Podcasts about novgorod

We return to the Northeast to cover the succession to Vsevolod Big Nest, the struggle for Novgorod, and the arrival of the Mongols.

Dire que Kiev fut la capitale de la Russie est une affirmation à nuancer. Si Kiev n'a jamais été la capitale de la Russie moderne en tant qu'État, elle a bien été le centre politique et culturel d'un ancêtre de la Russie actuelle : la Rus' de Kiev.Kiev, berceau de la Rus' de KievAu IXe siècle, un peuple scandinave, les Varègues, s'installe dans les territoires slaves de l'Est et fonde un État connu sous le nom de Rus' de Kiev. Son premier dirigeant notable, Oleg, s'empare de Kiev en 882 et en fait sa capitale, remplaçant Novgorod. Cet événement marque le début de l'âge d'or de la cité.Sous le règne de Vladimir Ier (980-1015), Kiev devient le centre du premier État slave chrétien, adoptant l'orthodoxie en 988. Son fils, Iaroslav le Sage (1019-1054), renforce encore son importance en développant son administration et sa culture, faisant de Kiev une des plus grandes villes d'Europe de l'Est.Le déclin de Kiev et l'émergence de MoscouMais cette suprématie ne dure pas. À partir du XIIe siècle, la Rus' de Kiev se fragmente en plusieurs principautés indépendantes. En 1240, la ville est ravagée par les Mongols, marquant la fin de son rôle central.Pendant ce temps, une autre principauté, Moscou, commence à émerger comme puissance dominante. Sous Ivan III (1462-1505), Moscou unifie progressivement les terres russes et se positionne comme héritière de la tradition de Kiev. En 1547, Ivan IV (le Terrible) prend le titre de tsar de Russie, affirmant la centralité de Moscou dans le nouvel État russe.Kiev et la Russie moderneAprès des siècles sous domination polonaise et lituanienne, Kiev est intégrée à l'Empire russe en 1667. Elle devient une ville majeure mais jamais une capitale, ce rôle revenant d'abord à Moscou, puis à Saint-Pétersbourg sous Pierre le Grand.Conclusion : une capitale historique mais pas moderneSi Kiev fut bien la première capitale d'un État slave oriental, la Rus' de Kiev, elle n'a jamais été la capitale de la Russie moderne. Elle reste néanmoins un lieu fondateur de l'identité russe, ukrainienne et biélorusse, ce qui explique encore aujourd'hui son importance dans l'histoire et les tensions géopolitiques actuelles. Hébergé par Acast. Visitez acast.com/privacy pour plus d'informations.

Support the show on Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/c/lionsledbydonkeys Joe and Tom are joined by Trashfuture's Milo Edwards to talk about the time a bunch of guys named Mstislav got destroyed by the Mongols. Sources: Leo De Hertog. Genghis Khan: Conqueror of the World. Richard Gabriel. Subotai The Valiant: Genghis Khan's Greatest General. The Chronicle of Novgorod. chrome-extension://efaidnbmnnnibpcajpcglclefindmkaj/https://faculty.washington.edu/dwaugh/rus/texts/MF1914.pdf Victor Kamenir. Russian Disaster at the Kalkha River. Military Heritage. Vol 20, no. 6 Robert Rossabi. All the Khan's Horses.

Ivan le Terrible, premier tsar de Russie, incarne une figure à la fois fascinante et effrayante de l'histoire. Couronné en 1547 à seulement 16 ans, il proclame Moscou « troisième Rome » et jette les bases de l'Empire russe. Marqué par une enfance tragique, Ivan développe une cruauté sans limites. Réformateur éclairé, il modernise les lois, l'armée et l'administration tout en conduisant des campagnes militaires décisives, comme la prise de Kazan. Cependant, la mort de sa femme Anastasia en 1560 a déclenché une paranoïa destructrice. Créant l'oprichnina, il s'appuie sur des milices brutales pour éliminer ses opposants, plongeant le pays dans la terreur. Sa folie atteint son apogée avec le massacre de Novgorod et l'infanticide de son fils en 1581. Rongé par la culpabilité, il finit ses jours dans une profonde repentance, alternant entre piété mystique et souvenirs de ses atrocités. Ivan laisse un empire unifié mais marqué par la violence. Merci pour votre écoute Vous aimez l'Heure H, mais connaissez-vous La Mini Heure H https://audmns.com/YagLLiK , une version pour toute la famille.Retrouvez l'ensemble des épisodes de l'Heure H sur notre plateforme Auvio.be :https://auvio.rtbf.be/emission/22750 Intéressés par l'histoire ? Vous pourriez également aimer nos autres podcasts : Un jour dans l'Histoire : https://audmns.com/gXJWXoQL'Histoire Continue: https://audmns.com/kSbpELwAinsi que nos séries historiques :Chili, le Pays de mes Histoires : https://audmns.com/XHbnevhD-Day : https://audmns.com/JWRdPYIJoséphine Baker : https://audmns.com/wCfhoEwLa folle histoire de l'aviation : https://audmns.com/xAWjyWCLes Jeux Olympiques, l'étonnant miroir de notre Histoire : https://audmns.com/ZEIihzZMarguerite, la Voix d'une Résistante : https://audmns.com/zFDehnENapoléon, le crépuscule de l'Aigle : https://audmns.com/DcdnIUnUn Jour dans le Sport : https://audmns.com/xXlkHMHSous le sable des Pyramides : https://audmns.com/rXfVppvVous aimez les histoires racontées par Jean-Louis Lahaye ? Connaissez-vous ces podcast?Sous le sable des Pyramides : https://audmns.com/rXfVppv36 Quai des orfèvres : https://audmns.com/eUxNxyFHistoire Criminelle, les enquêtes de Scotland Yard : https://audmns.com/ZuEwXVOUn Crime, une Histoire https://audmns.com/NIhhXpYN'oubliez pas de vous y abonner pour ne rien manquer.Et si vous avez apprécié ce podcast, n'hésitez pas à nous donner des étoiles ou des commentaires, cela nous aide à le faire connaître plus largement.

Saint Tryphon was the son of a priest from Novgorod. The Synaxarion records that, at the moment of his birth, the verse Blessed is the life of those who dwell in the desert was being sung in the Matins service. In 1525 he was moved by a divine revelation to flee to the far north of Russia and live as a hermit. He settled near the River Kola, where he devoted his nights to prayer, his days to proclaiming the Gospel of Christ to the native peoples there. The pagans were hostile at first, but his patience and humility won them over, and he baptized many. He built them a church with his own hands on the shores of Lake Ladoga, and later founded a monastery there. Saint Tryphon reposed in 1583. He predicted his own death and the coming destruction of the Monastery by the Swedes, which came to pass in 1590. All the monks were massacred. The first victim, Starets Jonah, worked many miracles at the Monastery after its restoration.

Achterbahnfahren mit der Glanzparade. Dazu: Freiburg – das deutsche Wembley & wohin geht Marmoush?

Ivan creates a new government and takes his anger out on the citizens of Novgorod. WebsiteWestern Civ 2.0 Free Trial

C'est sans doute l'une des meilleures BD de science-fiction de l'année 2024, un Mad Max 2.0 qui intègre les derniers développements de la technologie, de l'art de la guerre, du transhumanisme et de la géopolitique. Dans « M-A-D » de Nicolas Jarry et Thomas Legrain (Editions du Lombard), nous sommes dans un monde apocalyptique, à Novgorod, dans une Russie qui n'a plus d'état que le nom, récemment dévasté par une guerre sans merci entre les « mechams », des robots nourris à l'intelligence artificielle, et les humains... Une interview de Didier Pasamonik — Une production ActuaBD.com - Montage : Kelian Nguyen — Photo : Kelian Nguyen - Musique : We March Together — Courtesy of Patrick Patrikios — Youtube Audio Library

Part 1 of a 2-part story about “Our Lady of the Sign” (aka Kurst-Root icon) an apparition of the Madonna in the Republic of Novgorod in the year 1170 AD.  Also in this podcast is a reading from the audiobook version of my book “The Very Fine Light” There are links, photos and more about this on my website. Pray for this war in the Middle East to end. Also, Pray for the People of Ukraine. There are links for ways to support them on my website: NikosSteves.com   "The Very Fine Light" is a contemporary novel with Christian themes entitled Preview it for FREE and/or purchase "The Very Fine Light" at Amazon.com   I value feedback through the comments section on my website, NikosSteves.com Or via email at NikosSteves@gmail.com Constant Procession tells of key apparitions of the Virgin Mary since she passed on from the world and how she serves humanity through Christianity. The origin of these podcasts began with my first book, The Constant Procession. Constant Procession (the podcast) is published every Tuesday morning and has links, photos, video and more information for each episode at NikosSteves.com

