless him with God-knowledge."Faith of the devotee in the true master is important, but it is equally essential for the devotee to earn the true master's faith in him. While ordaining knowledge of the all-pervading God is the distinctive mark of a true master, accepting and implementing his ‘word', in letter and spirit, is the hallmark of the devotee. It is said that those who joyfully leave everything in God's hand, eventually see God's hand in everything. Worry ends where faith begins. The joy we derive from faith is often our strength. When our faith deepens, we become true disciples. Like a steady generator, faith gives power when all else fails. Faith once shaken cannot be restored and for the victim it is an irretrievable loss. On the other hand, practising, in letter and spirit, the guru's ‘word' means gaining the world. Earning the faith of the satguru, the Gursikh, in turn, is blessed with the triple faith that we all need today: faith in God, faith in the Self, and faith in the world around us. This omnibus faith broadens our horizons, like the vastness of God, and provides a road map for a smooth life. The writer is president, Sant Nirankari Mandal.

By Inder Raj Ahluwalia. His entire life a saga of selfless sacrifice, nobleness of thoughts and actions, and supreme belief in justice and dharma, Guru Gobind Singh was a guru and apostle. In his life span of merely forty-odd years, the Guru left behind a priceless legacy of beliefs and principles that have shaped Sikh thinking and behaviour and are of great relevance today. Guru Gobind Singh's life was one big struggle. His father, Guru Tegh Bahadur, was martyred in Delhi to save Kashmiri pandits, and he had the mortification of seeing all four of his sons killed, the elder two in battle, and the younger two bricked alive. Almost his entire life was spent fighting off the intrigues of the hill chiefs of north India and the ruling sultans. He lived on the edge yet continued undaunted in his quest for dharma.With martial considerations in mind, and to promote the cause of dharma, the Guru created the Khalsa, pure, on Baisakhi day in 1699. This was a new order of followers, a spiritual and social entity rather than a politically dynamic force. Calling the Khalsa pure and his very own, he thus gave a form to the concept of the ‘warrior saint', which he had championed all his life. The Khalsa were ordained to believe in one God, shun rituals and superstitions, seek respect for women, and consider everyone equal. The Guru's overall message was that one should look upon all persons as deserving of kind treatment, having a license to lead a peaceful and dignified existence. These virtues propagated by the Guru are precisely the beliefs the world needs today. Despite his turbulent life, the Guru was a great patron of the arts. At Paonta Sahib, he meditated, composed poetry and wrote much of the ‘Dasam Granth'. At Anandpur Sahib, he created the Khalsa. The Guru has inspired millions to look beyond their own, limited vision. As human beings, we tend to ‘take'. The Guru taught us to ‘give' rather than ‘take'. Because that is precisely what he always did. His presence keeps us going. Whenever one feels lonely, one only has to think of how he might have felt losing his entire family, and all loneliness tends to disappear. When tense or depressed, just think of all the problems he faced. Yearning for homely comforts, you just have to recall how he managed in his harsh surroundings, and suddenly your home starts to appear more comfortable. Guru Gobind Singh left us with a great gift – the ‘Guru Granth Sahib' – which he designated our ‘eternal Guru'. This ensures blessings for humanity at any Gurdwara in the world.He wasn't just a Guru for the Sikhs but also a saviour of other communities, instilling in them a sense of pride and dignity. His new order was a mission to ‘do right'. He did it right till the end and paid for his beliefs and ideals with his life, and that of his family. Four of the five Sikh ‘Takhts', thrones, commemorate Guru Gobind Singh, for if ever anyone deserved a throne, it is him. January 9 is Guru Gobind Singh Jayanti.

