History of Christianity I

Semi-Pelagianism is an attempt to reconcile the views of Augustine and Pelagius and finding a middle ground. Man is born sinful and man comes to free will alone. Sanctification is actually the work of God, grace is what effects the salvation and is still necessary. This holds on to the view of free will as earning salvation. Explore Augustine’s view on the Trinity. The Trinity was central to Augustine’s thought. He spent over 20 years writing his work, De Trinitate and held there is one God who is Trinity. Father, Son, and Holy Spirit are distinct and coessential. These are united in one substance. For Augustine, the starting point of our understanding is faith, not reason. Explore what he states in the beginning of his De Trinitate. Augustine started with the Divine Nature, not the Father’s nature. God is absolute being, simple and indivisible, and above all forms. In practical terms, the Father, Son, and Spirit are not three individuals. Whatever is said of God should be said in the singular. A later example is the Athanasian Creed. Christ is fully human and fully divine. All the attributes apply to each Person of the Godhead. The Trinity possesses a single, indivisible action and will. There is unity in their purpose, rule and relationship to humanity. Consider the distinctions in the Trinity: The Father “begets the Son”. The Son “is begotten”. The Spirit is “bestowed by the Father and Son”. What do we call these members of the Trinity? Persons? What is the role of the Holy Spirit? His role is the mutual love of the Father and Son. It is the consubstantial bond that unites them. Consider the human understanding of the Trinity. There are attempts at explaining (not proving) the mystery of the oneness in three. Consider sense perception: the object (what we see); the mind’s representation of what we see (memory); and intention or act of focusing the mind on it (will). These all happen in unity. In the idea of love, there is a lover, the object loved, and the love that unites them. Paul tells us in 1 Corinthians 13:12, “For now we see in a mirror, dimly, but then face to face. Now I know in part, but then I shall know just as I also am known.”

Explore the Primitive Age (700-1050) in the Middle Ages. The focal point of this time period was the inferiority of Western Europe to its Greek and Moslem neighbors. The West was in serious trouble due to Moslem invasions and the fact that the Christian church was feeble. Poverty kept the whole region in a state of constriction. The Church was in its “Benedictine Age” (named after Benedict of Nursia). There was strict observance of “The Rule”. Relics became important which were physical demonstrations of the spiritual significance of a person or thing and God’s promises. There was also a sense of priestly kings. They were crowned with a great deal of pomp and circumstance. At this time there was confusion between civil and spiritual authority. It was said, “Always remember, my king, that you are the deputy of God, your king. You are set to guard and rule all His members and you must render an account of them for the Day of Judgement.” In the Age of Growth (1050-1300), there was a radical change from the Primitive Age. This was a time of massive expansion, development, and economic growth. With this successful time came a bloodthirsty sense of superiority. People became specialists in certain fields. This was the time of entering into the Age of Scholasticism and the Crusades. Consider the rise and limits of clerical superiority. There was a demand for specialized knowledge. The Church developed schools of theology, which led to universities. Gilds and societies were formed to preserve the interests of the people from outsiders. The Church became a huge society. View the Bayeux Tapestry of the Battle of Hastings in 1066 AD and William the Conqueror. Church leaders can be seen in the storyline in the tapestry. Consider that history is important and its consequences are important. The church was also involved in taxation.

Explore the views of Augustine and Nestorius. What did Nestorius believe? He believed Mary was not theotokos (God-bearer) but she was christotokos (Christ-bearer). He did not want the humanity of Jesus to be overcome by His divinity. He held that Jesus had two natures and two persons – divine and human. Nestorius was refuted by Cyril of Alexandria. Explore historical events during and after Augustine in a short video showing the rise and fall of the Roman Empire. From 376-382 AD there was the first war with the Germanic Visigoths. Theodosius I reigned from 379-405 and was the last to unite the eastern and western empires. He made Christianity the official religion of the empire. In 410, Rome was sacked by the Visigoths. In 455, Rome fell to the Germanic Vandals who were Arians. The Ostrogoth Kingdom emerged in 493. The Papacy maintained some sense of consistency and normalcy during this time. It was an important aspect of continuity and stability in the Middle Ages. Explore the evolution of the term “pope”. How did the popes rise in authority? The pope gained the greatest authority with the invasions of Rome. The Bishop of Rome became a symbol of unity. There was stability in the middle of turmoil and there was consistent authority – the Church claimed to be the one “true state”. Explore what Thomas Hobbes stated in Leviathan (1651). During the entire Medieval Period, the Papacy was the single continuous spiritual and temporal authority. The Middle Ages can be understood in terms of the rise and decline of the Papal monarchy.

Explore the period of the Arab conquests. Mohammed claimed to see a vision from the angel Gabriel. Mohammed held that God is one, he is just and merciful, and requires obedience from all. Jesus, for Mohammed, was from a long line of prophets. In the 7th Century, conquests included Syria, Jerusalem, Damascus, Egypt, etc. In the 8th Century the Arabs made their way into Europe. They were defeated by Charles Martel at the Battle of Tours in 732 AD. Who was Charlemagne? He revived the ancient Empire. He was crowned Emperor on Christmas, 800 AD by Pope Leo III. View a map of the expanding Empire. Charlemagne’s territory and reign was extensive. Those conquered were forced to become Christian. He believed in an educated society. Consider that there were three major divisions of the Middle Ages. The first was the Primitive Age (ca. 700-1050). The second was the Age of Growth (ca. 1050 -1300). Lastly, there was the Age of Unrest (ca. 1300 -1550).

Explore the Donatist controversy. During the Great Persecution, those Christians who handed over the texts were the “traditores” or “handers over”. Those who did not were the “Confessors”. Afterward, some traditores wanted to be readmitted to the Church. Donatus was a confessor and believed that the Lapsi (those who decided to be lapse in their faith) should not be readmitted. A major issue came up. Can official acts by unworthy bishops be effectual? If not, all the acts are invalid. The true church was made up of those who suffer. Donatus advocated resistance to the government. There were two extreme deviations. One was the Circumcelions and the other was Monasticism. Augustine’s view was that the Lapsi should be readmitted to the Church. This eventually led to Augustine’s just war theory. This also led to Augustine’s views of the Sacraments. Holiness is not bound with the person enacting the Sacrament but is within the Sacrament itself. It is inherent in the Sacrament itself.

Explore Athanasius and Arius. Athanasius branded his opponents under Arius’ name as “Arians” or “Arianism”. The East-West divide was not just Christological. There was a personal battle due to many not liking Athanasius. There was also an ecclesio-political as the church and state were intertwined. Consider the general timeline. In the 340’s, in the East, there was a basic distinction between Father and Son, yet they were ineffably close (Heb. 1:3). In the early 350’s, Constantius and “Homoian” (similar) theology argued that the Son is “like” the Father, but ontologically inferior and distinct. In the late 350’s, there was Extreme Subordinationism. Heterousians (“Anomoians”) held that the Son is “unlike” the Father. This emerged out of Homoian theology. The key figures were Aetius and Eunomius. Heteroiousians believed the Son was of a different substance than the Father. If God was not created, homoousious does not make sense as a term to describe an act of generation. The Son is generated from the Father’s will. Explore Basil of Ancyra and the Homoiousians. Consider the Epistemological approach (What can we know?). The Father and Son are alike in essence, but that is unknowable. Consider Basil, Constantius, and the “homoian” creed. We benefit from those engaged in these conversations from their careful exegetical work. Consider that God allowed His church to wrestle through these ideas through the lens of Scripture and then come up with a theological proclamation that does justice to what Scripture teaches.

In the 360’s and 370’s there is a return to the Nicene Creed. Many were disillusioned by Constantius’ creed. This was a period of rapprochement. What was the uniting factor? Athanasius pointed to the Nicene Creed. No one wanted to divide God’s material being. There was no division, no confusion of persons. Results were the development and clarification of terminology. “God is one in nature, power, glory, or essence; three ‘hypostases’”. In the last quarter of the 4th Century the Council of Constantinople was held (381 AD). There was general harmony that God is mysteriously three in one. These theologies were not identical but all held to monotheism. There were not degrees of divinity or (subordinationism), God was comprised of three persons, and incapable of being understood by men. Explore final thoughts and questions. Was Nicaea really about Christ’s divinity? Was there a long-lived group of “Arians”? Ousia and homoousios were non-technical terms at the time. Various readings include Arius, Eusebius, and Marcellus. The traditional narrative of Nicaea, Constantine, Athanasius, and Arius tended to be correct in some areas but needed to be nuanced in other areas. The Council of Nicaea did little in establishing a uniform proper understanding of Christ’s relationship with the Father. The Rule of Faith defined orthodoxy previously in a broad way. Here was a beginning to try to define orthodoxy with precision. By and large the Christian community was being brought back together which was a work of the Holy Spirit.

Augustine is the only early Church Father who remains an intellectual powerhouse today. He was a genius and a major contributor to western dialogue. He was born in 354 AD and was well educated. His mother had a huge influence on his life and introduced him to the customs of Christianity and Scripture. He became a teacher and rhetorician. He was enamored with philosophy. Augustine’s philosophical background was Manicheism, which taught a radical dualism. It was Gnostic-esque. It taught that Redemption is allowing the divine spark within to become part of the greater Divine essence up above. It is quite different from Irenaeus who believed all creation was to be redeemed. One of the outcomes of Manicheism was a strict aestheticism. It also mocked Christianity for taking the material world seriously. Manicheism was a “hodge-podge” of many long-dead heresies. Augustine, in the end, objected to Manicheism by finding the system incoherent, having outlandish cosmic theories about how the world began, and he did not feel the spirituality promised came true for him. In 384 AD, Augustine traveled from Africa to Milan. His father had died and he wanted to be rid of his mother but eventually was reconciled. There was also maternal pressure to lose his mistress so to elevate his social status. Explore what he states in his Confessions. Augustine was into the world but it was in Milan where Augustine met Ambrose and was introduced to Christianity. Ambrose was an intellectual powerhouse also and is the counter part to Augustine.