Hansan var en tydlig aktör i svensk inrikespolitik under Engelbrektsupproret på 1430-talet och Sten Sture den äldres kamp mot Kalmarunionen i slutet av 1400-talet. Men med tiden skulle konkurrensen från framväxande nationalstater som Sverige och Danmark, och senare även England och Nederländerna, underminerade Hansans dominans i Östersjön och Nordsjön. Dessutom resulterade upptäckten av Amerika i nya handelsvägar. Hansan hade också svårt att ta till sig till nya kreditformer.I detta andra av två avsnitt om Hansan samtalar programledaren Urban Lindstedt med Dick Harrison, professor i historia vid Lunds universitet. Han är aktuell med boken Hansan – Ett handelsimperiums uppgång och fall.Hansan hade sitt ursprung i Tyskland, närmare bestämt i områdena kring floderna Rhen, Weser och Elbe. Till en början bestod den av flera enskilda intresseorganisationer för olika grupper av köpmän. Dessa organisationer erbjöd varandra skydd längs farofyllda transportvägar och stödde varandras handel. Hansans framgång byggde på ett system av privilegier och handelsmonopol som sträckte sig från London till Novgorod, med Visby som en viktig knutpunkt i Östersjön. Under 1100- och 1200-talen utvecklades Hansan till att bli Nordeuropas ledande politiska och ekonomiska maktcentrum.Under 1400-talet ökade konkurrensen från England och Nederländerna. I det holländsk-hanseatiska kriget (1438-1441) sökte och vann till slut Amsterdams köpmän fri tillgång till Östersjön. När Flandern och Holland blev en del av hertigdömet Burgund uteslöt burgundiska och preussiska städer i allt högre grad Lübeck från sin spannmålshandel under 1400- och 1500-talet.Utvecklingen av transatlantisk handel efter upptäckten av Amerika orsakade nedgång för de återstående kontoren, särskilt i Brygge, eftersom handeln centrerades kring andra hamnar. Detta ledde till en förskjutning av handelns tyngdpunkt och minskade Hansans betydelse som mellanhand i den europeiska handeln.Hansan hade svårt att anpassa sig till nya ekonomiska realiteter. När nya kreditformer importerades från Italien var förbundet långsamt med att ta till sig dessa innovationer.Hansans organisationsstruktur visade sig vara alltför stel för att effektivt hantera nya utmaningar. Hansetagen (Hanseatiska riksdagen), som började mötas oregelbundet i Lübeck omkring år 1300 eller möjligen 1356, var inte tillräckligt effektiv för att fatta bindande beslut. Många städer valde att inte delta eller skicka representanter, och beslut var inte bindande för enskilda städer om deras delegater inte inkluderades i protokollen. Denna brist på enhetlighet gjorde det svårt för Hansan att agera beslutsamt i kristider.Territorialstater blev Hansans främsta rivaler. Dessa stater hade ofta mer flexibla och centraliserade maktstrukturer som gjorde det möjligt för dem att reagera snabbare på förändringar i den ekonomiska och politiska miljön. Hansans nedgång förvärrades ytterligare av interna spänningar. Förbundets blotta existens, tillsammans med dess privilegier och monopol, skapade ekonomiska och sociala spänningar som ofta ledde till rivalitet mellan medlemsstäderna. Denna interna splittring försvagade Hansans förmåga att presentera en enad front mot yttre hot och utmaningar.Bild: Hamburgs fartygslag. Omslagsbild från avsnittet om sjölagen 'Van schiprechte' ('Om sjöfartslagarna' på mellanlågtyska) i Hamburgs stadslag från 1497., Wikipedia, Public Domain.Musik: Medieval Harp Kingdom Instrumental av OKO, Storyblock Audio.Klippare: Emanuel Lehtonen Vill du stödja podden och samtidigt höra ännu mer av Historia Nu? Gå med i vårt gille genom att klicka här: https://plus.acast.com/s/historianu-med-urban-lindstedt. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Hansan var ett lösligt handelsförbund av köpmannahus och städer, med centrum i Lübeck, som dominerade handel och politik i norra Europa under medeltiden. Utan egentliga fasta institutioner och regler kom Hansan att skapa enorma förmögenheter.Hansan växte fram underifrån utifrån ett behov att skapa trygghet för handelsmän. Hansan prioriterade nätverkstänkande och samarbete framför viljan att styra, ställa och diktera villkor för medlemmarna - ett vinnande koncept under medeltiden, men på 1500- och 1600-talen blev utmaningarna från omvärlden till slut för stora.I detta första av två avsnitt om Hansan samtalar programledaren Urban Lindstedt med Dick Harrison, professor i historia vid Lunds universitet. Han är aktuell med boken Hansan – Ett handelsimperiums uppgång och fall.Hansan hade sitt ursprung i Tyskland, närmare bestämt i områdena kring floderna Rhen, Weser och Elbe. Till en början bestod den av flera enskilda intresseorganisationer för olika grupper av köpmän. Dessa organisationer erbjöd varandra skydd längs farofyllda transportvägar och stödde varandras handel. Hansans framgång byggde på ett system av privilegier och handelsmonopol som sträckte sig från London till Novgorod, med Visby som en viktig knutpunkt i Östersjön. Under 1100- och 1200-talen utvecklades Hansan till att bli Nordeuropas ledande politiska och ekonomiska maktcentrum.År 1161 slöt Norge ett handelsavtal med Lübeck, vilket markerade början på Hansans expansion i Norden. Birger jarl följde efter genom att ingå överenskommelser med Lübeck omkring 1250 och med Hamburg 1261. Dessa avtal gav tyska affärsmän möjlighet att verka i Sverige på gynnsamma villkor, bland annat genom befrielse från skatter och tullar.Hansan drog också nytta av Tyska ordens expansion i Baltikum under början av 1200-talet och knöt till sig vitryska och litauiska områden i sitt handelsnät. År 1227 slöt man handelsavtal med fursten av Smolensk. Vid mitten av 1200-talet fanns ett dussintal städer med lybsk rätt i Östersjöområdet, däribland Reval, Wismar, Rostock, Stralsund, Greifswald, Kolberg, Danzig och Elbing.Till Bergen seglade nordtyska fartyg lastade med korn, öl, vin och salt. På tillbakavägen fraktade de torkad fisk, en eftertraktad vara i Europa. Denna handel genererade stora vinster för Hansan och gynnade även norrmännen, vars fisk nådde europeiska marknader.Hansan inrättade kontor i städer som inte var anslutna till förbundet men som ändå var viktiga för dess handel. Inom kontorets område gällde Hansans lagar. Det äldsta kontoret, Petershof, inrättades i Novgorod 1259. Londonkontoret, The Steelyard, växte fram under 1200-talet. Kontoret i Brygge inrättades 1347 och omkring 1360 etablerades kontoret i Bergen, där Hansan lyckades konkurrera ut så gott som alla andra utländska handelsmän och helt kontrollera den norska exporten och importen.Trots att Hansan saknade en gemensam armé eller flotta hade förbundet förmågan att mobilisera militära resurser när det behövdes. Konflikter med omvärlden föregicks ofta av långvariga debatter mellan borgmästare och rådmän från olika hansestäder, vilket speglar förbundets lösa struktur. Hansans militära styrka var dock begränsad jämfört med framväxande territorialstater. Från 1400-talet och framåt minskade hansestädernas möjligheter att försvara sin självständighet militärt, då krig blev allt dyrare att föra.Bild: Lübeck som illustreras i Nürnbergkrönikan, 1493 Michel Wolgemut, Wilhelm Pleydenwurff (Hartmann Schedel, redaktör) – Illustration från Nürnbergkrönikan, Wikipedia, Public Domain.Musik: Medieval Harp Kingdom Instrumental av OKO, Storyblock AudioKlippare: Emanuel Lehtonen Vill du stödja podden och samtidigt höra ännu mer av Historia Nu? Gå med i vårt gille genom att klicka här: https://plus.acast.com/s/historianu-med-urban-lindstedt. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

He lived for many years as a monk at the Monastery of St Cyril of White Lake, where his ascetic struggles won him the respect of his brethren. To flee from the admiration of men he moved further north to Valaam Monastery. But he still attracted the good opinion of his community, so he secretly headed still further north, planning to reach the uninhabited Solovki Island in the White Sea (a large bay of the Arctic Ocean). When he reached the coast, everyone who might take him tried to dissuade him from living in such a harsh place. He answered 'My children, I have a Master who has the power to renew the strength of the old and to enfeeble the young if He so wills. He makes the poor rich, clothes the naked, provides for the destitute and satisfies the starving with a measure of food as he fed five thousand men in the desert.'   While waiting for seasonable sailing weather he met St Germanus (July 30) who lived nearby as a hermit. Together they found a fishing boat and, casting all their trust on the Lord, made the dangerous two-day voyage and set up a hermitage on the island. It became known as a holy place, and thenceforth those living in the world knew not to settle on Solovki, or even to set foot there without good reason. After six years, St Germanus departed, and Sabbatius was left alone.   When he was old, he began to fear that he would die without receiving the life-giving Mysteries, of which he had not partaken since he left Valaam. So he returned to the mainland where he met an abbot Nathanael just as he was taking Holy Communion to a sick man. Sabbatius persuaded the abbot to hear his confession and grant him the priceless gift of Holy Communion. He then settled in a nearby chapel and made ready for his departure from this life. A wealthy merchant from Novgorod visited him to ask for his blessing. The Saint said to him, 'Spend the night here and you will see the grace of God.' The next morning the merchant came to Sabbatius' cell and found that he had reposed during the night; his cell was suffused with a beautiful scent.   The following year, St Germanus, along with St Zosimas (April 17), returned to Solovki island and founded a monastery there, which proved to be the nurturing ground of many Saints.

En Russie, un important dépôt de munitions a été frappé par une attaque de drone ukrainienne ce mercredi 18 septembre, dans la localité de Toropets, à 380 km au nord de Moscou et à 500 km de la frontière avec l'Ukraine. L'explosion a été si puissante qu'elle a provoqué un tremblement de terre d'une magnitude de 2,8 dans la zone. La vidéo de cette explosion a fait le tour du monde sur les réseaux sociaux, entraînant beaucoup d'interrogations, mais aussi beaucoup de désinformation. Les images filmées de nuit sont impressionnantes. On y voit une énorme boule de feu s'élever à plusieurs dizaines de mètres dans le ciel. Le souffle provoqué par l'explosion principale se fait alors ressentir à plusieurs dizaines de kilomètres aux alentours. Rapidement, un immense nuage en forme de champignon se forme au-dessus de Toropets, où se situe ce dépôt de munitions. Cette vidéo fait dire, à tort, à plusieurs internautes que l'Otan viendrait « de frapper la région russe de Tver à l'aide d'une bombe nucléaire tactique ». Un message, vu plus d'un 1 500 000 fois sur X, parle même de « la troisième guerre mondiale ». Un autre affirme même qu'il s'agit de « la plus grande attaque nucléaire de l'histoire depuis la Seconde Guerre mondiale ».Sauf qu'en réalité, il ne s'agit ni d'une explosion nucléaire, ni d'une « attaque de l'Otan ». Cette explosion est survenue à la suite d'une attaque de drones menée par l'armée ukrainienne. Le jour même, le 18 septembre 2024, le gouverneur de la région russe de Tver, Igor Rudenya, évoquait « une attaque massive de drones » sur Toropets, annonçant dans le même temps l'évacuation partielle de la ville « à cause d'un incendie en cours ». Le bilan officiel fait état de plus d'une dizaine de blessés.Côté ukrainien, un responsable du bureau du renseignement a fait avoir à l'agence Associated Press, que plus de cent drones kamikazes fabriqués en Ukraine ont été utilisés durant cette opération. Un nombre actuellement impossible à vérifier de façon indépendante.Aucune anomalie de radioactivitéCertains internautes parlent aussi de l'explosion possible d'ogives nucléaires russes prétendument stockées dans ce dépôt de munitions. Une nouvelle fois, cette piste est écartée. Grâce aux mesures de radioactivité collectées par le Centre commun de recherche de la surveillance environnementale de la radioactivité de la commission européenne (Eurdep), on sait que les derniers relevés des stations d'Ostaskov et de Novgorod, situées à environ 100 et 200 km du dépôt de munitions, ne montrent absolument aucune anomalie.Or, l'explosion d'ogives nucléaires tactiques aurait provoqué une importante fuite de radiations détectables non seulement dans la région, mais aussi dans les pays voisins.Nuage en champignonSi aucune ogive nucléaire n'a explosé à Toropets, comment expliquer ce nuage en forme de champignon ? C'est simple, toute grosse explosion peut provoquer un nuage de la sorte en raison de la chaleur générée. Concernant le dépôt de munition de Toropets, les analystes en sources ouvertes évoquent la présence possible de 30 000 tonnes de munitions sur site. Enfin, lors de l'explosion du port de Beyrouth en août 2020, le nuage avait aussi pris la forme d'un champignon.À noter aussi que ce n'est pas la première fois que certains parlent, à tort, de l'utilisation d'ogives nucléaires dans la guerre entre la Russie et l'Ukraine. Cette accusation refait régulièrement surface à chaque grosse explosion filmée en Russie. Les comptes de propagande pro-russe l'agitent pour alimenter la peur d'une escalade, faire croire à l'entrée en guerre de l'Otan, mais aussi pour ne pas reconnaître la capacité de frappe des Ukrainiens sur le sol russe.

Episode: 1214 Medieval Novgorod, more advanced than we realized.  Today, an old city coughs up a surprising secret.

Thanks to BBC Books / Ebury @DWbbcbooks, we've been reading two of the latest Doctor Who books, the first original novels to feature Ncuti Gatwa's Fifteenth Doctor!First up is Caged, by Una McCormack who is no stranger to the Doctor Who books range. Caged poses the question, "do aliens get abducted?" and as events unfold, it transpires that there's much more at play!Next is Ruby Red, by Georgia Cook, writing her first Doctor Who novel. Ruby Red is a medieval adventure set in the frozen forests of Estonia and Novgorod, featuring alien warrior women and strange, red eyed creatures...Take a listen right now to see what we thought of these two exciting new releases from Doctor Who Books!Send us a text and let us know what you think of our podcast!Support the Show. Subscribe to Who Corner to Corner on your podcast app to make sure you don't miss an episode! Now available to watch on YouTube! Join the Doctor Who chat with us and other fans on Twitter and Facebook! Visit the Who Corner to Corner website and see our back catalogue of episodes! Enjoying what we do? Consider joining our Explorers Subscription plan for more content! Who Corner to Corner: Great guests and 100% positive Doctor Who chat!