By Sant Rajinder Singh:As we reflect on how we can better our lives in the new year, here is a blueprint to help us lead the kind of life God wishes for us. Our lives should be centred on love – love for God and love for our fellow beings. When we open our hearts to them and take time to be with those we love, think more about others, and try to show them how we feel. When we radiate warmth and love to all around us, when we are more patient, more tolerant, more compassionate to others. When we give, give and give to all around us to bring joy and happiness to their lives and to alleviate their burdens. It all begins as we connect with God's love through the process of meditation. When we take our attention away from the outer world and focus it within, we are filled with joy and bliss. We are inspired to live a life of service to others and to embrace all we meet as members of the same family of God.Our soul has an existence that is unconstrained by the limitations and boundaries we place on our body, mind and intellect. When we live at the level of our soul, we can transcend the walls of separation and embrace one and all. We develop the godly virtues of truthfulness, non-violence, selfless service, compassion and humility, and we lead the life that God wishes for us. Blog Blueprint for a life God wishes for us January 2, 2022 Divya Bharat Edit Page blog, India blog, Speaking Tree blog, Spirituality blog, TOI Edit Page blog By Sant Rajinder Singh As we reflect on how we can better our lives in the new year, here is a blueprint to help us lead the kind of life God wishes for us. Our lives should be centred on love – love for God and love for our fellow beings. When we open our hearts to them and take time to be with those we love, think more about others, and try to show them how we feel. When we radiate warmth and love to all around us, when we are more patient, more tolerant, more compassionate to others. When we give, give and give to all around us to bring joy and happiness to their lives and to alleviate their burdens. It all begins as we connect with God's love through the process of meditation. When we take our attention away from the outer world and focus it within, we are filled with joy and bliss. We are inspired to live a life of service to others and to embrace all we meet as members of the same family of God.Our soul has an existence that is unconstrained by the limitations and boundaries we place on our body, mind and intellect. When we live at the level of our soul, we can transcend the walls of separation and embrace one and all. We develop the godly virtues of truthfulness, non-violence, selfless service, compassion and humility, and we lead the life that God wishes for us.When we experience the Light of God within us through meditation, we also see the same Light in all people and all life forms. We realise that each person is valuable, being made by God, and carrying God within them. This makes us recognise all life as one human family. True spiritual development comes when we realise that we are all one. With that realisation, we no longer feel superior to others. We reach a state in which we recognise that all are important.With this elevated vision, we then develop love and respect for all life. We care about others and do not want to see anyone in pain. We become loving, selfless human beings committed to helping others. If each person awakened to the oneness of all life, there would be peace and happiness on the planet. The commodity that is most valued in the realms beyond this world, to which we all will go, is spiritual love. The soul is measured not by our financial records, but by the amount of love we have radiated to others. Did we love God? Did we love our fellow beings? Did we love all creation? Love is translated into thoughts, words and deeds that are expressed in kindness to others. It is expressed in how much we care about others. It is demonstrated by how much we give.

By Ullhas Pagey Isaac Newton was not only an eminent mathematician and physicist but also an erudite philosopher, a deeply spiritual person and a theologian known for Biblical literalism. To most of us, Newton is known for his laws of motion, and there appears to be a striking similarity between these laws and some tenets of Indic philosophy. Newton's first law, also known as the law of inertia, states that if a thing is at rest, it will continue to be at rest and if it is in motion, it will continue to be so unless an external force is applied. Inertia is common among people with predominantly tamasic tendencies. They can be lazy and indolent, and many times need an external stimulus to get moving. Similarly, those with a hyperactive nature might find it difficult to be at peace with themselves. So, to bring change in their temperament requires external interventions such as regular physical exercise and meditation.The second law is that if the same force is exerted on two objects with different mass, they will gain different speed. The heavier one would require more force to move than the lighter one. Likewise, lazy people would need more prodding and pushing as compared to agile ones. The third law, also known as the law of action and reaction, states that for every action, there is an equal and opposite reaction. Interestingly, this resonates well with the law of karma, which means that whatever action we perform, either good or bad, has a bearing on our destiny. Whatever goes around ultimately comes around. Good karmas result in noble values, whereas bad karmas result in vicious values. After all, a person is a product of his past karmas. The saying goes: As you sow, so shall you reap. Newton's contribution is not restricted to the laws of motion alone. He is credited with the discovery of ‘calculus' – a branch of mathematics that is anchored around the concept of independent and dependent variables, that is synonymous with the relationship of ‘cause and effect', often mentioned in our scriptures. It states that the working of the entire universe is governed by this basic law. Through the discovery of calculus, Newton seems to have given a quantitative and tangible shape to what seems to be rather a lofty concept of cause and effect relationship.Spirituality identifies three constructs of human personality: body, mind and intellect. Most of us are focussed either on our body or get trapped in the web of emotions and make the least use of the intellect, which every one of us is bestowed with. Newton, however, was an exception. While sitting in the garden one day, he saw an apple fall from a tree, and this led him to formulate the law of gravity. What fired Newton's imagination to explore this phenomenon in detail? It was the spirit of inquiry, a function of intellect. When Newton was asked how he discovered the law of gravity, he is said to have replied, “By thinking about it all the time. He who thinks half-heartedly will not believe in God, but he who really thinks has to believe in God.” Today is Isaac Newton's birth anniversary.