Explore Ambrose and Augustine. Ambrose was called “the golden-throated one”. In many ways, Ambrose was the opposite of Augustine. Augustine moved on to a new philosophical interest – Neo-Platonism. This philosophy holds to the “One” or source of all, which is able to be reached through study, discipline, and mystical contemplation. Evil is the absence of good or the True One. For Augustine, Neo-Platonism had similarities with Christianity. He was reluctance to accept Christianity but finally assented. It meant self-denial. Augustine used to pray this prayer, “Lord, Give me chastity and self-control but not too soon.” He knew Christianity meant denial. Explore the conversion of Augustine as recorded in his Confessions. As a result, Augustine shook off his own self-gratification and began to have a much better understanding of the Christian faith.

Why does Augustine stand as a pivotal figure? The theological background of Western Christianity pre-Augustine had a more legalistic character. Post-Augustine we see more of a “Pauline” character – we see “righteousness by faith”. Latin thinking did not tolerate philosophy. Tertullian’s famous phrase was “What does Athens have to do with Jerusalem?” Origen was an advocate of philosophy but was a Greek writer. Up to this point there was negativity towards seeing the role of philosophy for being a guide for Christian theology. Explore controversies during this time such as the Pelagian Controversy. Pelagian was an austere British monk who moved to Rome and then to Carthage. Augustine and Pelagius held differing views on sin. For Augustine, humanity was a “lump of sin”. For Pelagius, it was the opposite – he was a moralist and believed that man was capable of not sinning. He believed that mankind has total free will as did Adam and Eve in the garden. In Deuteronomy 30:19 we read, “Today I invoke heaven and earth as a witness against you that I have set life and death, blessing and curse, before you. Therefore choose life so that you and your descendants may live!” In any action, power comes exclusively from God. Secondly, the will is what belongs to mankind as does the action or choice the will makes. Mankind may have free will but God is still sovereign. Grace only applies to capacity or God’s action in our life. Mankind is not automatically sinful at birth and when born our souls are in no way connected to Adam but have a new clean soul. Mankind is not pressured or drawn to do good (posse non peccare). It is not what Christ has done for us. Christ’s moral example is for us to live a perfect life. Pelagius stated, “A Christian is he who is one not in word but in deed, who imitates and follows Christ in everything, who is holy, innocent, unsoiled, blameless, in whose heart there is no malice, but only piety and goodness.” Salvation is not by grace alone by faith alone. It requires strenuous perfection. Explore a diagram on Pelagianism through a soteriological chart. Soteriology is the whole concept of salvation.

Explore Augustine’s response to Pelagius. On human freedom, Augustine used the example of Adam and Eve (pre-Fall). It was not an inability to sin (non posse peccare) but it was an ability not to sin (posse non peccare). For Augustine, man’s will pre-Fall was good and devoted to doing the commands of God. In the Fall of mankind, Adam and Eve are to blame, not God. The chief end of man is to glorify God and enjoy him forever. Adam substituted himself and his desire for those of God. In the sin and post-Fall, mankind is wretched “massa damnata”. The main points are that sin is a matter of the will and the result of sin is that human nature is terribly scarred. Augustine did not use the term “total depravity” – he wanted to retain the nobility of man’s creation as good. He stated, “…the spark, as it were, of reason in virtue of which he was made in God’s likeness has not been completely extinguished.” Due to sin, mankind lost the ability to do good. It is “non posse non peccare” – it is not possible not to sin. What changes this? Grace. Grace for Augustine was an absolute necessity. He stated, “… without God’s help we cannot by free will overcome the temptations of this life.” There are different kinds of grace. Prevenient grace can be seen in Psalm 59:10, “My God of mercy shall come to meet me; God shall let me see my desire on my enemies.” There is also Cooperating Grace, Sufficient Grace and Efficient Grace. Grace is a free gift of God no matter what kind it is. How do we reconcile free will and the concept of predestination? For free will, it is God who stirs mankind’s heart for the destination of the good. For predestination, grace is the ultimate expression of God’s will. In free will, mankind is always free to choose. God’s omnipotent will is irresistible. Consider the relationship of free will and freedom – freedom is free will put to good use. For predestination, God determines who will or won’t receive grace. How does God decide who He will justify? We cannot know the answer to that question. God has mercy on those he wishes to save and hardens those he does not choose to show mercy. His choice to save some shows His compassion. Augustine stated, “Therefore, if He has mercy on whom He pleases and hardens whom He pleases, it is in keeping with His secret and inscrutable justice.” God is merciful but is also just. Christ suffered the justice of God for our sin.

Explore the Nicene Creed (325 AD). Consider the use of the word “begotten”. The 4th Century was marked by controversies, dialogues, and disputes. There was also a sharpening of exegetical strategies and a clearer understanding of the nature of the Trinity and nature of Jesus Christ. What is our own understanding of Jesus and how does it relate to the 4th Century conversation? Who were the important people and for what reasons? Where was the impact of the Council of Nicaea felt? When did the instances occur - when did the sequences occur? Why does it matter to our faith and witness? How would we summarize the events of the 4th Century and their impact? Consider a reassessment of the traditional narrative of Nicaea. What was Nicaea really about? The traditional view is too simplistic. The focus of the debate was on the generation of the Son or Logos from the Father and the grammar used to talk about the Divine. The nature of Jesus is soteriologically relevant. Are the Father and Son distinct and if so, are they two separate beings? Come to understand that the 4th Century is extremely complex. We need to keep history and theology together. There are three overlapping lenses through which we can view Nicaea. First, it can be seen through the legacy of Origen. Origen had influence on both sides of the debate but no one fully accepted his view. Origen believed that the Son was the product of the Father’s will. A second lens to view Nicaea is through theology and reading of Scripture. The two main strategies were the grammatical-literal and the allegorical-figurative. The third lens is through the Arius-Alexander debate. Ousia is the essence or being – a category. Hypostasis is a circumscribed individual reality or broadly as a nontechnical term meaning existence or nature. In review, the controversy in Alexandria between Arius and Alexander was in 318 AD. Alexander believed that the Son was between created and uncreated yet the Son was always with the Father and eternally generated. Arius held that the Son existed by the Father’s will “before all ages” but was not an eternal existence. He also held that the Son does not share in the Father’s eternal existence or being. For Arius, Christ is the Son only by adoption and holds a mediatory place between man and God. He held that the Holy Spirit was the first of the creatures from the Logos. His was an overly rational theological approach. Constantine urged reconciliation and wrote a letter to Arius and Alexander. Constantine felt it was “futile irrelevance” which showed his inability to recognize that it was a significant theological issue.

Scholasticus stated in his Ecclesiastical History, “[Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria] . . . attempted one day in the presence of the presbytery and the rest of the clergy to explain, with perhaps too philosophical minuteness, that great theological mystery, the unity of the Holy Trinity. A certain one of the presbyters under his jurisdiction, whose name was Arius, possessed of no inconsiderable logical acumen, imagining that the bishop was subtly teaching the same view of this subject as Sabellius the Libyan, from love of controversy took the opposite view to that of the Libyan and as he thought vigorously responded to what was said by the bishop. ‘If,’ said he, ‘the Father begot the Son, he that was begotten had a beginning of existence: and from this it is evident, that there was a time when the Son was not. It therefore necessarily follows, that he had his substance from nothing.’” How did we get to Nicaea? It began with the question, who is Jesus? Review the terms, ousia, homoousia, and hypostasis and understand how the terminology grows in meaning. Constantine called the Council of Nicaea in order to deal with a number of controversial issues including Arius. Arius was condemned, exiled, and eventually reinstated but the night before it formally happened he died. The Council of Nicaea demonstrated various theological trajectories that existed at the time. The overarching issue was the Son’s relationship with the Father. Some emphasized the closeness or unity and others the distinctions between the Father and Son. In the end, the Council of Nicaea produced no resolution.

What was to happen after the Council of Nicaea was just as critically important as the events which lead up to it. Post Nicaea, Arius was of little significance and so also homoousios. The Creed was not seen as an authoritative statement of faith by most mid to late 4th Century writers. What were some of the Post Nicaea controversies? There were strong Unitarian tendencies. A key person was Marcellus of Ancyra who wanted to preserve the unity of God. A big part of the focus was on Genesis 1:26, “Let us make man in our image…” He spoke of a Monad expanding into a Triad. We read in John 16:13, “But when he, the Spirit of truth, comes, he will guide you into all truth. For he will not speak on his own authority, but will speak whatever he hears, and will tell you what is to come.” Is Marcellus a Manachian (Modalist)? Yes, except he believed that the Son was eternally with the Father and that the Son was generated and not a person – only the incarnate Christ is a person. Explore his eschatology. 1 Corinthians 15:28 was a key verse for him - the end of the redemptive process when Christ’s kingdom ends. “And when all things are subjected to him, then the Son himself will be subjected to the one who subjected everything to him, so that God may be all in all.” The Word or Son then returns to his pre-“going forth”. A collision began between theology and reason or philosophy. Marcellus and his followers were eventually condemned and exiled. In Tertullian’s Treatise Against Praxeas he stated, “Thus Praxeas at Rome managed two pieces of the devil’s business: he drove out prophecy and introduced heresy: he put to flight the Paraclete and crucified the Father.”