Artist: Ildarius b2b Kotyusov (Russia) Name: Fragment from Live Set | May 2024 | N.Novgorod Genre: Electronic Release Date: 11.05.2024 Exclusive: Deep House Moscow Ildarius: @ildar1us Instagram: www.instagram.com/ildar1us Kotyusov: https://www.instagram.com/kotyusoff CONTACT (DHM): Email — deephousemoscow@hotmail.com Follow us: www.facebook.com/deephousemsk/ www.instagram.com/deephousemoscow/ vk.com/deephousemsk/

THIS WEEK! We discuss Ivan The Terrible. From his unhappy upbringing, to him being the first to take the title Tsar, to his unsucsesfull wars, to the sack of Novgorod. All this and More on "Well That Aged Well".Links to where to find Professor Griffin.Professor Griffins Website:http://www.claregriffin.org/Read her book "Mixing Medicine, the global trade in "Early modern Russia" here: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK583764/Find Professor Griffin on Twitter/X here:@balalichnitsaSupport this show http://supporter.acast.com/well-that-aged-well. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

A frozen Lake Peipus played host to a dramatic fight between 2,000 Catholic Crusaders and 6,000 Orthodox Christians on 5th April, 1242. The invading forces were the Teutonic Knights, armed with spears and swords to ‘Christianize' what they saw as a Pagan society. Novgorod's defender, Prince Alexander Nevsky, lured the Germans to the lake, where his troops could take them down one by one, in a battle that went down in Russian lore.  In this episode, Arion, Rebecca and Olly reveal how much of the imagery of the battle was in fact crystallised by a controversial twentieth-century filmmaker; consider why the Knights were so unprepared for this particular confrontation; and ask what actual theological differences separated the warring factions…  Further Reading: • ‘Lake Peipus: Battle on the Ice' (Warfare History Network, 2005): https://warfarehistorynetwork.com/article/lake-peipus-battle-on-the-ice/ • ‘Alexander Nevsky - Prince of Novgorod and Kiev': https://www.thoughtco.com/alexander-nevsky-profile-p2-1788255 • ‘Alexander Nevsky' (Sergei Eisenstein, 1938): https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Gq4PaJfod4w We'll be back on Monday - unless you join

Le tsar Ivan IV, qui règne de 1547 à 1587, traîne après lui une sinistre réputation, qui lui a valu le surnom de "Terrible".Il est d'ailleurs le dernier grand-prince de Moscou, une principauté née de la "Rus", cette première entité territoriale née autour de la ville de Kiev. Il est aussi le premier, du fait de ses annexions de territoires notamment, à porter le titre de "Tsar de toutes les Russies".Son règne avait pourtant bien commencé. En effet, il réforme le clergé, fait paraître un nouveau code de lois et promet de protéger le peuple. Il commence aussi à moderniser un pays encore très archaïque.Traumatisé par une enfance difficile, où l'orphelin qu'il était fut maltraité par ses tuteurs, et persuadé que tous se liguent pour l'assassiner, Ivan montre bientôt son véritable visage.Obsédé en permanence par la peur du complot, le Tsar se livre aux pires cruautés, notamment sur les boyards, des nobles qu'il soupçonne de vouloir le trahir. Il en fait ainsi déporter et tuer des centaines. Il s'en prend aussi à leurs familles, dont il fait souvent exécuter tous les membres.Ivan le Terrible ordonne même des exécutions de masse. En 1570, il fait ainsi tuer toute la population de Novgorod, qu'il accuse de trahison au profit de la Pologne.Pour assouvir ses vengeances, le Tsar peut compter sur les "opritchniks", une milice composée de fidèles qui lui sont dévoués corps et âme. Il s'assure d'ailleurs de leur loyauté en donnant à ses sbires les terres des boyards, qu'il confisque sans vergogne.Si Ivan IV est passé à la postérité comme un homme assoiffé de sang, c'est aussi en raison de la folie meurtrière qui semblait l'habiter. Elle lui inspirait en effet, dans les châtiments qu'il infligeait à ses opposants, un raffinement de cruauté inouï.Entre autres supplices, il les plonge dans des chaudrons d'eau bouillante, les fait griller comme des rôtis à la broche ou les expose, dans des arènes dont ils ne peuvent s'échapper, à la dent d'ours affamés. Hébergé par Acast. Visitez acast.com/privacy pour plus d'informations.

Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the Hanseatic League or Hansa which dominated North European trade in the medieval period. With a trading network that stretched from Iceland to Novgorod via London and Bruges, these German-speaking Hansa merchants benefitted from tax exemptions and monopolies. Over time, the Hansa became immensely influential as rulers felt the need to treat it well. Kings and princes sometimes relied on loans from the Hansa to finance their wars and an embargo by the Hansa could lead to famine. Eventually, though, the Hansa went into decline with the rise in the nation state's power, greater competition from other merchants and the development of trade across the Atlantic. WithJustyna Wubs-Mrozewicz Associate Professor of Medieval History at the University of AmsterdamGeorg Christ Senior Lecturer in Medieval and Early Modern History at the University of ManchesterAnd Sheilagh Ogilvie Chichele Professor of Economic History at All Souls College, University of OxfordProducer: Victoria BrignellReading list: James S. Amelang and Siegfried Beer, Public Power in Europe: Studies in Historical Transformations (Plus-Pisa University Press, 2006), especially `Trade and Politics in the Medieval Baltic: English Merchants and England's Relations to the Hanseatic League 1370–1437`Nicholas R. Amor, Late Medieval Ipswich: Trade and Industry (Boydell & Brewer, 2011)B. Ayers, The German Ocean: Medieval Europe around the North Sea (Equinox, 2016)H. Brand and P. Brood, The German Hanse in Past & Present Europe: A medieval league as a model for modern interregional cooperation? (Castel International Publishers, 2007)Wendy R. Childs, The Trade and Shipping of Hull, 1300-1500 (East Yorkshire Local History Society, 1990)Alexander Cowan, Hanseatic League: Oxford Bibliographies (Oxford University Press, 2010)Philippe Dollinger, The German Hansa (Macmillan, 1970)John D. Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes and Emissaries: The Commercial and Political Interaction of England and the German Hanse, 1450-1510 (University of Toronto Press, 1995)Donald J. Harreld, A Companion to the Hanseatic League (Brill, 2015)T.H. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, 1157 – 1611: A Study of their Trade and Commercial Diplomacy (first published 1991; Cambridge University Press, 2002)Giampiero Nigro (ed.), Maritime networks as a factor in European integration (Fondazione Istituto Internazionale Di Storia Economica “F. Datini” Prato, University of Firenze, 2019), especially ‘Maritime Networks and Premodern Conflict Management on Multiple Levels. The Example of Danzig and the Giese Family' by Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz Sheilagh Ogilvie, Institutions and European Trade: Merchant Guilds, 1000-1800 (Cambridge University Press, 2011)Paul Richards (ed.), Six Essays in Hanseatic History (Poppyland Publishing, 2017)Paul Richards, King's Lynn and The German Hanse 1250-1550: A Study in Anglo-German Medieval Trade and Politics (Poppyland Publishing, 2022)Stephen H. Rigby, The Overseas Trade of Boston, 1279-1548 (Böhlau Verlag, 2023)Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz and Stuart Jenks (eds.), The Hanse in Medieval & Early Modern Europe (Brill, 2012) Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz, ‘The late medieval and early modern Hanse as an institution of conflict management' (Continuity and Change 32/1, Cambridge University Press, 2017)

Melvyn Bragg and guests discuss the Hanseatic League or Hansa which dominated North European trade in the medieval period. With a trading network that stretched from Iceland to Novgorod via London and Bruges, these German-speaking Hansa merchants benefitted from tax exemptions and monopolies. Over time, the Hansa became immensely influential as rulers felt the need to treat it well. Kings and princes sometimes relied on loans from the Hansa to finance their wars and an embargo by the Hansa could lead to famine. Eventually, though, the Hansa went into decline with the rise in the nation state's power, greater competition from other merchants and the development of trade across the Atlantic. WithJustyna Wubs-Mrozewicz Associate Professor of Medieval History at the University of AmsterdamGeorg Christ Senior Lecturer in Medieval and Early Modern History at the University of ManchesterAnd Sheilagh Ogilvie Chichele Professor of Economic History at All Souls College, University of OxfordProducer: Victoria BrignellReading list: James S. Amelang and Siegfried Beer, Public Power in Europe: Studies in Historical Transformations (Plus-Pisa University Press, 2006), especially `Trade and Politics in the Medieval Baltic: English Merchants and England's Relations to the Hanseatic League 1370–1437`Nicholas R. Amor, Late Medieval Ipswich: Trade and Industry (Boydell & Brewer, 2011)B. Ayers, The German Ocean: Medieval Europe around the North Sea (Equinox, 2016)H. Brand and P. Brood, The German Hanse in Past & Present Europe: A medieval league as a model for modern interregional cooperation? (Castel International Publishers, 2007)Wendy R. Childs, The Trade and Shipping of Hull, 1300-1500 (East Yorkshire Local History Society, 1990)Alexander Cowan, Hanseatic League: Oxford Bibliographies (Oxford University Press, 2010)Philippe Dollinger, The German Hansa (Macmillan, 1970)John D. Fudge, Cargoes, Embargoes and Emissaries: The Commercial and Political Interaction of England and the German Hanse, 1450-1510 (University of Toronto Press, 1995)Donald J. Harreld, A Companion to the Hanseatic League (Brill, 2015)T.H. Lloyd, England and the German Hanse, 1157 – 1611: A Study of their Trade and Commercial Diplomacy (first published 1991; Cambridge University Press, 2002)Giampiero Nigro (ed.), Maritime networks as a factor in European integration (Fondazione Istituto Internazionale Di Storia Economica “F. Datini” Prato, University of Firenze, 2019), especially ‘Maritime Networks and Premodern Conflict Management on Multiple Levels. The Example of Danzig and the Giese Family' by Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz Sheilagh Ogilvie, Institutions and European Trade: Merchant Guilds, 1000-1800 (Cambridge University Press, 2011)Paul Richards (ed.), Six Essays in Hanseatic History (Poppyland Publishing, 2017)Paul Richards, King's Lynn and The German Hanse 1250-1550: A Study in Anglo-German Medieval Trade and Politics (Poppyland Publishing, 2022)Stephen H. Rigby, The Overseas Trade of Boston, 1279-1548 (Böhlau Verlag, 2023)Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz and Stuart Jenks (eds.), The Hanse in Medieval & Early Modern Europe (Brill, 2012) Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz, ‘The late medieval and early modern Hanse as an institution of conflict management' (Continuity and Change 32/1, Cambridge University Press, 2017)

Faites un don et recevez un cadeau : http://don.storiavoce.com/ L'histoire de la Russie est celle de nombreux peuples et d'une multiplicité de territoires. Sur quels espaces l'État russe revendique-t-il, depuis ses origines, la légitimité de gouvernement ? Si la construction et l'affirmation de l'identité d'un pays font rarement l'économie de la guerre, peut-on affirmer que la Russie est par nature plus belliciste que ses voisins ? Combat-on de la même manière en Russie et en Europe ? L'Église orthodoxe est-elle un relai de l'expansionnisme ? Les guerres de l'Empire soviétique obéissent-elles aux mêmes logiques géopolitiques que celles des tsars ? Dans le cas de la Russie, il y a absolue nécessité de remonter aux origines pour comprendre le présent. L'invité : Pierre Gonneau est historien, spécialiste de la Russie, professeur à Sorbonne Université et directeur d'études à l'EPHE. Il est l'auteur d'ouvrages de référence sur la Russie : Des Rhôs à la Russie. Histoire de l'Europe orientale (v. 730-1689) (PUF, 2012, 696 p., 49 €), Histoire de la Russie, d'Ivan le Terrible à Nicolas II. 1547-1917 (Tallandier, 2016, 544 p., 24.90 €), Novgorod. Histoire et archéologie d'une république russe médiévale (970-1478) (CNRS éditions 2021, 248 p., 29 €), La guerre russe. Ou le prix de l'Empire. D'Ivan le Terrible à Poutine (Tallandier, 2023, 544 p., 26 €). *** Facebook : https://www.facebook.com/HistoireEtCivilisationsMag Instagram : https://www.instagram.com/histoireetcivilisations/ Twitter : https://twitter.com/Storiavoce