Jesus Says Through Struggle Centring Happens By: Osho Dec 22, 2021, 13:13 IST Jesus says: Men possibly think that I have come to throw peace upon the world, and they do not know that I have come to throw divisions upon the earth – fire, sword, war. Whenever a man like Jesus comes, the world is immediately divided between those who are for him and those who are against him. You cannot find a single person who is indifferent to Jesus. Whenever a Jesus-type is there, immediately the world is divided. A few are for him and a few are against him, but nobody is indifferent. It is impossible to be indifferent to Jesus. If you hear the word, if you look at the Jesus, immediately you are divided: either you become a lover or you become a hater; either you fall in line or you go against; either you follow him or you start working against him. Why does this happen? Because a man like Jesus is such a great phenomenon and he is not of this world. He brings to this world something from the beyond. Those who are afraid of the beyond immediately become enemies; that is their way of protecting themselves. For those who have a desire, a seed hidden somewhere, who have been searching and searching and longing for the beyond, this man becomes charismatic, this man becomes a magnetic force: they fall in his love. They have been waiting for this man for many lives.The world is immediately divided: either you are for Christ, or you are against him. There is no other alternative; you cannot be indifferent. You cannot say, “I'm not bothered.” That is impossible, because a person who can remain in the middle will become a Jesus himself. A person who can stand in the middle, in neither love nor hate, will go beyond the mind himself. He creates great turmoil, not only in individuals but in society too, on the earth; everything comes to be in a conflict, a great war starts. Since Jesus there has never been peace in the world. Jesus created a religion. He brought something into the world which created such a division, such a conflict in all minds, that he became the focus of all history; that is why we say, “before Christ,” “after Christ.” He became the focal point. With Jesus, history starts. His attitude, his approach toward the human mind, is very different from that of a Buddha or a Lao Tzu. The goal is one, the ultimate flowering is going to be one, but Jesus' approach is absolutely different. He is saying that through conflict growth is achieved; through struggle centring happens; through war peace flowers. But don't take him literally, whatsoever he is saying is a parable… Jesus was not talking of the swords of this world; he brought a sword of a different world. What is this sword? It is a symbol. You have to be cut into two, because in you two things meet: this world – the earth – and heaven; they meet in you. One part of you belongs to the mud, to the dirt; one part of you belongs to the divine. You are a meeting point, and Jesus brought a sword to cut you asunder, so the earth falls to the earth and the divine enters the divine. Abridged from The Mustard Seed, courtesy Osho International Foundation, www.osho.com

By Osho You don't know the usefulness of the useless. In fact, the useful is only useful so far. It has a certain utility, but the useless has no limitation to it. What is the use of a rose flower? No use, but life would be very empty without rose flowers. What is the use of laughter? It is not a commodity; it does not feed people. If you are hungry, it will not help. If you are ill, it will not help, it is not medicine. If you are fighting with somebody it will not help, it is not an atom bomb. Of what use is laughter? That's why the people who look at life with the eyes of a utilitarian don't laugh. They don't love because what use is love? To them it is wastage, a wastage of energy, time, life. To them it is stupid because it is useless. They earn money rather than falling in love, because money is useful. Love has no utility, but love has grandeur and splendour. Without love what is life?Of what utility is meditation? Sometimes people come to me, and they ask, “What will we get out of meditation?” They are thinking of getting some profit, they want some result. And I say to them, “You are not going to get anything out of it.” Meditation is not a means to some end; it is an end unto itself – that's why it has no utility. What utility is there in poetry? That's why in the countries where people become too money-minded, poetry starts disappearing. Have you watched it happening in America? Politicians, rich people, businessmen – they live long; poets die very soon.It was not so in ancient Greece. In ancient Greece, poets, philosophers, mystics lived very long. In India in the past, yogis and meditators lived very long, but now that is not the case any more. Politicians and actors in India live long. We measure people by their utility, we reduce people into commodities. I'm not saying don't do anything useful. I'm saying do useful things but remember that the real and the greatest experience of life and ecstasy come out of doing something useless. It comes through poetry, it comes through painting, it comes through love, it comes through meditation. The greatest joy floods you only when you are capable of doing something useless, useless in worldly eyes. Because it can't be reduced into a commodity, that's why they call it useless.Now if you invent something, a gadget, you can patent it and you can earn money out of it. But if you write a beautiful poem, you can't earn any money out of it; it is just wastage. People ask, “What are you doing? Why are you wasting your life?” But writing poetry, if you really have been into it, is a great joy in itself. Nothing else is needed, you are already rewarded. No other extrinsic reward is going to make any difference to you. The reward is inward, intrinsic; it arises out of the activity. Writing poetry, painting, or playing on the flute – they are not utilities.(Abridged from The Wisdom Of The Sands, courtesy: Osho International Foundation, www.osho.com)