Athanasius followed Alexander as bishop of Alexandria (328 AD). He was a staunch defender for homoousios among eastern bishops. His life had major swings as he was at one point accused of black magic and murder, and accused of interfering with the sailing of corn ships from Alexandria to Rome. He was exiled by Constantine and eventually returned to the western empire after Constantine’s death. Constantine’s son Constantius was in the East and was an Arian sympathizer. His other two sons reigned over the Western Empire. Constans in the West was a pro-Nicaea leader. From 340 AD, the two halves of the empire and the Church were divided along Arian doctrines. In the East there were pro-Arian supporters and the West was not Arian. Eventually Constans convinced Constantius to reinstate Athanasius as bishop of Alexandria. Constantius later became the sole ruler of the empire and Athanasius was deposed again at the Council of Milan in 355 AD. He died in 373 AD. What defined his theology? In the Greek Church he is known as the “Father of Orthodoxy”. He advocated for faith over reason and had very little speculative theology. Consider his view on the Father and Son relationship as stated in The Letter to Serapion. For him, Christ is on the Creator side of the Creator/creature distinction. The Logos was not created, but “begotten” eternally. Athanasius believed the Son is of the Father’s substance (homoousious, not homoios). Redemption through the Logos was the root of Athanasius’ theology. The Logos was made man that we might be made God. True redemption does not work unless Christ is fully divine. His Pneumatology included that the Holy Spirit is also Divine and Consubstantial (homoousios). He stated, “For the Son does not merely partake of the Spirit, that therefore he too may be in the Father; nor does he receive the Spirit, but rather he supplies it himself to all; and the Spirit does not unite the Word to the Father, but rather the Spirit receives from the Word . . .” The Holy Spirit proceeds from the Father.

Explore Constantine’s practical legacy to the Christian faith. He commissioned new copies of the Bible and built new churches. He authorized tax revenues to be partially given to church charities. There was also a Christian influence on laws and there was no work on Sundays. Constantine was not baptized until on his deathbed in 337 AD. Despite his affinity for Christianity, Constantine never made Christianity the official or established religion of the Empire. His influence drastically shaped church-state relations. Students discuss the context of the Council on Nicaea and actions of Constantine at this time. Constantine was a politician and a Christian with a very rudimentary understanding of the Christian faith.

Origen was the successor of Clement of Alexandria and was trained theologically by his father. He was funded by a generous woman. Origen is probably the most divisive figure in Christian history. Explore Origen and the allegorical method. Allegory is “other speak” and therefore the controversy. Allegories are interpretations that claim the plain sense of text do not provide the true or at least the full meaning. In allegory, the words, events, and characters stand for something else. Critics believe allegory betray the true meaning of the text and is based more on imagination rather than evidence. Consider what Paul tells us in Galatians 4:21. A contemporary example of allegory is the song “American Pie.” Origen stated, “Now what man of intelligence will believe that the first, second, and third day, and the evening and the morning existed without the sun, moon, and stars?” The first aspect of allegory is making sense of nonsense. The second aspect is adding to the sense. An example of this is The Chronicles of Narnia. The third aspect of allegory is saving the sense of Scripture. Origen also suggested the Old and New Testaments related to one another allegorically. Origen’s threefold exegetical approach corresponded to the body, spirit and soul. There is the literal aspect (body), moral sense (spirit) and spiritual (soul) but the literal and spiritual are mostly emphasized. Origen believed that Scripture is not meant to be read literally all the time. There were critics of Origen’s exegetical approach. Epiphanius felt that all heresies had one common point with Origen. He stated, “All draw from the pure water of Scripture, all ignore its original sense and twists its meaning and they make scriptures mean what they do not mean at all.” He believed Origen’s Greek education and philosophy were to blame and stated, “Thus you, Origen, your mind blinded by your Greek education, have vomited poison for your followers and have become noxious food for them, by which you yourself have been harmed while harming more people.“

Origen’s theological views are greatly influenced by his exegesis and textual criticism. His book, On First Principles, lays out the views of his theology and hermeneutics. He believed that Scripture and Tradition are the sources of Christian doctrine. The truths were given by apostles but not explained, thus the goal of theology is to discern greater truths. Two elements to Origen’s theology are Tradition and progress and positive and speculative theology. The source of all theology is God the Father. Origen was familiar with the concept of the Trinity. The concept of the Trinity refutes Modalism and Monarchianism. Consider the relationship of the Father and Son. The Son proceeds from the Father by a spiritual act. There was never a time when the Son was not. Origen is the one who coined the term “homoousious”. He felt that “ousia” was not suitable to describe the Divine substance and chose instead to use the term Hypostasis to mean “individual real circumscribed existence”. The Son mirrors the Father and is a product of His will. Explore Origen’s views on Christology and Pneumatology. He viewed the Son and Spirit as intermediaries between the Father and creatures. There is a Creator-creature distinction within theology. Origen had a very hierarchical view of the Trinity. For Origen, Jesus is a “secondary” God and his soul is eternal. Origen spoke of Christ as being “created” although not in the same way as the world. Why use the term “created” at all then? It is a concession to Proverbs 8:22, “The Lord created me as the beginning of his works, before his deeds of long ago.” Colossians 1:15 states, “He is the image of the invisible God, the firstborn over all creation . . .“ Origen’s Trinity was not just three distinct beings – monotheism must be preserved. They are distinct things through pragmata. There is a Fountainhead of Deity. In his eschatology or apokatastasis, Origen believed in the universal restoration of all things. All sinful souls must be purified and good souls will enter paradise. There is no fire or hell. All things including Satan will be saved and purified by Logos. This is where his idea of the pre-existence of souls comes from. His view was closely connected to his eschatology. He believed Christ’s soul was preserved from the Fall and remained in the spiritual realm until the Incarnation. Epiphanius stated, “It is disgraceful that Origen teaches the Son is less than the Father.” Origen was a major Greek writer in the 3rd century. In summary, many see early inter-pretations as reckless, but we must see how their approach differs from ours. Patristic writers saw scripture itself as the subject, not its underlying history. Irenaeus’ Rule of Faith is the central hypothesis of Scripture with the central point being Jesus. Scriptural authority comes from divine inspiration, the Holy Spirit, and apostolic heritage. The apostolic heritage facilitates, not provides, that authority.

Explore the background of the 4th Century in which there was chaos. The Great Persecution happened under Diocletian (284-305 AD) around 297-301 AD. Explore the Tetrarchy with the Eastern Empire ruled by Diocletian and Galerius, and the Western Empire ruled by Maximian Augustus and Constantius. Galerius provoked Diocletian into persecuting the Christians. Diocletian retired in 304 AD and insisted that Maximian retire as well. Galerius took over for Diocletian and Constantius took over for Maximian. Galerius continued the persecution. Constantius did not think Christians should be persecuted so did not pursue Christians. Eventually Galerius concedes defeat since the public was not unifying but actually dividing. Galerius issued the Edict of Toleration. Consider Eusebius’ response. Christianity became a religio licita (a legal religion) once again. Constantine was in Britain when his father died and he claimed to be the rightful successor to the throne. Maxentius also claimed the throne. There was a political and physical battle going on but also a spiritual battle. Constantine had a conversion experience in which the Labarum symbol (Chi-Rho) appeared and so it was used on the shields of his men during the battle at Milvian Bridge where he defeated Maxentius. Constantine was theologically confused from the start. Consider Henry Chadwick’s description of Constantine. Constantine never left this syncretic faith. The Arch of Constantine marks the spot of the Battle of Milvian Bridge. Constantine took control of the Western Empire, formed an alliance with Licinius, and agreed to no more persecution of Christians through the Edict of Milan. Was all well and everyone living in peace? Not exactly. Distant rulers such as Maximinus Daia who ruled the furthest eastern part of the Empire carried on the persecution but was eventually overthrown by Licinius. Constantine and Licinius had a complex friendship or relationship. There was distrust between them and in 324 AD Constantine overthrew Licinius. Constantine became the sole ruler of the entire Empire and desired unity.

Unity was desired by Constantine to keep the Empire together. The Donatists arose in part from the Diocletian persecution. They believed that Christians who handed over the Christian banned texts in 303 AD should not be able to participate in the sacraments. A conflict arose in the Eastern part of the Empire between Alexander, Bishop of Alexandria, and Arius. Alexander disagreed with Arius’ views on Jesus’ divinity. Arius taught that the Son was not unbegotten nor in any way part of the unbegotten God. He believed that the Son did not exist before being created. Arius stated, “There was when he was not.” Arius held that the Son had an origin and God is unoriginated. He believed Jesus is a “perfect creature”. Part of this came from Proverbs 8:22, “The Lord possessed/created me at the beginning of his work; the first of his acts of old.” Alexander taught that the Son eternally coexisted with the Father. Those who supported Arius included Eusebius of Caesarea and Eusebius of Nicomedia. The Eastern church was quickly becoming divided. Constantine called for a council in 325 AD which initially met in Antioch, affirmed the views of Alexander, and excommunicated Eusebius of Caesarea pending formal proceedings to be held at Ancyra. Constantine moved the location to Nicaea. This is where the Nicene Creed was formed.