This week we look at the activities of the Teutonic order in Livonia during the 13th century. The situation in Livonia was profoundly different to Prussia and posed a number of new challenges for the brothers. In Livonia there were the powerful bishops of Riga to contend with who had led the crusade there since its inception in the 1180s. The Hanse merchants who have settled in Riga, Reval and Dorpat are no pushovers. Like in Prussia, the Lithuanians are a formidable force able to inflict painful defeats on the brothers as are some of the Baltic peoples who didn't enjoy conversion at swordpoint as much as the planners back in Bremen, Marburg and Acre had hoped. And let's not forget some new neighbors, the Danes in Northern Estonia and the great republic of Novgorod.In 1240 a great effort gets under way to forcibly convert the orthodox Rus'ian states, including Novgorod that are already under pressure from the Mongols. In their distress the boyars of Novgorod make the second son of the grand duke of Vladimir becomes their military leader, a man we know as Alexander Nevsky. On April 5, 1242 Alexander Nevsky and his men stand on the shore of Lake Peipus staring at a squadron of heavily armored cavalry thundering across the ice towards them…Whilst the riders almost certainly weren't accompanied by Prokofief's amazing soundtrack, they may have brought an organ, but that, like everything else about the Battle on the Ice is subject to intense debate, a debate we will examine in this episode.The music for the show is Flute Sonata in E-flat major, H.545 by Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (or some claim it as BWV 1031 Johann Sebastian Bach) performed and arranged by Michel Rondeau under Common Creative Licence 3.0.As always:Homepage with maps, photos, transcripts and blog: www.historyofthegermans.comFacebook: @HOTGPod Twitter: @germanshistoryInstagram: history_of_the_germansReddit: u/historyofthegermansPatreon: https://www.patreon.com/Historyofthegermans

This week we look at the activities of the Teutonic order in Livonia during the 13th century. The situation in Livonia was profoundly different to Prussia and posed a number of new challenges for the brothers. In Livonia there were the powerful bishops of Riga to contend with who had led the crusade there since its inception in the 1180s. The Hanse merchants who have settled in Riga, Reval and Dorpat are no pushovers. Like in Prussia, the Lithuanians are a formidable force able to inflict painful defeats on the brothers as are some of the Baltic peoples who didn't enjoy conversion at swordpoint as much as the planners back in Bremen, Marburg and Acre had hoped. And let's not forget some new neighbors, the Danes in Northern Estonia and the great republic of Novgorod. In 1240 a great effort gets under way to forcibly convert the orthodox Rus'ian states, including Novgorod that are already under pressure from the Mongols. In their distress the boyars of Novgorod make the second son of the grand duke of Vladimir becomes their military leader, a man we know as Alexander Nevsky. On April 5, 1242 Alexander Nevsky and his men stand on the shore of Lake Peipus staring at a squadron of heavily armored cavalry thundering across the ice towards them… Whilst the riders almost certainly weren't accompanied by Prokofief's amazing soundtrack, they may have brought an organ, but that, like everything else about the Battle on the Ice is subject to intense debate, a debate we will examine in this episode.The music for the show is Flute Sonata in E-flat major, H.545 by Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (or some claim it as BWV 1031 Johann Sebastian Bach) performed and arranged by Michel Rondeau under Common Creative Licence 3.0.As always:Homepage with maps, photos, transcripts and blog: www.historyofthegermans.comFacebook: @HOTGPod Twitter: @germanshistoryInstagram: history_of_the_germansReddit: u/historyofthegermansPatreon: https://www.patreon.com/Historyofthegermans

Saint Tryphon was the son of a priest from Novgorod. The Synaxarion records that, at the moment of his birth, the verse Blessed is the life of those who dwell in the desert was being sung in the Matins service. In 1525 he was moved by a divine revelation to flee to the far north of Russia and live as a hermit. He settled near the River Kola, where he devoted his nights to prayer, his days to proclaiming the Gospel of Christ to the native peoples there. The pagans were hostile at first, but his patience and humility won them over, and he baptized many. He built them a church with his own hands on the shores of Lake Ladoga, and later founded a monastery there. Saint Tryphon reposed in 1583. He predicted his own death and the coming destruction of the Monastery by the Swedes, which came to pass in 1590. All the monks were massacred. The first victim, Starets Jonah, worked many miracles at the Monastery after its restoration.

Saint Tryphon was the son of a priest from Novgorod. The Synaxarion records that, at the moment of his birth, the verse Blessed is the life of those who dwell in the desert was being sung in the Matins service. In 1525 he was moved by a divine revelation to flee to the far north of Russia and live as a hermit. He settled near the River Kola, where he devoted his nights to prayer, his days to proclaiming the Gospel of Christ to the native peoples there. The pagans were hostile at first, but his patience and humility won them over, and he baptized many. He built them a church with his own hands on the shores of Lake Ladoga, and later founded a monastery there. Saint Tryphon reposed in 1583. He predicted his own death and the coming destruction of the Monastery by the Swedes, which came to pass in 1590. All the monks were massacred. The first victim, Starets Jonah, worked many miracles at the Monastery after its restoration.

He lived for many years as a monk at the Monastery of St Cyril of White Lake, where his ascetic struggles won him the respect of his brethren. To flee from the admiration of men he moved further north to Valaam Monastery. But he still attracted the good opinion of his community, so he secretly headed still further north, planning to reach the uninhabited Solovki Island in the White Sea (a large bay of the Arctic Ocean). When he reached the coast, everyone who might take him tried to dissuade him from living in such a harsh place. He answered 'My children, I have a Master who has the power to renew the strength of the old and to enfeeble the young if He so wills. He makes the poor rich, clothes the naked, provides for the destitute and satisfies the starving with a measure of food as he fed five thousand men in the desert.'   While waiting for seasonable sailing weather he met St Germanus (July 30) who lived nearby as a hermit. Together they found a fishing boat and, casting all their trust on the Lord, made the dangerous two-day voyage and set up a hermitage on the island. It became known as a holy place, and thenceforth those living in the world knew not to settle on Solovki, or even to set foot there without good reason. After six years, St Germanus departed, and Sabbatius was left alone.   When he was old, he began to fear that he would die without receiving the life-giving Mysteries, of which he had not partaken since he left Valaam. So he returned to the mainland where he met an abbot Nathanael just as he was taking Holy Communion to a sick man. Sabbatius persuaded the abbot to hear his confession and grant him the priceless gift of Holy Communion. He then settled in a nearby chapel and made ready for his departure from this life. A wealthy merchant from Novgorod visited him to ask for his blessing. The Saint said to him, 'Spend the night here and you will see the grace of God.' The next morning the merchant came to Sabbatius' cell and found that he had reposed during the night; his cell was suffused with a beautiful scent.   The following year, St Germanus, along with St Zosimas (April 17), returned to Solovki island and founded a monastery there, which proved to be the nurturing ground of many Saints.

He lived for many years as a monk at the Monastery of St Cyril of White Lake, where his ascetic struggles won him the respect of his brethren. To flee from the admiration of men he moved further north to Valaam Monastery. But he still attracted the good opinion of his community, so he secretly headed still further north, planning to reach the uninhabited Solovki Island in the White Sea (a large bay of the Arctic Ocean). When he reached the coast, everyone who might take him tried to dissuade him from living in such a harsh place. He answered 'My children, I have a Master who has the power to renew the strength of the old and to enfeeble the young if He so wills. He makes the poor rich, clothes the naked, provides for the destitute and satisfies the starving with a measure of food as he fed five thousand men in the desert.'   While waiting for seasonable sailing weather he met St Germanus (July 30) who lived nearby as a hermit. Together they found a fishing boat and, casting all their trust on the Lord, made the dangerous two-day voyage and set up a hermitage on the island. It became known as a holy place, and thenceforth those living in the world knew not to settle on Solovki, or even to set foot there without good reason. After six years, St Germanus departed, and Sabbatius was left alone.   When he was old, he began to fear that he would die without receiving the life-giving Mysteries, of which he had not partaken since he left Valaam. So he returned to the mainland where he met an abbot Nathanael just as he was taking Holy Communion to a sick man. Sabbatius persuaded the abbot to hear his confession and grant him the priceless gift of Holy Communion. He then settled in a nearby chapel and made ready for his departure from this life. A wealthy merchant from Novgorod visited him to ask for his blessing. The Saint said to him, 'Spend the night here and you will see the grace of God.' The next morning the merchant came to Sabbatius' cell and found that he had reposed during the night; his cell was suffused with a beautiful scent.   The following year, St Germanus, along with St Zosimas (April 17), returned to Solovki island and founded a monastery there, which proved to be the nurturing ground of many Saints.

Iván IV, conocido como Iván el Terrible, fue uno de los gobernantes más controvertidos y notorios de la historia rusa. Su vida estuvo marcada por éxitos militares, una administración centralizada, y un reinado caracterizado por la brutalidad y la represión. A continuación, se presenta una biografía que detalla los principales eventos y aspectos de su vida: Nacimiento y Primeros Años (1530-1547): Iván IV nació el 25 de agosto de 1530 en Kolómenskoye, cerca de Moscú. Fue el hijo de Vasili III y Elena Glínskaya. Tras la muerte de su padre, Iván fue proclamado zar a la edad de tres años en 1533, aunque el poder real estaba en manos de regentes y boyardos debido a su juventud. Ascenso al Trono (1547): Iván IV fue coronado zar de Rusia el 16 de enero de 1547 a la edad de 16 años. Esta coronación marcó el comienzo de su reinado personal, y adoptó el título de "Zar de Todas las Rusias". Durante este período temprano de su gobierno, Iván IV introdujo reformas administrativas y legales, sentando las bases para un estado centralizado. Campañas Militares y Conquistas: Uno de los logros más notables de Iván IV fue la conquista de Kazán en 1552, seguida por la toma de Astracán en 1556. Estas victorias expandieron significativamente el territorio ruso hacia el este. También lanzó campañas militares en el norte del Cáucaso y contra el Khanato de Crimea. La Opríchnina (1565-1572): En 1565, Iván IV estableció la Opríchnina, una institución que ejercía un control brutal y absoluto sobre una parte del territorio ruso. Durante esta época, se llevaron a cabo ejecuciones masivas, confiscaciones de propiedades y purgas políticas en un período de represión y terror. Conflictos y Paranoia: A medida que avanzaba su reinado, Iván IV se volvió cada vez más paranoico y desconfiado. Sus relaciones con la nobleza boyarda y otros grupos de élite se deterioraron, lo que resultó en conflictos internos y ejecuciones masivas. La Masacre de Novgorod (1570): Uno de los episodios más oscuros de su reinado fue la Masacre de Novgorod en 1570, en la que miles de personas fueron asesinadas en la ciudad de Novgorod debido a sospechas infundadas de conspiración. Enfermedad y Muerte (1584): Iván IV murió el 28 de marzo de 1584 a los 53 años debido a una hemorragia cerebral. Su muerte marcó el fin de un reinado turbulento y brutal. El legado de Iván IV es complejo y sigue siendo objeto de debate. A pesar de sus éxitos militares y contribuciones a la centralización de Rusia, su reinado está marcado por la violencia y la represión, y se le recuerda como un gobernante infame en la historia rusa. Su legado ha dejado una huella profunda en la historia de Rusia y en la memoria colectiva del país. ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Antena Historia te regala 30 días PREMIUM, para que lo disfrutes https://www.ivoox.com/premium?affiliate-code=b4688a50868967db9ca413741a54cea5 ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Produce Antonio Cruz Edita ANTENA HISTORIA Antena Historia (podcast) forma parte del sello iVoox Originals ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- web……….https://antenahistoria.com/ correo.....info@antenahistoria.com Facebook…..Antena Historia Podcast | Facebook Twitter…...https://twitter.com/AntenaHistoria Telegram…...https://t.me/foroantenahistoria DONACIONES PAYPAL...... https://paypal.me/ancrume ---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ¿QUIERES ANUNCIARTE en ANTENA HISTORIA?, menciones, cuñas publicitarias, programas personalizados, etc. Dirígete a Antena Historia - AdVoices Escucha el episodio completo en la app de iVoox, o descubre todo el catálogo de iVoox Originals