How do philosophy and theology relate to one another? Tertullian was not a great fan of philosophy but inescapably had to incorporate it in his own writings. He made a famous statement, “What does Athens have to do with Jerusalem?” Athens was the hub of Greek philosophy and Jerusalem was the hub of the origins of Christianity. In Tertullian and Origen we have two very different types of people who contribute immensely to Christian theology. Explore Tertullian’s biography. He was a lawyer and skilled in the art of argument. He came to know Christ around 193 AD and was very much impressed with the heroism of those Christians who were persecuted. Consider that persecution was part of the reason for the spread of Christianity. He settled in Carthage, in North Africa, and adopted Montanism around 207 AD. In his writings he engages often with the Roman church leaders or the leadership of the Roman Empire. Tertullian’s literary contribution and personality is that, aside from Augustine, he is the most important Latin writer in the early church. He incorporated philosophy, law, and Greek writings in his writings and was very learned. He was vigorous in his attacks, satirical, impatient, and funny. Tertullian also had the ability of capturing big themed ideas to few words. He cast Praxeas accurately and in few words. The central feature of Tertullian’s writings is truth. He is passionate about the truth. Truth is to Tertullian what the Bishop is to Ignatius. But what is the truth? Tertullian had his own Rule of Truth. The Rule of Truth derives the core tenants of what it means to be a Christian as understood by the message of the Gospel, authoritative writings of the time, and their boundary markers. We need to know how the faith works for ourselves so that we can worship correctly and know our status before God correctly. We need to also know these core tenants of orthodoxy so that we recognize heresy and wrong belief.

Continue to explore the central feature of Tertullian’s writings, truth. Truth for Tertullian is what separates the Christian from the pagan. There is a trail of authority from the apostles and the church. Ultimately, Scripture has absolute authority. There was no Canon at the time but Tertullian spoke of scripture assuming his readers knew what he was referring to. There was an informal understanding and identification of a set of texts that had authority. There was a list of authoritative texts so there was a loose conception of Canon. One of the things for Tertullian was harmony – that all the texts will agree with one another. Consider that when there appears to be a discrepancy, that is when the Church comes in and helps us present a correct interpretation of the Scriptures. This is the economy of Scripture. Scripture should be read as a whole – a “total reading”. Right interpretation of Scripture is guided by the Church. If God is consistent then His Word will be consistent. Tertullian held that “tradition” was not just the New Testament, but church doctrine too. (Church understood as having the ability to speak as the people of God.) How can we verify the tradition of the churches is authoritative? For Tertullian, the church had to be founded by and continuously linked with an apostle. There also had to be unanimity with other churches’ preaching- a harmony of voices teaching the faith. Tertullian did not view the Rule of Truth as a creed – it is intrinsic to and a pattern of Revelation. Did Tertullian believe tradition trumped Scripture? He held that arguing from Scripture alone could be at times futile as the heretics used Scripture too for their arguments. It is about properly understanding Scripture – it becomes an exegetical issue. Tertullian’s works include various apologetic works (legal background). He appealed to the freedom of religion. He stated that Christians are not disloyal because they believe in the true God. Tertullian also wrote works against the heretics, especially against Marcion. He wrote a number of theological and practical works, one on Baptism and On The Resurrection and Flesh of Christ. He also wrote on prayer, women’s dress, idolatry, monogamy, repentance, exhortation to chastity and martyrdom. He referred to martyrdom as a noble struggle and likens it to physical training. He was fairly against flight during persecution. He stated, “Is it better to flee from place to place then to be captured and deny the faith under torture?” For Tertullian, flight goes against the will of God. He also wrote of the passion of Perpetua and Felicitas.

Explore Tertullian’s theological contributions. He has been called the “Founder of Western Theology” and the “Father of Orthodox Christology.” We celebrate what God has done through him which continues to affect the Church to this day. But also we can critique him. He had a legal understanding of the Faith. There is a legal sense of our standing before God as one of sin. His Rule of Faith is significant. We start to see how Father, Son, and Spirit relate to one another by action verbs. On the Trinity, Tertullian is the first to use the Latin word, Trinitos and seems to know both binitarian and Trinitarian formulae. His views on the Trinity became his greatest contribution. Explore Tertullian’s understanding of the Trinity. He set forth what he believed to be truth, which was different from what Praxeas believed which was some form of Modalism. He started to lay out terminology for the Trinity and the Godhead working. He stated, “I always affirm that there is one substance in three united together.” In Tertullian’s Christology, he had some elements of subordination – the belief that the Holy Spirit and the Son are somehow of a lower rank than the Father. He was a semi-subordinationist. He distinguished the immanent Word from the uttered or emitted word by God. We must understand the terms “Wisdom” and “Logos”. Wisdom existed before creation and the Son is technically not eternal because the Son became the Word at creation. Tertullian is very clear about the two natures of Christ. When Christ becomes incarnate He does not loose His divinity. He stated, “We see plainly the twofold state, which is not confounded, but conjoined in one person-Jesus, God and Man . . .” He over-emphasized the humanity of Christ. His ecclesiology was the first to use the term “mother” to refer to the church. He felt the church was “the repository of faith and guardian of revelation.“ His Montanist leanings saw a “spiritual church”. He also saw the church of the Spirit in opposition to the church bishops. Eschatologically he was a Chiliast who believed in the literal 1,000-year reign and that the soul undergoes a penitential suffering after death.

Some overemphasize the Montanist views of Tertullian as the reasons behind his theological perspectives. Other say he was predisposed toward Montanism. His hard lines in his theology may be from his legal background. What is the relationship between faith and philosophy? Tertullian famously asked the question, “What does Athens have to do with Jerusalem?” His defining feature of North African theology was that he did not blend the two. He felt that it invited pagan thinking to dictate theological principals. Tertullian called Socrates a “corrupter of youth.” Clement of Alexandria took a different view and believed faith and philosophy did belong together. He believed the church could not avoid competing with pagan philosophy. Christianity needed to be relevant and engaged with the philosophical questions of the day. For him, all secular learning serves theology. Christianity is the crown of all truth found in various philosophical doctrines. Origen marks the zenith of the school of Alexandrian theology. He believed philosophy was a vitally important aspect of theology. He stated in his Letter to Gregory, “However, I have wished that you make use of all your intellectual power in a purposeful manner [τελικŵς) for Christianity. For this reason, I pray that you productively draw from Greek philosophy those things that are able to become, as it were, general teachings or preparatory studies for Christianity . . .” Paiidea is the study of education. It is important for full study that provides for understanding and proper exegete of Scripture. Consider Jesus’ disciples and that it did not require a PhD to become a follower of Christ. Consider the educational mandate. Origen’s goal was to recruit scriptural scholars. He believed philosophy is a guide to Christ.

Explore Luke 1:1-4 and what Origin states in his section on The Discrepancy Between John and The First Three Gospels At This Part Of The Narrative. Literally Read, The Narratives Cannot Be Harmonized: They Must Be Interpreted Spiritually. The early church Fathers took Scripture very seriously and investigated it. There were various types of early Christian writings. Some wrote in Latin, others in Greek. They wrote Homilies, apologies, commentaries, treatises, poems, sayings, and dialogs etc. What do these have in common? They are intensely focused on scripture. They include biblical citation, paraphrase and exegesis of scripture. The book, Sanctified Vision is an attempt to capture the interpretive world of these early Christian writers. The key issue is our preconceptions. We can be unfair in our approach(es) to the Bible. We can assume the history behind the text is the most important. To help our interpretation, we apply reading techniques (e.g. source criticism; redaction criticism). So What? What is wrong with that? The problem is that the ancient (pre-modern) writers did not hold the same views as we do. Also, precise historical truth was not their main concern. They saw that Scripture has meaning because it is Divine Revelation. The Church Fathers assumed it had authority. They did not try to find Jesus “behind the text”. Consider the Muratorian Fragment. The Church Fathers held that Scripture refers to historical events, but this does not provide its meaning.

Consider exegetical strategies including the total reading of Scripture. The Bible is a single text and teaches a coherent, unified truth about the nature of God and human destiny. The central belief is that it is all about Jesus. It is collecting all the data and trying to find what the unifying bit is that takes us from Genesis to Revelation. Consider the example of Ignatius of Antioch being challenged. “Where is it taught in the archives?” Ignatius, stated in his letter to the Philadelphians, “Moreover, I urge you to do nothing in a spirit of contentiousness, but in accordance with the teaching of Christ. For I heard some people say, ‘If I do not find it in the archives, I do not believe it in the gospel.’ And when I said to them, ‘It is written,’ they answered me, ‘That is precisely the question.’ But for me, the “archives” are Jesus Christ, the unalterable archives are his cross and death and his resurrection and the faith that comes through him; by these things I want, through your prayers, to be justified.” Ignatius answered the question by saying “Jesus is the original document.” Jesus is the basis for a right reading of Scripture. Marcion and Valentinus misunderstood who Jesus is and what his role was. Irenaeus on the unity of Scripture holds that there are three main aspects – hypothesis, economy, and recapitulation. The hypothesis is the “gist” of a literary work – it is the overall purpose. Irenaeus stated, “Heretical interpretations read as if someone destroyed the figure of a man in the authentic portrait of a king, carefully created by a skillful artist out of precious stones, and rearranged the stones to make the image of a dog or fox, declaring that this badly composed image is that good image of the king made by the skillful artist.” What is the plan of the text? Explore how the Scripture and the Rule of Faith work together. If we understand the hypothesis and Christ correctly, everything will make sense. The Patristic Fathers showed us the need to apply Christ wholly to the Scriptures.

Continue to explore hypothesis, economy, and recapitulation. Consider the economy (“Oikonomia”) or the way the work is structured out. It means the good order and arrangement of affairs. How does the hypothesis relate to the economy? A valid hypothesis must express its economy. The overall gist of the story must make sense of all of its component parts and vice versa. Where do we get the “economy” of Scripture? We get the economy through the teachings of the Church, which upholds the Rule of Faith. Irenaeus stated, “But we hold fast to the rule of truth, that there is one almighty God who founded everything through his Word and arranged it and made everything out of the non-existent . . .” As the Church proclaims the Gospel, it is setting up the economy of Scripture. Christ is the center of all the economies of Scripture. Consider recapitulation, which is a summary and conclusion. For Irenaeus, Christ is the answer and fulfillment to all the questions to the Old Testament and creation. Jesus is the “x”, the referent and Christ is the hypothesis. Consider the broad view of hypothesis, economy, and recapitulation. There are various intensive reading strategies including the lexical strategy, which are tools to help study in the original languages. There are also translations for example, the LXX and Origen’s Hexapla. The goal of intensive readings is to gain a better understanding of what is written. Another strategy is the Dialectical strategy that considers apparent contradictions for example the Arian controversy and also the term “created by” in Hebrews 3:2 and Proverbs 8:22 as compared to what it tells us in John 1:1. The goal is to arrive at a unified reading by showing how seeming distinctions or contradictions illuminate other parts of Scripture. Athanasius points out that if Jesus was made, than he is a work. Ecclesiastes 12:14 states, “ For God will bring every act to judgment, everything which is hidden, whether it is good or evil.” But Jesus will never be brought to judgment. Consider what we read in Sanctified Vision. Consider that essence is being and economy is doing. Lastly there is the Associative strategy that attempts to establish links between texts. Cyril of Alexandria in his commentary on John states in reference to Ecclesiastes 10:9-10, “. . . whoever splits wood will be endangered thereby if the iron is blunt and he does not sharpen the edge he will be troubled and work harder.” For Cyril, wood is the Holy Scripture and the axe is the reader. Did Cyril taking things too far? How do we consider allegorical interpretation? Where does Cyril arrive at this interpretation? The goal of the Associative strategy is that it enhances the total reading of Scripture and it also provides a depth of interpretation.

Explore Typological Interpretation. What is the relationship between allegorical interpretation and typological interpretation? In typology, one text relates to another text, they are separated by time and space, but they are still directly related in terms of the history of redemption as taught in Scripture. Allegory is an idea related to the text but it is not in the text itself. Typology links one text to another. Allegory takes us out of the text into an idea that is separate and apart from the text, which can be helpful but it is not part of Scripture. Typological interpretation was the most important strategy for early Christianity. The characteristics were the meaning. Typos range from a broad sense of a pattern/form to the specific idea of a typeface or typewriter. Firm category denotes specific kinds of things or people. An example is being “typecast”. Consider Martin Luther King’s I Have A Dream speech as he used the pattern of the Exodus and Moses leading his people out of Egypt. Three major patterns of Typology are types of Christ in the Old and New Testaments, typology in terms of practice, and praxis such as Exodus and baptism. Explore what we read in Sanctified Vision. This is an attempt to be an interpretive recapitulation of the text as a whole. The last pattern is typology and “Jesus moments” as in Ignatius’ appeal to die like Christ and attain Christ, or the sequences of the martyrdom of Polycarp, which reflect the passion sequence of Christ. Explore the modern issues that come with the Typological exegesis. One criticism is that typology seems to override or discard the historical context. In Sanctified Vision we read, “When contemporary readers object to patristic typology, we are convinced that the true target of their objection is not typology itself but the presumed divine economy across which patristic typology functioned.” How is that the case? What are the limits of typology? There is reason for caution for mass exegesis when it comes to typological exegesis but it is an open category and can be a really fruitful exegesis.

Explore the Canon of Scripture. Consider what Athanasius, in 367 AD, in his Festal Epistle stated concerning the books not included in the Canon. Explore the emergence of the Canon. There were different forms of writings including the “Roll”, the “Scroll”, and the “Codex”. The Roll was inscribed on one side, the Scroll, on both sides. The Codex is illustrated from the Papyrus Bodmer II (ca. 125 AD). These included pages which were bound together made from various materials – papyrus, parchment, or paper. Possible reasons for the emergence of the Canon - the Word of God – was a response to heresy such as with Marcion or Montanism. Marcion held that the Old Testament God was bad and the New Testament God was good. He held that Jesus brought grace, which replaced the Law. Review what the Gnostics believed. What exactly is Montanism anyway? It originated in the mid-second century in Asia Minor (Phrygia). The leader of the group was Montanus (along with a prophetesses) who held that he had the Holy Spirit. Early responses included spreading within the Roman Empire. Irenaeus was ambivalent to this view, Tertullian converted to it, and many called it a “Fake Prophecy”. What was so inflammatory about their beliefs? They claimed the Holy Spirit was in the Apostles, but the Paraclete was not. Montanist claimed utterances or oracles from Montanus, “I am the Lord God dwelling in man . . .” and “I am the Father and Son and Paraclete . . .” Pricilla would say, “Christ came to me as a woman . . .” They also claimed a legitimacy for their martyrs. What does Montanism have to do with the Canon? They added to Scripture. They used many “authoritative” books, but they also claimed authority for other works.

By the time Athanasius writes about a formal list for the Bible, it was a concrete end to a whole process that had been happening for centuries beforehand and he was speaking for the status quo. Where does one begin the process of discussing the Canon? We begin with Papias, who wrote a 5-volume work entitled “The Expositions of the Sayings of the Lord”. Fragments of this work were preserved by Eusibius and others. Why is Papias important? He gives us the earliest account of the origins of the Gospels of Matthew and Mark. Oral tradition had a profound impact on him. Papias was a Chiliast who believed in the 1,000 year reign of Christ. Did Papias say anything about Luke and or John? Consider the Canon in the Mid 2nd Century. What was Justin Martyr’s Bible? It probably contained the four Gospels, the letters of Paul including Hebrews, Acts and general Epistles, and Revelation. A major methodological question is how do we determine which books these writers knew or used? Did they use a direct citation or allusion? Consider that Christian writers did not always reproduce exact citations of the biblical text. They often cited from memory. For example, Theophilus stated, “For God gave us a law and holy commandments; everyone who does them can be saved . . .”

Continue to explore Canon in the 2nd Century. Consider Tatian’s Diatessaron, which means “through the four”. His text harmonized the four gospels but Tatian was eventually branded a heretic for his Gnostic views and theology. Explore Canon considerations of the 2nd Century. The Church had three options: choose just one such as Marcion or the Ebionites; choose a synthetic Gospel for example, Tatian’s; or allow an array of Gospels. Consider the Muratorian Fragment, which is the earliest list of authoritative books that we have. It contains the Gospel of Luke and assumes the Gospel of Mark, John, some of the Pauline writings including 1 and 2 Corinthians, Ephesians, Philippians, Colossians, Galatians, 1 and 2 Thessalonians, and Romans. It also contains Philemon, Titus, 1 and 2 Timothy, Jude and 1 and 2 John, Wisdom of Solomon, Revelation of John, and Apocalypse of Peter. It rejects the books of Valentinus, Marcion, Milteides, Basilides, and the Montanists. This proves that prior to Athanasius, a lot of work was being done to understanding which texts are authoritative. Textual authority leads to Christian identity. Explore Irenaeus on the Gospels. Irenaeus is adamant that there is only one Gospel. He is the first to say there are four Gospels that tell a singular Gospel message – no more and no less. Irenaeus also preserved the earliest ordering of the Gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John. Others ordered them as Mathew, John, Luke, and Mark due to the preference of the eyewitness accounts. Irenaeus’ Bible contained the Old Testament, which included commonly accepted books along with some additions to Daniel, Baruch, 2 Esdras, 1 Enoch. For the New Testament, Irenaeus would have had a collection of books he saw as “accepted” including the four Gospels, Acts, 13 Epistles of Paul, Hebrews, 1 Peter, 1 John, and Revelation. It possibly may have included the Shepherd of Hermas as well.

Explore extra canonical writings. Consider the story of the discovery of the Nag Hammadi Codices. A sample of non-canonical works include the Gospel of Judas (ca. 170 AD) which had Jesus saying to Judas, “You will sacrifice the man who clothes me.” Charles Hill states, “It is something of an irony then that one of the most telling contributions of the Gospel of Judas to our knowledge of early Christianity just might be its witness to the existence and authority to the canonical gospels before Irenaeus.” Another is the Gospel of Truth (mid-2nd Century?), which is a theological treatise. It is an attempt to draw non-Gnostics to their point of view. Also, there is the Gospel of Peter (ca. 150 AD?) which Serapion of Antioch deemed authentic but later felt it had been tainted by the Docetists in its denial of the humanity of Jesus. Serapion reversed his earlier decision. Explore how the Gospels originated and consider the Markan priority within the Gospels, “Q”, the Lukan source and Mathian source. The Gospel of Thomas (ca. 140 AD) was sometimes thought as “Q”. Early Church Fathers tended not to think it was canonical. The Gospel of Thomas demonstrates secret knowledge and a sense that there is a privileged message which Jesus gives to those “in the know.” The Infancy Gospels try to fill in the gap of the life of Jesus between his birth and ministry. We have the Infancy Gospel of Thomas. They are fanciful stories of Jesus as a miracle child. What is the value of these texts? They show a diversity of “Christian” thought and actually point to the veracity of the Gospels.