Es un santo y uno de los grandes héroes de Rusia. Se forjó en el yunque de la guerra, logrando vencer a la implacable cruzada de los caballeros Teutónicos en 1242. Una película de Eisenstein lo inmortalizó. El gran Pako Gradaille, diseñador de juegos de mesa, vuelve a este programa para contarnos la historia de este hombre: Alexander Nevski. Imagen: Alexander Nevsky (1935) Sergei Eisenstein. Fuentes 1) Life of Alexander Nevsky, manuscrito de alrededor de 1280 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_of_Alexander_Nevsky 2) Life of Alexander Nevsky, manuscrito iluminado de entre 1560 y 1570 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Life_of_Alexander_Nevsky_(illuminated_manuscript) 3) The Chronicle of Novgorod, 1016-1471, traducción de Michell, Robert; Shakhmaton, A.A; Forbes, Nevill, 1883-1929; Beazley, C. Raymond (Charles Raymond), 1868-1955 https://archive.org/details/chronicleofnovgo00michrich 4) The Crisis of Medieval Russia 1200-1304, de John Fennell https://www.amazon.es/Crisis-Medieval-1200-1304-Longman-History/dp/0582481503 5) Wikipedia 6) Background Book del juego Nevsky, Teutons and Rus in Collission 1240-1242 de Volko Ruhnke publicado por GMT Games https://gmtwebsiteassets.s3-us-west-2.amazonaws.com/Nevsky/Nevsky_PLAYBOOK-FINAL.pdf Fuentes / Sitios web - Wikipedia Música: La música es de Oleg Zobachev, versionando a Duke Ellington, del Gran Quelonio y de Dunne. Escucha el episodio completo en la app de iVoox, o descubre todo el catálogo de iVoox Originals

The Hanseatic League undergoes a fundamental transformation in the second half of the 14th century. It turned from a guild of merchants trading across the Baltic and the North Sea into an alliance of trading cities. An alliance that has proven that it can fight and win wars against major territorial powers. That sits quite uncomfortably with the existing European rulers who wonder what to do with this alien inside their body politic.The Hanse had acquired a wide range of trading privileges in their main Kontors in England, Flanders, Norway and the Republic of Novgorod. These privileges did not only disadvantage the locals who were unsurprisingly hostile but also challenged the authority of the princes. That was just about bearable as long as this was just a community of grubby merchants from the Empire. Now that these merchants had built formidable cities, commanded great navies and toppled kings, it became an entirely different ballgame.Furthermore, the legitimacy of the Hansa was fragile. The Hanseatic Cities, apart from Lübeck and Dortmund weren't free imperial cities, making them at least formally subject to their territorial lords. As such they could not form an actual league of cities as the Northern Italian republics had done a hundred years earlier. Nor were they allowed to conduct foreign policy against their territorial lord, though they sometimes did. These fault lines will become ever more apparent as we go forward with our history. This week we will get a first glimpse at what will lead to the ultimate demise of the League as we get into the year 1388, a year when the cities face off against three of the most powerful political entities in Northern Europe, the kingdom of England, the county of Flanders and the Republic of Novgorod. The music for the show is Flute Sonata in E-flat major, H.545 by Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (or some claim it as BWV 1031 Johann Sebastian Bach) performed and arranged by Michel Rondeau under Common Creative Licence 3.0.As always:Homepage with maps, photos, transcripts and blog: www.historyofthegermans.comFacebook: @HOTGPod Twitter: @germanshistoryInstagram: history_of_the_germansReddit: u/historyofthegermansPatreon: https://www.patreon.com/Historyofthegermans

The Hanseatic League undergoes a fundamental transformation in the second half of the 14th century. It turned from a guild of merchants trading across the Baltic and the North Sea into an alliance of trading cities. An alliance that has proven that it can fight and win wars against major territorial powers. That sits quite uncomfortably with the existing European rulers who wonder what to do with this alien inside their body politic.The Hanse had acquired a wide range of trading privileges in their main Kontors in England, Flanders, Norway and the Republic of Novgorod. These privileges did not only disadvantage the locals who were unsurprisingly hostile but also challenged the authority of the princes. That was just about bearable as long as this was just a community of grubby merchants from the Empire. Now that these merchants had built formidable cities, commanded great navies and toppled kings, it became an entirely different ballgame.Furthermore, the legitimacy of the Hansa was fragile. The Hanseatic Cities, apart from Lübeck and Dortmund weren't free imperial cities, making them at least formally subject to their territorial lords. As such they could not form an actual league of cities as the Northern Italian republics had done a hundred years earlier. Nor were they allowed to conduct foreign policy against their territorial lord, though they sometimes did. These fault lines will become ever more apparent as we go forward with our history. This week we will get a first glimpse at what will lead to the ultimate demise of the League as we get into the year 1388, a year when the cities face off against three of the most powerful political entities in Northern Europe, the kingdom of England, the county of Flanders and the Republic of Novgorod. The music for the show is Flute Sonata in E-flat major, H.545 by Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (or some claim it as BWV 1031 Johann Sebastian Bach) performed and arranged by Michel Rondeau under Common Creative Licence 3.0.As always:Homepage with maps, photos, transcripts and blog: www.historyofthegermans.comFacebook: @HOTGPod Twitter: @germanshistoryInstagram: history_of_the_germansReddit: u/historyofthegermansPatreon: https://www.patreon.com/Historyofthegermans

Today we will talk about the Bryggen, the famous Hanseatic Kontor or trading post in Bergen in western Norway. Bergen itself was never a member of the Hanseatic League, but like The St. Peter's yard in Novgorod, the steelyard in London and the Kontor of Bruges, the Bryggen in Bergen was a key element of the Hanseatic trading network.The trade in stockfish from Bergen was never on the same scale as the herring trade off Scania or the trade in beeswax and furs from Novgorod, but it was an important springboard for members of the lower classes to join the long-distance merchants. And the way the Hanse was able to gain a stranglehold over the proud Vikings of Norway is a cautionary tale of failed macro-economic policies. If you think the Norwegians are unique in falling prey to aggressive Hanseatic trade policies, think again. Even the mighty Bruges, the warehouse of the medieval world” was made to grant these merchants from the Holy Roman empire far reaching privileges.Some have considered these events as the beginnings of a long process of specialisation in Europe that condemned the East to become the giant breadbasket that fed the industrialising West. I doubt things are that simple, but let's have a look at the different arguments….The music for the show is Flute Sonata in E-flat major, H.545 by Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (or some claim it as BWV 1031 Johann Sebastian Bach) performed and arranged by Michel Rondeau under Common Creative Licence 3.0.As always:Homepage with maps, photos, transcripts and blog: www.historyofthegermans.comFacebook: @HOTGPod Twitter: @germanshistoryInstagram: history_of_the_germansReddit: u/historyofthegermansPatreon: https://www.patreon.com/HistoryofthegermansFor this episode I again reliedheavily on:Justyna Wubs-Mrozewicz: (3)Rules of Inclusion, Rules of Exclusion: The Hanseatic Kontor in Bergen in theLate Middle Ages and its Normative Boundaries | arvids alvea - Academia.eduCarsten Mueller Boysen: Die Deutsche Bruecke in Bergen in Die Hanse,Lebenswirklichkeit und Mythos, herausgegeben von Jürgen Bracker, Volker Hennand Rainer PostelPhilippe Dollinger: Die Hanse Rolf Hammel-Kieslow: Die Hanse

Today we will talk about the Bryggen, the famous Hanseatic Kontor or trading post in Bergen in western Norway. Bergen itself was never a member of the Hanseatic League, but like The St. Peter's yard in Novgorod, the steelyard in London and the Kontor of Bruges, the Bryggen in Bergen was a key element of the Hanseatic trading network.The trade in stockfish from Bergen was never on the same scale as the herring trade off Scania or the trade in beeswax and furs from Novgorod, but it was an important springboard for members of the lower classes to join the long-distance merchants. And the way the Hanse was able to gain a stranglehold over the proud Vikings of Norway is a cautionary tale of failed macro-economic policies. If you think the Norwegians are unique in falling prey to aggressive Hanseatic trade policies, think again. Even the mighty Bruges, the warehouse of the medieval world” was made to grant these merchants from the Holy Roman empire far reaching privileges.Some have considered these events as the beginnings of a long process of specialisation in Europe that condemned the East to become the giant breadbasket that fed the industrialising West. I doubt things are that simple, but let's have a look at the different arguments….The music for the show is Flute Sonata in E-flat major, H.545 by Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (or some claim it as BWV 1031 Johann Sebastian Bach) performed and arranged by Michel Rondeau under Common Creative Licence 3.0.As always:Homepage with maps, photos, transcripts and blog: www.historyofthegermans.comFacebook: @HOTGPod Twitter: @germanshistoryInstagram: history_of_the_germansReddit: u/historyofthegermansPatreon: https://www.patreon.com/Historyofthegermans

The death of Svyatoslav found Rus unprepared for the succession. The three sons he left in charge of Kyiv, the Drevlians, and Novgorod, soon turn to fighting among themselves.

Full episode for subscribers: https://www.patreon.com/posts/85372158 On Gumroad: https://russianswithattitude.gumroad.com/ 00:00:00 - A brief history of Russia from the Mongol Yoke to Ivan IV Grozny 00:07:30 - A portrait of Ivan IV 00:20:25 - Conquest of Kazan 00:28:40 - Conquest of Astrakhan & Russo-Turkish war 00:34:00 - Livonian war 00:46:10 - Oprichnina & Novgorod massacre 00:56:35 - Grozny's wives and heirs 01:07:00 - Death of Ivan IV

A history of the Hanseatic League normally begins with the story of the foundation, destruction and refoundation of Lübeck. This series will not do that. For once, we already had a whole episode of the Foundation of Lübeck. If you want to check it out, look for episode 105 of the History of the Germans Podcast. But more importantly, the foundation of Lübeck, is still just the foundation of a city. Do not get me wrong, Lübeck is a stunning city and its Rathaus and the magnificent churches, including the astounding Marienkirche tell us about the wealth and the civic pride of its inhabitants. But then, Burges is an even more astounding merchant city, as are Antwerp, Amsterdam, not to speak of Florence or Venice. What I mean is that if Lübeck, Bremen, Hamburg, Gdansk and Riga had just been successful trading cities in the Middle Ages, the cities of Bergen, Novgorod and King's Lynn would not still remind everyone of their old business relationship.It isn't the size and beauty of its cities that that makes the Hanseatic League special, it is the way they co-operated. And that does not begin with the foundation of Lübeck, but with something that happened shortly after the foundation of Lübeck, in 1161.The music for the show is Flute Sonata in E-flat major, H.545 by Carl Phillip Emmanuel Bach (or some claim it as BWV 1031 Johann Sebastian Bach) performed and arranged by https://www.windrep.org/Michel_Rondeau (Michel Rondeau) As always:Homepage with maps, photos, transcripts and blog: www.historyofthegermans.comFacebook: @HOTGPodTwitter: @germanshistoryInstagram: history_of_the_germansReddit: u/historyofthegermansPatreon: https://www.patreon.com/Historyofthegermans

Of course the first episode back after a Swedish Christmas has to include a healthy dose of herring! We round off the 1300s with a quick tale about Novgorod and more developments on Gotland, before diving into the great herring markets of Skåne to start off the new century. The 1400s was a time of great trade in Skåne and herring was of vital importance to the entire Kalmar Union. What happened if you tried to salt your own fish or carried your herring around in a bag? Find out here! 

Saint Tryphon was the son of a priest from Novgorod. The Synaxarion records that, at the moment of his birth, the verse Blessed is the life of those who dwell in the desert was being sung in the Matins service. In 1525 he was moved by a divine revelation to flee to the far north of Russia and live as a hermit. He settled near the River Kola, where he devoted his nights to prayer, his days to proclaiming the Gospel of Christ to the native peoples there. The pagans were hostile at first, but his patience and humility won them over, and he baptized many. He built them a church with his own hands on the shores of Lake Ladoga, and later founded a monastery there. Saint Tryphon reposed in 1583. He predicted his own death and the coming destruction of the Monastery by the Swedes, which came to pass in 1590. All the monks were massacred. The first victim, Starets Jonah, worked many miracles at the Monastery after its restoration.