Continue to explore why we only have four Gospels. Consider that there are a number of different types of “gospels” and other “Christian” literature. We have Narrative Gospels (e.g. 4 canonical gospels, and the Gospel of Peter), the Infancy Gospels, the Sayings Gospels (e.g. Gospel of Thomas), Post-Resurrection Dialogues or Revelations (e.g. Gospel of Mary), and Pre-Resurrection Revelation works (e.g. Gospel of Judas and Gospel of Peter). What distinguishes the Canonical Four from the others? They are biographical narratives – there is a context. Bauckham notes that the four are logically prior and chronologically prior. How did the fourfold Gospel happen? We must admit there is a lot we do not know. This is because canonization was a grass-roots process. Which texts did the Christian communities use? Which texts did the bishops read? The churches had to decide which texts were suitable but it did not happen immediately. When did it come about? Many point to the 4th Century with the Council of Laodicea and Athanasius. The four Gospels were widely known and valued in the early 2nd Century. Evidence for this comes from Papias, Justin, Celsus, Tatian, Apostolic succession Muratorian Fragment, etc. Consider Bruce Metzger and Richard Bauckham statements. Charles Hill’s “Who Chose the Gospels” is suggested as a further reading.

Explore Irenaeus’ theology of the Trinity. He emphasized the One True God as Creator of the World. He did not discuss the specifics of the threefold Godhead. In his Christology, he identified a clear relationship between the Father and Son and stressed essential unity in the Old and New Testament. He stated, “Therefore God has been declared through the Son, who is in the Father, and has the Father in Himself . . .” In his Pneumatology, he believed in the value of the prophecy of the Holy Spirit and called him the “Hands of God”. For his ecclesiology, Irenaeus is tied to the Apostolic Age via Polycarp. He picked up the need for the central role of the bishops. Bishops are the accredited witnesses of Apostolic teaching. Irenaeus believed that the Jerusalem Church was the church from which all churches begin and the Roman Church was founded by Peter and Paul. True Christian faith was preached by the accession of bishops. Irenaeus’ ideas on Eschatology include Recapitulation. In short, Christ “sums up” (recapitulates) all things unto himself. This countered the Gnostic idea of a “bad” world. His eschatology in scope is universal. Irenaeus stated, “Christ redeemed us by his blood – it is the ransom for our sins.” Also, Irenaeus was a Chiliast (belief in 1,000 year reign of Christ) in his eschatology.

Explore Orthodoxy and Heresy through the theory of Walter Bauer. He poses the question if our understanding of Christian history is correct or is it simply a version of history written by the “winners”? What is the standard for the “traditional view”? Eusebius is the “Father of Church History”. For Eusebius, Christian heresy emerged in the shadowy darkness of evil and heretics have very different and incoherent views. True Christianity is preserved in the writings of the apostles. A challenger was Walter Bauer who is an important scholar whether or not we agree with him. He was inspired by new discoveries of primary “heretical” sources. These writings show a variety of Christian thinking. Bauer’s argument is that Christianity was not a single orthodoxy with heretical offshoots. Rather, early Christian history shows evidence of a plurality of forms. Early on, what is now “heresy” comprised the overall majority. What we know as orthodoxy was the minority. These forms of early Christianity were competing with each other for the true interpretation of Scripture. Eventually one emerged as the dominant view. “Orthodoxy” did this by skilled communications, aligning itself with Judaism, and being the first to get to Rome. Bart Ehrman in “Lost Christianities” states, “Is it a surprise that it was the Roman form of Christianity that became the Christianity of all people in the empire?” For Bauer, Christian History is one of political, not theological, struggle. His analysis is not simple a personal opinion. It is based on intense study. Even today his book is essential reading for scholars. Explore reactions to Bauer. A rather large counter-attack occurred on Bauer. (see especially H. E. W. Turner) Despite many refutations, his view is still largely in tact. They are trying to show that early Christianity was a lot more complex than we generally think. Watch The Shining fake trailer at: www.youtube.com/watch?v=6s40Q6ODSI8. The truth is that The Shining is a horrible story. Consider that we need to be judicial in the way we tell history. What can we learn from Walter Bauer? We learn that early Christianity is far more complicated than Christian Tradition indicates. There is a development of orthodoxy, yet, there is a clear kernel of Christian orthodoxy that exists from the time of Jesus onward. How do we know this? We know this through Scripture and Tradition. Scripture is what steers orthodoxy but Tradition is also important. Why is tradition important? How we interpret Scripture is critically important (this is seen only through study in Christian History.) How we actually have these books is spelled out by tradition. Critics say that Bauer (and others) divorce theology and history.

When was there an unofficial canon? At the time of Marcion there was a big debate. The professor’s opinion is that the Church had an unofficial list of accepted works. This is how they could swiftly refute Marcion. The Orthodox or Traditional view is laid out in Ferguson (Chapter 6) for the criteria for canonicity. The criteria included inspiration, Apostolic authority, antiquity, applicability to the whole Church, public reading, and right doctrine which is coherent and consistent with the Apostolic teachings. Was there Canon in the Early Church? Was there a core canon or closed canon? Bruce Metzger’s distinction is that we can think of the canon as a “collection of authoritative books” or an “authoritative collection of books”.

Explore the ideas held by the Gnostics. The term Gnostics comes from gnosis, gnw/sij (knowledge). The Gnostics claimed to have privileged knowledge about the divine world. Salvation was achieved through “gnosis”. Consider their ideas about cosmogony, the origins of the world. Explore a visual of the cosmos of the Gnostics. The Pleroma included Sophia, one of the Aeons, who experienced a fall into the physical world of the Kenoma, delivered the Demiurge (a lesser god abandoned by her), was saved by the Christ Aeon who saves people to the higher God and was restored. The Demiurge was the one who created the world and is inherently bad. The Gnostics believed Jesus was a fleshly man on whom the Christ Aeon descended or that Jesus was the actual Christ Aeon who only appeared to be in the flesh. Therefore a spark of divine knowledge is in man, who is enabled to be illuminated to the truth of salvation. The Gnostics were dualistic and believed that the resurrection does not include the flesh – only the spirit (soul) is good and delivered to the realm of the gods. As a result, they abandoned the Old Testament. They divided mankind into a threefold division of: 1) pneumatikoi, the privileged of special knowledge who will be saved; 2) the psychikoi who are capable of obtaining knowledge but may or may not truly be saved; and 3) the sorkikoi who are beyond understanding.

Explore the views of Marcion, the “Arch Heretic”. He was a wealthy ship builder who came to Rome around 140 AD and was excommunicated by July 144 AD. He is important for his views on three issues. One issue is the purpose and nature of Christ. He held that Jesus was not born of a virgin, he only materialized and appeared as a man and was delivered from the Old Testament God of creation. How does Christ relate to the Father? Marcion wrote Antitheses which addressed the gospel vs. the law and a good god verses a bad god. Marcion believed that Jesus and God were two separate Gods. He held that the Demiurge was the god of the Old Testament. What were his views on Scripture? He took the Old Testament literally and thought the gospels were ‘tainted’. Adolf von Harnack felt that Marcion was the first “reformer” of the church. Marcion’s ideas about the original gospel message and its origin included that it must be free from all Judaism. He also believed that the letters of Paul must have been corrupted since they included Judaistic tendencies. He held that the entire apostolic age was driven by one major topic: the struggle between Judaizers and those who argued the gospel should be free from any Jewish links. Lastly, Marcion pointed out that Paul claimed that he was directly called by Christ himself and that his gospel came not from human mediation but from special revelation and must be the authentic gospel. Marcion got rid of the gospels of Matthew, Mark and John. He only used and redacted the gospel of Luke. He eliminated the passages that reflected God as the Father of Jesus Christ. Marcion saw law and grace as completely incompatible. Technically, Marcion was the first person to develop a canon of the New Testament of authoritative texts. His legacy continued for quite a long time and reappears even today.

Irenaeus is the most important theologian of the 2nd Century. He was influenced by Justin Martyr but was not an apologist. Irenaeus writes from the perspective of an experienced preacher, not a philosopher. Irenaeus was the guardian of traditional Christianity and a hearer of and influenced by Polycarp, an important link to the apostolic age. Of Irenaeus’ works, one is “Against Heresies”, or originally called, “Refutation and Overthrow of Knowledge Falsely So-Called”, and the other is “Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching” (essentials of Christianity). His purpose in “Against Heresies” was to catalogue and refute heresies and to stave off internal divisions due to heresies. Book One is a detailed description of the heresies. Books 2-5 are basically the overthrow of the heretics. What was the heretical threat? It was to redefine the nature and purpose of Christ. There was also the threat of expanding or contracting the New Testament writings. Also, there was a threat of redefining the whole soteriological scheme. Explore the main points of Against Heresies: originality is not indicative of Church leaders or Truth; and heresies represent the itch for something new. Irenaeus’ other work, “Demonstration of Apostolic Preaching” is more pastoral. In the first part he talks of the essentials of the Christian life and key themes of Christianity. The second part speaks of proofs for the truth of Christian revelation from the Old Testament. He concluded with an exhortation to readers to live a godly life. As a theologian, Irenaeus is important. Two critically important aspects of Irenaes are that he unmasked pseudo-Christian character of gnosis, and his defense against heresies led him to be called “The Founder of Christian Theology”. The Rule of Faith is a summary of Scriptures, not a replacement. The Rule of Faith claims that God is the Creator, Christ is the Redeemer to God the Creator, and there is some mention of the Holy Spirit, the Church and judgment.