Saint Tryphon was the son of a priest from Novgorod. The Synaxarion records that, at the moment of his birth, the verse Blessed is the life of those who dwell in the desert was being sung in the Matins service. In 1525 he was moved by a divine revelation to flee to the far north of Russia and live as a hermit. He settled near the River Kola, where he devoted his nights to prayer, his days to proclaiming the Gospel of Christ to the native peoples there. The pagans were hostile at first, but his patience and humility won them over, and he baptized many. He built them a church with his own hands on the shores of Lake Ladoga, and later founded a monastery there. Saint Tryphon reposed in 1583. He predicted his own death and the coming destruction of the Monastery by the Swedes, which came to pass in 1590. All the monks were massacred. The first victim, Starets Jonah, worked many miracles at the Monastery after its restoration.

Blanca, the rescue Goffin's Cockatoo, is a guest cohost on this episode, about that time that Olaf, before he was king of anything, whacked Klerkon, the viking who had enslaved him when he was a toddler. We discuss the Kyivan Rus, Novgorod, Vikings, blood money, the sagas, and, to Anne's surprise, Longfellow.  Blanca the Cockatoo has a lot to say. We don't know why. Also we don't know what she was saying.

He lived for many years as a monk at the Monastery of St Cyril of White Lake, where his ascetic struggles won him the respect of his brethren. To flee from the admiration of men he moved further north to Valaam Monastery. But he still attracted the good opinion of his community, so he secretly headed still further north, planning to reach the uninhabited Solovki Island in the White Sea (a large bay of the Arctic Ocean). When he reached the coast, everyone who might take him tried to dissuade him from living in such a harsh place. He answered 'My children, I have a Master who has the power to renew the strength of the old and to enfeeble the young if He so wills. He makes the poor rich, clothes the naked, provides for the destitute and satisfies the starving with a measure of food as he fed five thousand men in the desert.'   While waiting for seasonable sailing weather he met St Germanus (July 30) who lived nearby as a hermit. Together they found a fishing boat and, casting all their trust on the Lord, made the dangerous two-day voyage and set up a hermitage on the island. It became known as a holy place, and thenceforth those living in the world knew not to settle on Solovki, or even to set foot there without good reason. After six years, St Germanus departed, and Sabbatius was left alone.   When he was old, he began to fear that he would die without receiving the life-giving Mysteries, of which he had not partaken since he left Valaam. So he returned to the mainland where he met an abbot Nathanael just as he was taking Holy Communion to a sick man. Sabbatius persuaded the abbot to hear his confession and grant him the priceless gift of Holy Communion. He then settled in a nearby chapel and made ready for his departure from this life. A wealthy merchant from Novgorod visited him to ask for his blessing. The Saint said to him, 'Spend the night here and you will see the grace of God.' The next morning the merchant came to Sabbatius' cell and found that he had reposed during the night; his cell was suffused with a beautiful scent.   The following year, St Germanus, along with St Zosimas (April 17), returned to Solovki island and founded a monastery there, which proved to be the nurturing ground of many Saints.

President Putin has ordered a partial military mobilisation, accusing the West of trying to destroy Russia. Three-hundred-thousand additional personnel will now be available to fight in Ukraine. Also on the programme: A Russian man who refuses to fight in Ukraine; and the Turkish Nobel Laureate, Orhan Pamuk, on his writing and the shrinking spaces for free speech in his country. Picture: President Putin addressing engineers in Novgorod. Credit: Sputnik/ EPA / Shutterstock

He was born in Rome in 1086 to wealthy and pious parents. When the Roman Church broke away from the Orthodox around that time, those who continued to uphold Orthodoxy, Antony among them, were persecuted. Antony gave away his worldly possessions and fled to a small rocky island in the sea, where he spent fourteen months in asceticism. During this time, the island miraculously floated like a ship to Novgorod. There, Archbishop Nikita received the young monk and helped him to build a church to the holy Theotokos, which in time became a monastery. St Anthony served there as abbot for many years, reposing in peace in 1148.

He was born in Rome in 1086 to wealthy and pious parents. When the Roman Church broke away from the Orthodox around that time, those who continued to uphold Orthodoxy, Antony among them, were persecuted. Antony gave away his worldly possessions and fled to a small rocky island in the sea, where he spent fourteen months in asceticism. During this time, the island miraculously floated like a ship to Novgorod. There, Archbishop Nikita received the young monk and helped him to build a church to the holy Theotokos, which in time became a monastery. St Anthony served there as abbot for many years, reposing in peace in 1148.

Today, we begin a two-part series on the cities of old Russia. It begins in Kyiv, moving on to Novgorod, Pskov, Smolensk, Ryazan, Vladimir, Sundial, and Tver.School Reading ListThe School Reading List Podcast - presented by Tom Tolkien.Listen on: Apple Podcasts Spotify