View a picture of the Amphitheatre at Carthage, the likely martyr site of Perpetua and Felicitas). Continue to explore the physical opposition and major persecutions of Christians during this time. Decius (249-251 AD) had a big impact and wanted to preserve classical culture. He ordered everyone to make sacrifices to the Emperor and those who did were provided with a libellus, which was a receipt or proof of the sacrifices. Christians had no libellus and the Bishop of Rome was executed. Valerian (253-260 AD) ordered similar decrees that all Christians had to sacrifice to the Emperor. Cyprian of Carthage was martyred during this time in 258 AD. During the reign of Gallienus (260-268 AD), persecutions seem to die down. He was the first Emperor to issue an edict of toleration. Christianity was still illegal but decriminalized. Explore the tetrarchy established by Diocletian (284–305 AD). He divided the Empire into two parts, East and West. Each part had a Ruler and a deputy or lieutenant ruler. In the West, his lieutenant, Maximian Augustus, was in charge. Diocletian took over the Eastern part. Under Maximian Augustus was Constantius I in the West and under Diocletian in the East was Galerius, who did not like Christians. The Great Persecution began in 297-301. What was the spark? Galerius was the reason Diocletian persecuted Christians. He issued four edicts and each ratcheted up persecutions. In February 303 AD, churches and books were destroyed. In mid-year 303 AD, the clergy was imprisoned. In November 303 AD, amnesty was offered to Christians who would sacrifice to the Roman gods. In the spring of 304 AD, everyone had to sacrifice or face death. Some Christians responded by burning the emperor’s palace in Nicomedia. Diocletian responded by making 268 Christians martyrs. What were the types of punishments for persecuted Christians? They were thrown into cages with wild animals, had their eyes gouged out, were beheaded, crucified, and had molten lead poured down their throats. Consider Hebrews 11:25-27. Diocletian retired in 305 AD and forced Maximian to retire also. Galerius, his lieutenant took over the East and continued the persecution of Diocletian. Constantius ruled over the West and took a far less brutal path. He did not execute people, but he did burn various churches. What were the results of this persecution? This heroism brought new converts and attracted people to the faith. Many in the crowds watching had sympathy. In 311 AD, Galerius, in the East changed his mind (a politically expedient move) and issued an edict of toleration. Christianity was once again a religio licita (legal religion). The edict ended by asking the Christians to pray for the empire. When Constantius I died, his son, Constantine defeated Maxentius in 312 AD at the battle of Milvian Bridge for control. How does this relate theologically to us today? Jesus tells us, “If anyone wants to become my follower, he must deny himself, take up his cross daily, and follow me.”(Luke 9:23) We also read in Romans 5:8, “But God demonstrates his own love for us, in that while we were still sinners, Christ died for us.”

Explore the life of the Early Church. What did initiation into the Christian faith mean? It was a change in lifestyle and loyalty. Consider the Christian confession of early belief. Kyrios is the word for “Lord”, the substitute for the Tetragrammaton. The rite of Baptism is a public initiation into the faith. Everett Ferguson gives a giant overview of baptism in the early church in his text, “Baptism in the Early Church: History, Theology, and Liturgy in the First Five Centuries”. What was the Church and what was it like? The Greek word Ekklesia means “gathering” and Didache is the Church universal. The earliest churches met in private homes. Not all churches were led by men – consider Lydia, Chloe, and Priscilla. Women played a huge role of importance in the early church. Consider 1 Timothy 2:11-15. View a picture of Dura Europos (ca.256 AD), a city in ancient Rome in which the people abandoned the town and as a result the city got buried and preserved. It is a great example of an early Christian meeting place. The picture contains the baptistery including frescoes that portray the Good Shepherd, Healing of the Paralytic, the Woman at the well, Christ and Peter walking on the water, and women at the tomb. View the Dura Europos structure and layout that includes the house before modification to make room for a sanctuary and the large sanctuary room for Christian worship. Other characteristics of the early church were that Christians saw each other as “family”. Sunday was the day of worship. Justin Martyr, in 1 Apology 1.67, gives an example of Christian worship. Consider that the early Christian liturgy was “semi-rigid”. Consider what the Didache states concerning the Eucharist. Jewish Christians would pray three times a day and sing. Explore Ephesians 5:18-19. They would also speak in tongues with an interpreter but it could have been more a word of exhortation and encouragement rather than prophecy. There was also Baptism but we do not know what the certain initiatory rites were. Baptism, the affirmation of faith, is very important. What was the Trinitarian perspective at this point?

For early Church structure, we find that Ignatius held a three-fold office including Bishops, Presbyters, and Deacons. Titus 1:5 states, “The reason I left you in Crete was to set in order the remaining matters and to appoint elders in every town, as I directed you.” These offices were all elected by the people and by the 4th Century, bishops were often appointed by the Emperor of Rome. I Clement and the Didache imply a two-fold office of Bishops or Presbyters and Deacons. The Church roles included “Presbyters” who were generally the church leaders or “elders” and were sometimes called “bishops”. There were also “Bishops”. What led to a singular bishop among a college of Presbyters? The Bishop had the power to ordain and it was his prerogative. There was a need for someone to write and receive inter-church correspondence. He was the chief representative of a congregation. Bishops were a unifying, central figure in the fight against heresy. Deacons primarily served in practical ways. By the end of the 2nd Century, there was a three - tiered (three office) structure. Explore the different parts of the Didache. Who were the Apologists and what were their roles? What are Apologies? Originally, it meant a defense against something. Over time, (ca. Eusebius, 4th century) it also became known as a defense on behalf of something. Our focus will be the Greek Apologists. What were their objectives? First was to answer the charge that Christianity was a threat to Rome. They also exposed the absurdity and immorality of paganism while showing Christianity alone understood God. They also wanted to show the limits of philosophy. There were different audiences for the Apologists. Some were written to Jews (e.g. Dialogue with Trypho). Some works were addressed to Roman leaders (e.g. Apologies of Justin and Tertullian). There were also anti-heretical treatises. Generally, the audience would not have understood the basics of Christianity. “What is truth?” is a major starting point for some of the Apologists.

View a chart from Ferguson’s text of the various Greek Apologists. Eusebius quotes Quadratus of Athens about composing his work ”because some wicked men were trying to trouble the Christians.” He continued, “But the works of our Savior were always present, for they were true, those who were cured, those who rose from the dead, who not merely appeared as cured and risen, but were constantly present, not only while the Savior was living, but even for a time after he had gone, so that some of them survived even till our time.” Aristides of Athens’ audience is the Stoics. He writes of Christians, “. . . they above all the nations of the world have found the truth. For they acknowledge God the Creator and Maker of all things in the only begotten Son and in the Holy Spirit; and besides him they worship no other.” Justin Martyr was born to pagan parents and was originally a pagan himself. He tried various philosophies such as Stoic, Aristotelian, Pythagorean, and Platonic. His mind was changed due to his conversion. Justin Martyr, on Christianity stated, “this is the only reality reliable and useful philosophy I have found.” He was, in many ways, the first theologian. Consider what he states in Dialogue of Justin With a Jew. Justin continued to wear the pallium or philosopher’s robe. He began to answer the question whether or not Christianity and philosophy are compatible to each other.

Justin Martyr’s theology was rooted in Scripture. His main task was to interpret Scripture, mainly the Old Testament. In terms of God, he leaned towards Platonic philosophy that taught that God dwells in the regions above the sky and he is not omnipresent. The Divine Logos (Reason) is the means by which the Father (transcendent) deals with His creation. Justin’s Christology included a distinction between the Father and Son that corresponds to the distinction between the transcendent and immanent God. Christ was the Logos or Divine Reason and means of creation. Logos became man and was God and man. Justin’s analogy was, “. . . just as we see also happening in the case of a fire, which is not lessened when it has kindled [another], but remains the same; and that which has been kindled by it likewise appears to exist by itself, not diminishing that from which it was kindled.” Justin’s doctrine of the Logos is the most important aspect of his theology. The Divine Logos appeared fully in Christ but a “seed” of the Logos (logos spermatikos) was scattered among mankind before Christ. Thus, all people possess this “seed” of the Logos. In fact, some pre-Christian philosophers were (according to Justin) “Christians”. For Justin, Christ’s possession of the Logos is similar to the possession of the Logos by others, but in a full degree. Justin’s writings include his First Apology which was written to the Emperor (Antoninus Pius). The fist half is a repudiation of the State’s approach to Christians. The second half is a justification of the Christian religion. His Second Apology is a protest that severe instances of Christian persecutions in Rome are unjustifiable. Justin’s Dialogue with Trypho the Jew is the oldest Christian apology against the Jews. Its three main points are that: 1) Christians claim all of the Old Testament; 2) the Mosaic law was temporary; and 3) Christians are the New Israel. Justin writes concerning the writings of David. Other apologists included Tatian, who wrote the Diatesseron, which is a fusion of the four gospels into one. He eventually was branded a heretic for having gnostic ideas. Meltiades wrote an apology for Christian philosophy. Apolinarius wrote five books against the Greeks and Melito of Sardis wrote to the Jews and an apology to Marcus Arellius arguing that Christianity meant blessing and welfare to the Roman Empire. Athenagoras wrote an apology for Christians around 177 AD disputing incest, atheism, and cannibalism. Athenagoras held a central unity of the Father and Logos. Consider the Epistle to Diognetus. Diognetus was a high-ranking pagan and asked a Christian for information on his faith.