“The impure and proud Mamai, Lord of the Volga Horde, ruled over the entire Horde, and he slew many lords and khans and he set  up a khan according to his own will. He was, however, in great confusion, and everybody distrusted him because he killed many lords and nobles in his Horde. He even killed his own khan, and although he had a khan, this khan of the Horde was ruler in name only, for it was he, himself, who was ruler and master of all. When he learned that the Tatars loved their khan he became afraid that the khan would assume the power from him. Therefore he killed him and all who were faithful to him and those who loved him.”   So the Rus' Nikonian Chronicle describes the situation in the Golden Horde at the end of the 1370s. Thirty years after the death of Özbeg Khan, the Golden Horde underwent another, much more violent transformation. During the reign of Özbeg's son Jani Beg from 1342 to 1357, he had kept the Golden Horde sailing through rough waters as the overland Asian trade began to unravel and the Black Death ravaged his cities.  But with Jani Beg's death in 1357, possibly at the hands of his own son Berdi Beg, the good fortune of the Golden Horde came to a sudden and bloody end. Now the Horde was to enter two decades of anarchy; the bulghaq, the topic of today's episode. I'm your host David, and this is Kings and Generals: Ages of Conquest.   In 1357, Jani Beg had just returned from his successful conquest of what is now Azerbaijan, when he suddenly died. According to a contemporary writer, al-Ahari, his son Berdi Beg was, at the time of his father's death, still in the Azerbaijani lands. But sources such as the later Nikonian Chronicle have Berdi Beg convinced by a cunning emir to strangle his father himself after bringing numerous princes into an alliance with him. The widespread impression seems to have been that he organized his father's murder, even if the most contemporary sources do not place Berdi Beg there himself. After Berdi Beg left Azerbaijan, the region was lost, seized by the Jalayirids of Baghdad.    Berdi Beg in quick order, with the backing of his grandmother Taydula, was proclaimed Khan of the Golden Horde. But feeling he faced threats, real or imagined, the new khan's first actions were violence. Echoing his father and grandfather, Berdi Beg had his brothers murdered: 12 of them, by one count. For one infant brother, Berdi Beg is alleged to have done the deed with his own bare hands, despite the pleadings of grandmother Taydula Khatun. A number of other high ranking princes and officials too met their deaths on Berdi Beg's order.   Berdi Beg's actions did little to engender love to the new monarch, for whom Heaven seemed to show little favour. The Horde's trade had declined tremendously in these years. Cities starved and shrunk, as they lost access to international trade, were depopulated by the Black Death and local farmland suffered. The mid-fourteenth century saw the Little Ice Age strike  and undo the system built up by the Jochids over the last century. Decreased rainfall over much of the steppe, and likely over-grazing from ever larger herds needed to support cities, when combined resulted in the rapid aridisation across the region. Much of the grassland simply could not sustain the great herds any longer. Almost paradoxically, the Caspian Sea was rising and causing increased flooding along the lower reaches of the Volga, which inundated cities and farmland in the Horde's most densely populated region.    The great cities of the Horde saw their population drop rapidly, and the material wealth evaporated without the trade or population to sustain it. The Horde's elites who had enriched themselves off it were frightened, angered and uncertain. Berdi Beg's efforts did little to improve things; he is known, for instance, to have raised trade duties on imports to their highest level ever recorded in the Golden Horde: 5%. And an especially virulent wave of the plague in 1359 really topped things off.    His legitimacy already in doubt due to widespread rumours of having murdered his own father, the generally respected Jani Beg, it should not be a surprise that Berdi Beg's rule was on thin ice. After only two years on the throne, Berdi Beg, grandson of mighty Özbeg, was murdered. The exact circumstances are unclear; the Nikonian Chronicle puts the blame on the same beg  who had urged Berdi Beg to kill his father. The murder of Berdi Beg Khan in 1359 did not, however, improve things very much.    On Berdi Beg's death, the throne was taken by Qulpa, a fellow who is variously identified as a brother or cousin of Berdi Beg. Qulpa was not long to enjoy the throne. After six months, Qulpa and his two sons, curiously with the very Rus' Christian names of Ivan and Mikhail, were all in turn murdered, this time by Nawruz, a brother of Qulpa. Still, the Rus' princes came to pay homage to Nawruz, and momentarily things looked like they might settle. That is, until Khidr came. Khidr ruled an appanage east of the Ural River, and was no descendant of Batu, but of another son of Jochi, named Shiban. In some accounts, he was invited by Taydula Khatun. But he simply may have seen a chance to throw his hat in the ring. Only months after he took the throne, Nawruz and his son were killed by Khidr, who became the new khan of the Golden Horde. So ended the line of Batu Khan, having ruled the western steppes for a century. The purging of the Batuid lineage with every succession since Toqta and Nogai's coup in 1291 had reached its final outcome, with Nawruz and his sons the final known male descendants. With the exception of Berke, all the khans of the Golden Horde until that time had been a descendent of Batu. Now, Khidr Khan's actions had essentially opened the succession to any possible claimant. And boy, did it.   Within a year Khidr was dead, and over the next twenty years the Jochid throne effectively became the most violent game of musical chairs. Over this period, some 25 khans, possibly more, were declared in Sarai, of varying lineages. Some ruled for two or three years, while many ruled only months.  Most of these figures are known only by their names. Some are known only by coinage; in one year, 6 different khans minted coins in Sarai.   The consequences were legion. The economic woes worsened as cities were now sacked by opposing forces. For the first time, we see archaeological evidence for fortifications around the Horde's cities in the steppe. A number of cities were outright abandoned. In the west, the condominium with Lithuania was abandoned as the Lithuanian dukes immediately seized the western lands, and in short order the Lithuanian principality extended to the Black Sea coast line. In 1362 under Duke Ol'gerd the Lithuanians won a battle over a Mongol army at the Battle of Blue Waters. In the aftermath, everything between the Dnieper and Dniester came under Lithuanian control, although at least for Podolia, in south-western Ukraine, the Lithuanians continued to pay the tribute to the Mongols well into the fifteenth century. Moldova and other Balkan regions declared independence, while the local nomadic leaders seem to have also stopped heeding the word of Sarai.   East of the Ural River, the Blue Horde, ruled by the line of Batu's older brother Orda, too faced its own troubles. The lineage of Orda became extinct in the 1360s and saw its own succession troubles. The khans in the Blue Horde, by the end of the decade, stopped minting coins with the name of the Sarai khans, and started doing so in their own names. The Blue Horde was thus independent once again.     The princes of the Rus' stopped making the trips to the Horde to declare their allegiance, for it simply became too dangerous. Rus' princes were now being robbed and held captive by the rival Jochid powers when they made the trip through the steppe. And with the khans  being overturned every few months it was now far too dangerous a trip to make so regularly.  However the Rus' lands were not to be ignored, as certain Jochid princes and contenders for power, having lost access to the trade they had one relied upon, were now turning evermore to the Rus' as a source of income and loot.    The khan's authority decreased further, as many khans did not rule themselves, but were puppets for non-Chinggisid powerbrokers. And the chief of these was Mamai, a powerful military commander based in the steppes near Crimea. As he was no descendant of Chinggis, Mamai had no right to claim the title of khan himself, though he held prestige as beylerbeyi and  married a daughter of Berdi Beg. But that didn't mean he could not put someone amenable to his interests on the throne. The first of these fellows was Abdullah, who was alleged to be a son of either Özbeg Khan or his son Tini Beg. He simply may have come from another corollary branch of the lineage, who Mamai had found convenient to play up. That was hardly unusual, as supposed lost sons of Özbeg, Tini Beg and Jani Beg continued to pop up, such as another claimant, Kildi Beg, in 1361.    Abdullah Khan was enthroned in Sarai in 1361, and Mamai returned to his Crimean pastures soon after.  But Abdullah was quickly ousted by rivals in Sarai and fled back to Mamai. This was to be a regular pattern over the 1360s. Every few years Mamai would march with an army, enthrone Abdullah and return, only for Abdullah to be tossed out or flee when another claimant came a-knockin', or the nobles in Sarai declared someone else khan. The final attempt resulted in Abdullah's death in 1370, upon which Mamai empowered a princess in Sarai, named Tulun Bey. Her exact identity is uncertain. It is commonly assumed that she was the Chinggisid princess who Mamai had also married, a daughter of Berdi Beg Khan. If this is the case, then she was the last to rule from the line of Batu. But she was quickly switched out by Mamai, and replaced with another of Mamai's puppet. And so this pattern continued until 1380, with Mamai's candidates thrown out every few years, and then installed a year or two later. It's caused an endless amount of work for historians to try and determine the order and lengths of reigns of all these khans.    It was well known at large that the Khan was a figurehead for Mamai. As the Rus' Nikon Chronicle states,  “At that time in Mamai's Horde there was a khan, but he had no power by comparison with Mamai, and was khan in nothing but the title. Even this title, however, was meaningless because all glory and all action were Mamai's. There was much trouble in the Horde and many Tatar lords had killed each other, lost their heads and died at sword's points. Thus, little by little, the Horde's great power was wasted away.”   Mamai's intrigues did not merely extend to Sarai, but to the Rus' lands as well, as the Sarai Khans sought revenue from Rus' taxes, and Mamai intervened to earn them himself. In one of these conspiracies, Mamai granted the yarliq, or patent, to the Grand Principality of Vladimir, the chief of the Rus' princes, to the young Prince of Moscow Dmitri Ivanovich. Or as he's better known to posterity, Dmitri Donskoi.   Dmitri was a grandson of Ivan I Kalita, the grandson of Alexander Nevsky who had worked so well with Özbeg Khan and began Moscow's rise to prominence. Ivan Kalita had monopolized the position of Grand Prince, the chief tax collector of the Rus', until his death. Upon that, it went to his son Simeon, who died of plague, and then to Dmitri's father, Ivan II Ivanovich, who died in 1359 as the Horde's troubles began. Only 9 years old when his father died, Dmitri could not rely on the Khans' support as his fathers had.    We've discussed this matter over previous episodes, but it bears reiterating here. The top title in the Rus' lands was the Grand Prince of Vladimir. Whoever held this was the #1 prince in the Rus', and collected taxes for the khans— skimming off the top for himself, of course, but also giving him great influence among the Rus'. While initially the khans had just appointed whoever the Rus' princes elected as Grand Prince, during Özbeg's reign the khans assumed the right to rescind and appoint the Grand Prince at will.  And the Princes of Moscow, a lesser branch of the Riurikid lineage, quite desired it but held no right to the title without the khan's backing. And so a relationship was formed, wherein the Princes of Moscow became the most scrupulous  enactors of the khan's will, in order to retain the titles to both Moscow and the Grand Principality, as well as the khan's military support as protection. And correspondingly, from the 1320s onwards Moscow grew in wealth and power, to the displeasure of the other Rus' princes, who saw the Moscow line as upstarts with no right to the Grand title.    Flashing forward to 1360, Khan Nawruz took both the Moscow title and the Grand Principality away from young Dmitri, only for it to be returned in 1362 when the new Khan in Sarai granted both back to him. Mamai saw his opportunity here, and also granted Dmitri the patent for the Grand Principality. The rival in Sarai quickly rescinded his support for Dmitri.  Without support from either the Khan or other Rus' princes the young Prince of Moscow could only seek the assistance of Mamai.    Mamai gained himself an excellent source of revenue in the young Dmitri, who turned out to be a very capable hand, while for Dmitri Mamai's armies gave him security he would not have otherwise as a youth on the throne. With the loss of the overland trade, the income from the Rus' was more important than ever, and Mamai was happy to earn it, and Dmitri did his best to deliver on time. But Dmitri was not passive, and wanted to secure his own base lest the whims of Mamai shift. Through diplomacy, marriage alliances and military threats, Dmitri steadily built his support among the Rus' princes, and incorporated other smaller principalities under Moscow's rule. For the first time, the city of Moscow itself received stone walls on Dmitri's order, which proved their worth in repelling an attack by Lithuania and the rival city of Tver' in 1368.    Mamai had use for Dmitri only as long as he provided tribute, so when the Hanseatic League disrupted trade to Dmitri's territories in the late 1360s, thereby preventing Dmitri from collecting the silver for Mamai, Mamai rescinded the patent to the Grand Principality and gave it to Dmitri's rival Mikhail Aleksandrovich of Tver' in 1370. Yet Mikhail proved even worse at sending tribute, and when Dmitri personally presented himself to Mamai to pay homage, accompanied by a great many gifts, Mamai returned him the Grand Princely title.  The situation repeated in late 1374 when the Hanseatic League cut the silver export to Novgorod. Mamai once again gave the Grand Princely title to Mikhail of Tver', but due to plague and Mamai's failed attempt to control the Volga trade routes, he was unable to support Mikhail militarily. Dmitri in the meantime had built up Moscow's military and alliances, and in Mamai's absence forced Mikhail to surrender. Confident in his abilities, Dmitri then took his army to the Volga, asserting Moscow's authority as far as Bulghar in 1377.        Mamai was not pleased at this development, a threat to his income while an even greater threat loomed on the horizon. Far to the east in the Blue Horde lands, a powerful Chinggisid Prince named Toqtamish, backed by the Central Asian warlord Temür, was rapidly growing in power. The eye of Toqtamish was drifting to Sarai, and he dreamed of assuming leadership of the Golden Horde. Doing so was a threat of unification which would entail a collision with Mamai. Mamai thus needed to prepare for the inevitable battle, but to do this he needed the resources of the Rus' tribute. And to that, he needed Dmitri to play nice with him.  In August 1378 a force in Mamai's service was sent to collect the tribute. Dmitri set out, nervously, to meet it head on, intercepting it near the Vozha River. Dmitri's force held firm under their attack, and succeeded in flanking the Mongols. In an attempt to withdraw across the Vozha River, many of the Mongols were killed, and Dmitri looted their abandoned camp.    Such was the first real victory an army of the Rus' had ever had over a force of the Golden Horde in battle, though Dmitri gained little from this victory and neither force was large. But Mamai was furious. The next year he ordered a larger, retaliatory attack on the Ryazan' land, causing great destruction, burning several cities. Oleg, Prince of Ryazan' fled before him. The Rus' paid dearly for their effort.   In 1378, the same year as the defeat on the Vozha, more alarming news came from the east. Toqtamish had now taken Sarai, and proclaimed himself Khan. Confrontation was imminent, and Mamai could not face Toqtamish with Dmitri rebelling in his rear. If Toqtamish and Dmitri allied, then Mamai would be surrounded by foes. Mamai needed resources to face Toqtamish, and  he needed revenue to do that, and Dmitri, as chief tax collector of the Russian principalities and controlling much of the Volga trade, was directly undermining that. It was time for Mamai to confront Dmitri himself. Over the next year, Mamai organized an alliance with Grand Duke Jagailo of Lithuania and Prince Oleg of Ryazan. He called up troops from the Alans, the Circassians, and the Genoese as mercenaries. We are told in the Nikon Chronicle that Mamai furiously studied Batu's conquest of the Rus', trying to learn his tactics and strategy. It got to the point that allegedly, Mamai began to see himself as a second Batu, feeling superior to all others and his own men calling him “Great Khan.”   In 1380, Mamai was ready. He ordered Dmitri to deliver a higher amount of tribute than ever, even greater than what had been paid during the times of Özbeg and Jani Beg. The message was a stalling tactic, as Mamai made preparations to march on Moscow with Jagailo and Oleg, hoping to crush Dmitri of Moscow between the three of them.         In Moscow, Dmitri quickly organized all the military forces of the Principalities that he could. Surprisingly, most principalities, except Tver', Novgorod or those aiding Mamai, answered Dmitri's call for aid. Dmitri's efforts to build Moscow's influence now bore fruit, as for the first time in their history, the Rus' offered something of a united front against the Mongols. The ascendency of Moscow over the other cities had begun, but first they had to stand against Mamai.       In September 1380 in a field on the upper Don River called Kulikovo, Mamai and the Ryazan forces waited for the Lithuanians. In a sign of poor scouting, on the 9th of September Mamai's army was shocked to see the arrival of Dmitri and the Rus' host crossing the Don. Dmitri's goal was simple; defeat Mamai in the field, before the Lithuanians could arrive and overwhelm him. One of the most famous battles in Russian history was about to begin.    Numbers for the two armies are uncertain, with Dmitri leading perhaps as many as 30,000 Rus' troops from across the principalities, while Mamai likely had a slightly larger force, consisting of Mongol-Turkic, that is Tatar, cavalry, Circassians, Rus' from Ryazan and Genoese mercenaries. Battle began with a clash of champions; the Rus' monk Peresvet, and a Tatar named variously Chelübei or Temür Mirza. They charged one another on horseback, lances before them. At the collision both were run through and killed, though Perevet's body is supposed to have stayed in the saddle the longer.   Battle then commenced. It was across a wide front, extending the Rus' lines thin but ravines and streams hampered the full deployment of Mamai's cavalry. Fighting went on for hours, with Mamai's troops holding the upper hand. Skilled Tatar cavalry and arrows took their toll on the Rus' and both sides tired over the course of the day. Dmitri had given his standard to another to hold, and when that man fell, the Rus' wavered. Dmitri himself disappeared in the clash, supposedly wounded and knocked unconscious. Mamai appeared on the verge of victory and kept his forces engaged. Yet one final trick was left to be put in play. Dmitri's cousin, Vladimir of Serpukhov, was kept in reserve with the Rus' princely cavalry. As both sides were at exhaustion, the freshly deployed Rus' cavalry charged from their hiding place in the trees and into the flank of Mamai's army. Mamai could only watch as his overworked, exhausted army routed, and he too fled. Learning of Mamai's defeat, the Lithuanians rapidly withdrew before ever making contact. So ended the battle on the Kulikovo field.   Dmitri had led the Rus' to defeat a major Mongol army in the field, and for his victory he was given the epithet Donskoi, meaning “of the Don.” While today this battle stands tall in Russian popular memory as a struggle for independence, in reality it led to little immediate change for the Rus' or to Moscow's standing. Our main sources come decades after the event and reflect how the battle's stature had grown with retellings. While the more heroic and famous elements of the battle may have little basis in reality, such as the duel before the battle, the general course of events is probably accurate enough. Whether it was as great a defeat for Mamai as popularly imagined is unknown, nor can we know Mamai for certain was even present. Mamai's losses are likely greatly overstated, since the next year he was able to raise another army rapidly, suggesting a small clash may have been turned into a grand duel. Arguments that Kulikovo never actually happened due to a lack of archaeological evidence cannot be sustained, as it is rare indeed for archaeological evidence to survive of a medieval battle. Little of the valuable metal equipment was ever left on site, usually quickly scavenged, while bodies were taken away for respectful burials or disintegrated before they could be preserved in the earth. The slightly earlier battle of Bannockburn in Scotland, for instance, though tracked to a relatively small area, has left almost no presence archaeologically speaking.    The real victor at Kulikovo was not Dmitri, but Toqtamish. After Kulikovo Mamai had strength enough to raise another army, and fought Toqtamish on the Kalka River. There Mamai was defeated for the final time. He was soon captured and executed by Toqtamish or by Genoese in Crimea when he fled there. Either way, Dmitri had succeeded in weakening Toqtamish's main rival for rule of the Golden Horde, and the new Khan was ready to assert his authority. So ended the Tale of Mamai.        Our next episode takes you through the reign of Toqtamish, as we enter the final period of the Golden Horde, so be sure to subscribe to the Kings and Generals Podcast to follow. If you enjoyed this and would like to help us continue bringing you great content, consider supporting us on patreon at www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. This episode was researched and written by our series historian, Jack Wilson. I'm your host David, and we'll catch you on the next one. 