Consider Irenaeus’ statement in Against Heresies concerning the rule of truth. There are key themes that will be covered on the topic of heresies. One is the relationship of Creation, God, and Humankind. Another theme is the relationship of the God of the Old Testament and God of the New Testament. There is also the theme of the relationship of Jesus, God, and Humankind. Lastly, there is the theme on the view of textual authority (“scripture”). Explore who the Ebionites were. Irenaeus stated, “Cerinthus, again, a man who was educated in the wisdom of the Egyptians, taught that the world was not made by the primary God, but by a certain Power far separated from him, and at a distance from that Principality who is supreme over the universe, and ignorant of him who is above all. He represented Jesus as having not been born of a virgin, but as being the son of Joseph and Mary according to the ordinary course of human generation, while he nevertheless was more righteous, prudent, and wise than other men. Moreover, after his baptism, Christ descended upon him in the form of a dove from the Supreme Ruler, and that then he proclaimed the unknown Father, and performed miracles. But at last Christ departed from Jesus, and that then Jesus suffered and rose again, while Christ remained impassible, inasmuch as he was a spiritual being. Those who are called the Ebionites Those who are called Ebionites agree that the world was made by God; but their opinions with respect to the Lord are similar to those of Cerinthus and Carpocrates. They use the Gospel according to Matthew only, and repudiate the Apostle Paul, maintaining that he was an apostate from the law. As to the prophetical writings, they endeavour to expound them in a somewhat singular manner: they practise circumcision, persevere in the observance of those customs which are enjoined by the law, and are so Judaic in their style of life, that they even adore Jerusalem as if it were the house of God.” The Ebionites believed the world was made by a “lesser God,” Christ is impassible, and Christ and Jesus are distinct. They only accepted and used the Gospel of Matthew – it fit into their Judaistic tendencies.

Continue to explore the physical opposition to early Christianity. After Domitian, there was less active persecution. This is the time of the Letter of Pliny the Younger and Trajan. Trajan was Emperor from 98-117 AD and exercised an abundance of caution in the persecution of Christians. Hadrian (117-138 AD) was Trajan’s successor. During this time there was sporadic persecutions. Some hold that this was the time of the death of Ignatius of Antioch. Consider Marcus Aurelius (161-180 AD). The context was that Rome was facing difficulties. It was a difficult time for Rome politically, militarily, and economically. It was a difficult time for Christians in that they were being accused of many crimes. There were some notable martyrs during this time. Consider Polycarp and the martyrs of Vienne and Lyons. View a picture of the Amphitheatre at Lyon. Consider the example of the martyrdom of Blandina. Early Christian history is not just the story of men but women also. How do we handle our own trials? In total, 48 Christians were martyred in the Amphitheatre at Lyons. Tertullian famously stated, “The blood of the martyrs is the seed of the church.”

The Apostolic Fathers have immense historical and theological value. What do we look for in these texts? We should answer a few questions. Who is Jesus? What constitutes Christian authority? How does the Christian community shift from individual communities to an organizational hierarchy? Major factors influencing early Christian identity are the historical and theological aspects. Explore Ignatius of Antioch. Very little is known of his life. The mode of his death shows he was not a Roman citizen. Persecution at the time was localized, not widespread. Ignatius sent six letters to Christian communities along the way on his journey to martyrdom in Rome and one other was written to Polycarp. Curiously, Rome is the only letter that is not addressed to a bishop. Explore the theology of Ignatius. He had a very high Christology and is not shy about calling Jesus “God”. The Divine Economy is the core of Ignatius’ theology. Ignatius was adamant that Jesus is both human and Divine. He attacked the Docetists, who denied that Jesus was human. Ignatius states, “For how does anyone benefit me if he praises me but blasphemes my Lord, not confessing that he bore flesh? The one who refuses to say this denies him completely as the one who bears a corpse. But I see no point in recording their disbelieving names. I do not even want to recall them until they repent concerning the passion, which is our resurrection.” Ignatius also attacked the Judaizers for requiring Jewish customs to continue. Ignatius states, “It is outlandish to proclaim Jesus Christ and practice Judaism. For Christianity did not believe in Judaism but Judaism in Christianity - in which every tongue that believes in God has been gathered together.” For Ignatius, Jesus is fully human and fully Divine. Ignatius was very much influenced by the Apostle Paul’s writings.

Explore Ignatius in relation to ecclesiology. Ignatius called the church “the place of sacrifice” and his focus is on the Eucharist. He is the first to use the term “catholic” for the universal church. Ignatius was adamant in the submission to the bishop because they held a place of prestige and represented Christ. He held a Three-fold office in the church of Bishop, Presbytery, and Deacons. Ignatius saw martyrdom as the perfect imitation of Christ. Some have criticized Ignatius for being overly zealous in this regard. Explore 1 Clement which is probably the earliest Christian text outside the New Testament. The author is unknown but Eusebius tells us it was written by a man named “Clement”. It was written around the same time as Revelation from Rome. It was written to address problems in the Corinthian Church. I Clement is an appeal for peace and harmony. It uses many scriptural (LXX-Septuagint) sources. I Clement was extremely well received in the early church and many early Fathers (2nd-5th centuries) saw it as Scripture. It is important because it establishes the primacy of the Roman Church. There are major issues in I Clement. There is the issue of authority. The right to rule comes from the Apostles who were obedient to Christ. In the Christology of I Clement there is a pre-Trinitarian idea of coordinating all Three. I Clement does not go into how these Three relate to each other. Christ is presumed to have existed before the incarnation. We take from I Clement that there is a primitive understanding of Christ as Redeemer and an early view that the Father, Son, and Spirit are related. There is also a glimpse of the early Church-State relationship. Explore Polycarp and his letter to the Philippians. Polycarp was a friend of Ignatius. His letter implies that Ignatius had already died. Explore the theology and themes of Polycarp’s letter. In his Christology, he affirms the Incarnation and Christ’s physical death. Another theme is charity, he affirms Church and State, and is similar to I Clement. He is respectful but not submissive. “Righteousness” is a key term for Polycarp concerning the Christian life. Wrong behaviors are evidence of wrong beliefs. Wrong belief produces bad behavior. For salvation, Polycarp held that salvation is present and eschatological in nature.

Explore Acts 7: 54-60; 8:1. Consider the social and intellectual opposition to Christianity. What bothered Roman authorities about Christianity? Christians claimed to appeal to a “higher power” and were deemed disloyal to Rome. The Christians refused to participate in Emperor worship and worshipped privately. Christians would meet at night and in secret. Many Christians did not participate in the military. Social opposition included the specific accusations of “secret crimes”. Athenagoras mentions three things charged to Christians: Atheism; Thyestean Feasts; and Oedipean Intercourse (incest). Consider the story Minucius Felix relates. There are also examples of the mockery of Christians, one of which is graffiti. Christians were seen as charlatans (frauds, swindlers) as an example the story from Peregrinus.

Intellectual opposition to Christianity included the work of Celsus entitled “True Discourse” but which is lost. This work was later refuted by Origen. It is the oldest attack against Christianity by a pagan intellectual. Celsus actually knew Christian beliefs, the gospels, and other writings. He argued that Christianity was false, laughable, and disruptive. He asked, if Christianity is true and monotheistic, why worship both the Father and the Son? Celsus was a Platonist and did not understand why God came to earth. He felt it was absurd that a virgin would give birth and he did not believe in miracles. God chose females to be His first witnesses to His resurrection and that did not make sense to Celsus. He felt that Christians relied on faith and not reason, which proved their stupidity. There was also physical opposition to Christianity. The core of this issue was the relationship of Church and State. Early on Christianity was termed “religio licita” or legal religion and it was permitted to exist. After Nero, Christianity became a “religio illicita” or an illegal religion. Explore the scope of the persecution of Christians. Prior to 250 AD, persecution was sporadic and local. After 250 AD, persecution was more deliberate and a law of the state. The first persecutors of Christianity were from the Jews. In Acts 12:1-2 we read of Herod Agrippa and also there was the Jewish High Priest, Ananus who executed James, the brother of Jesus. Domitian (81-96 AD) required all to make an oath to the Emperor. He began persecuting Christians towards the end of his reign (ca.95 AD). The Book of Revelation likely refers to persecutions of Christians at this time.

In the first two centuries, Christianity expanded rapidly. At this time, (2nd Century) believers could be found in many areas. They could be found in Asia Minor, Syria, Greece, Macedonia, Rome, and Egypt. By 200 AD, Christianity was also in Persia and India. Christianity remained a tolerated religion. Explore two major reasons for its success. One was that Christianity offered an answer to the human quest for happiness or meaning. We can note the similarities and differences with Stoicism. People also experienced the charity associated with Christianity. Jesus tells us in Matthew 22:37-39 that the greatest command is, “You shall love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your mind. This is the great and first commandment. And a second is like it: You shall love your neighbor as yourself.” The Christians were doing as in James 1:27, “Religion that is pure and undefiled before God, the Father, is this: to visit orphans and widows in their affliction, and to keep oneself unstained from the world.” Rome did not engage in social welfare. To whom did Christian charity appeal most? It appealed to the lower classes, the needy (a tangible expression of the Gospel), slaves, and women who were the conduit of the Gospel to the upper classes.