From 1313 to 1341, Özbeg Khan oversaw what is normally  described as the Golden Horde's Golden age. As our last episode on Özbeg discussed, things were not going quite so golden for old Özbeg. The appellation of golden age belies the troubles which were growing ready to rock the Golden Horde. As our last episode looked at Özbeg and the Golden Horde's relations south and east, with the other Mongol khanates and the Mamluk Sultanate, today we take you west and north, to see how Özbeg interacted with the powers of Eastern Europe and the Rus' principalities. I'm your host David, and this is Kings and Generals: Ages of Conquest.   What appears almost shocking at a cursory glance, is that despite so many authors claiming Özbeg's glory, he also oversaw its first loss of Golden Horde territory. We'll begin in the Balkans, and work our way north. On his accession, Özbeg had continued the policy of the late Toqta Khan, by keeping the Bulgarian lands a part of the Horde, backed up by Mongol military presence. Özbeg's support was important for the Bulgarian tsars in this period: the Tsar from 1323 to 1330, Georgi Terter's son Michael Shishman, relied heavily on Mongol military support and kept one of his sons at Özbeg's court as a royal hostage. At the battle of Velbuzjd in 1330, a Bulgarian and Mongol army was defeated by the Serbians, in which Tsar Micheal Shishman was killed. The threat of a military response from Özbeg is probably what kept the Serbians from pressing their advantage. The journey of a Bulgarian embassy to Cairo in 1331 resulted in the Mamluk chronicler al-Umarī to report that despite fighting between the Bulgarians and Serbs, both respected Özbeg due to his great power over them. Though it was not comparable to the influence Nogai had once wielded over the region, the presentation of contemporary chronicles is that the Bulgarian lands remained dependent on the Golden Horde; Bulgaria, for example, was the base from which the Mongols launched attacks on Byzantium, rather than seen as a country they passed through. It was the eventual loss of this Mongol backing that would result in Bulgaria's vulnerability to Ottoman expansion at the end of the century.    Like Toqta, Özbeg too married an illegitimate daughter of the Byzantine Emperor, this time of Andronikos III in 1331. This wife was called by the Mongols Bayalun Khatun, and Ibn Battuta accompanied her when she returned to Constantinople to give birth. The impetus was to dissuade further attacks by Özbeg, for Özbeg had resumed raiding the Byzantine Empire. Annual attacks from 1321 to 1323, the largest coming in 1323 and causing a great deal of damage. Raids at first ceased with the marriage of 1331, but when Bayalun refused to come back to the Horde after returning to Constantinople to give birth, attacks resumed. The last recorded assault came in 1337, advancing as far as the Hellespont. Supposedly in response to the failure of Constantinople to supply its annual tribute, the Horde army spent 50 days plundering Thrace, and in the process defeated a Turkish force sent across the straits by a growing beylik in northwestern Anatolia, the Osmanoğlu. Though you may know them better as the Ottomans. So ended the last recorded attack by the Golden Horde on the Byzantine Empire. Sometimes this is compared as a symbolic act, the passing of the torch from Mongol to Ottoman, from old conqueror to new, when it came to the main threat to the region. In 1341 a Byzantine embassy was sent to the Horde to mollify Özbeg, but arrived after his death.   While in truth Özbeg's attacks on the Byzantine Empire were raids rather than efforts at conquest, he apparently played them up somewhat in his own court as great victories over Christian powers. Ibn Battuta, during his visit to Özbeg, presents the Khan as a great victor over the enemies of God who undertook jihad against Constantinople. Özbeg, it must be clarified, never showed any attempt at conquering that famous city, and his military actions against Europe all seem considerably minor efforts compared to his wars against the Ilkhanate.   Along the borders of the Hungarian Kingdom, troops of the Horde —perhaps not always with Özbeg's permission— raided regularly, especially in Transylvania. However these assaults could now be repulsed, as Hungary was rejuvenated under the skillful leadership of a new dynasty, headed by Charles I of Hungary. On occasion Charles led attacks onto dependencies of the Horde or of Bulgaria.  It is remarkable that most of these raids are known only indirectly; often only from charters, where an individual was rewarded for fighting against the Mongols, rather than through any chronicle mention. Özbeg may have preferred indirect pressure, by supporting the former Hungarian vassal, the voivode of Wallachia, a fellow named Basarab. There is no shortage of debate around Basarab and early Wallachia, and we'll avoid it here; the exact origins and timeline of the emergence of this principality is very far from agreed upon. Established on the border regions of modern Romania and Moldova, these were lands otherwise under control of the Golden Horde. Basarab himself is a target of many arguments; his name suggests a Turkic, likely Cuman origin, however contemporary sources consistently describe him as a Vlakh, a member of the Romance-language-speaking community which today mainly refers to the Romanians. Depending on how his father's name is reconstructed, it appears either recognizably Mongol, or even Hungarian. While initially a subject of the Hungarian King, by the end of the 1320s Basarab was at war with the Hungarians, and decisively defeated them at the battle of Posada in 1330. There is indirect indication that Basarab had some military support from the Golden Horde.   The independence of Wallachia appears a part of the gradual secession of authority of the Golden Horde over its westernmost border. Most dramatically was this apparent through today's Ukraine and Belarus, where the influence of Lithuania grew at the expense of the Golden Horde. Early Lithuanian-Mongol contacts over the thirteenth century seem to have consisted of raids in both directions. Several times did Nogai provide armies for Rus' princes to attack the Lithuanians, while the Lithuanians took advantage of the initial Mongol invasion in the 1240s to raid deep into the Rus' lands. The transition from the thirteenth to the fourteenth century is one of poor coverage for Lithuanian history; scattered Lithuanians princes of the 1200s appear in the 1300s unified and consolidated under the Grand Dukes of Lithuania, particularly from Duke Gediminas onwards. By the 1320s, Gediminas was in position to influence the succession over Galicia-Volhynia, in today's western Ukraine and Belarus and at the time subject to the Golden Horde. Between 1321 and 1323, the young princes of Ruthenia died without heir. The King of Poland Władysław I, the Lithuanian Duke Gedminas, and Khan  Özbeg were all very interested in the succession. While  Özbeg may have been caught up in his conflicts with the Ilkhanate, at this time the Polish King wrote to the Pope fearing a Mongol attack, and in 1324 Mongol ambassadors were in the Lithuanian capital of Vilnius. Threats and diplomacy, rather than open war, was the means by which the three powers came to a conclusion. An acceptable candidate to replace the deceased princes was selected in the form of Yurii II Boleslaw, a fellow of Polish, Ruthenian and Lithaunian background, a Catholic who converted to Orthodox Christianity, and who married a daughter of Duke Gediminas. And what did  Özbeg get out of it? The continuation of tribute from Galicia-Volhynia.    This willingness for diplomacy with these western neighbours seems surprising, but the sources indicate it was very much  Özbeg's preferred order of operations in this theater. In 1331, a brother of Lithuania's Duke Gediminas was installed in Kyiv, alongside a Mongol basqaq, or tax collector. In what has been termed a Lithuanain-Mongol condominium, it seems the arrangement was that these westernmost Rus' lands paid tribute and military service both to Lithuania, and the Golden Horde. As noted by historian Darius Baronas, news of this arrangement made it as far as France, where a French poet in the 1330s described Lithuania as paying tribute to the Golden Horde. It seems that  Özbeg's calculation was simple;  Özbeg wanted the income from these western Rus' principalities, but didn't desire war over them, intent as he was on focusing his forces on the Ilkhanate. The frontier with Lithuania and Poland was long, the region as a whole rather peripheral. It was cheaper and more convenient to give the administration over to the Lithuanians while still retaining the income. When necessary the threat of the Horde's horsemen could be levied; in 1333 there was a raid on Briansk, then under Lithuanian control. Meanwhile the Lithuanians could avoid open conflict with the Mongols, allowing them to deal more fully with those troublesome Teutontic Knights. It would not be until the end of  Özbeg's life that this arrangement was challenged, but until that point it proved remarkably flexible and workable to all involved, except for those at the bottom of the ladder now  being taxed twice. But  Özbeg, however clever he thought he was, had given a foothold for Lithuanian expansion which would soon push right to the Black Sea coastline.  In 1340 when Yuri Boleslaw of Galicia-Volhynia died, the King of Poland Casimir III invaded, but quickly withdrew as the threat of Mongol retaliation mounted. While border clashes with Poland, and soon Hungary, commenced,  Özbeg actually engaged in diplomacy even with Pope Benedict XII, notifying his holiness of  Özbeg's displeasure. Papa Benedict even offered to make the Kings of Poland and Hungary pay for damages Özbeg incurred because of them. A far cry from the days of the khans demanding the submission of the Popes, but the matter was not resolved before Özbeg's death in 1341.   And what of the Rus'? Here  Özbeg intervened most forcefully, particularly compared to his predecessors. On  Özbeg's enthronement in 1313, the lead prince of the Rus', Grand Prince Mikhail of Tver', spent two years cozying up to  Özbeg in his court, eager to secure his support. In his absence from the Rus' Principalities, Mikhail's rivals got to work. His main foe was his cousin, Yurii Daniilovich, the Prince of Moscow. A grandson of the famous Alexander Nevskii, Yurii was a man overflowing with ambition. While Mikhail of Tver' was with  Özbeg in his ordu, Yurii of Moscow stormed Novgorod and took it for himself. Mikhail convinced  Özbeg to give him an army, and in 1315 they retook Novgorod. Yurii of Moscow was summoned to  Özbeg, ostensibly for punishment. But the silver tongued Yurii managed to work his way into  Özbeg's favour, with this one simple trick: convincing  Özbeg that he would be able to collect more tax revenues than Mikhail. For this, he received a yarliq installing him as Grand Prince of Vladimir, the chief Prince of the Rus', as well as receiving a sister of  Özbeg in marriage. Konchaka was her name, and she was baptized a Christian, taking the name of Agatha.   Full of confidence and the Khan's blessing, Yurii then attacked Mikhail of Tver', and was promptly defeated. Yurii fled the field, while his newly betrothed Konchaka was taken captive by Mikhail. The Prince of Tver' tried to tread carefully; in the Nikonian Chronicle,  Mikhail treats the captured Mongol generals and troops respectfully, showering them with honours, gifts and releases many of them. His intention was to re-earn Özbeg's favour, and be reinstalled as the Grand Prince. Unfortunately for him,  Özbeg's sister Konchaka then died in Tver's captivity, in mysterious circumstances. As you might guess, this was not exactly beneficial to any reelection campaign. Mikhail of Tver' was put on trial on Özbeg's court, and after several months of deliberation, Mikhail was condemned and executed in 1318. Yurii of Moscow was thus confirmed as Grand Prince by  Özbeg.   The significance of this is twofold. Firstly, the khans had previously confirmed as Grand Prince whoever was presented to them, and thus followed Riurikid tradition. That is, succession as Grand Prince normally went brother-to-brother, before passing onto the next generation.  Özbeg upended this by choosing the new candidate out-of-order, generationally speaking. Yurii of Moscow, as the son of Nevskii's third son Daniil of Moscow, was very much out of place in this rota system while the previous generation was still alive. Furthermore, this was the first time that the Princes of Moscow received the title of Grand Prince. Moscow had been a minor settlement before the Mongol invasion. Because of  Özbeg's confirmation of the title onto Yurii, Moscow was put onto the steady course to, in time, ‘gather the lands of the Rus', and eventually swallow up the remnants of the Golden Horde. But that was still some centuries ahead.   Yurii was not to enjoy his position as Grand Prince for long. After being confirmed by  Özbeg he returned to Rus' where he was met with angry princes and an angry population. The late Mikhail of Tver's sons swore bloody vengeance. Unable was Yurii to provide the promised volumes of tax. In 1322  Özbeg removed Yurii from his post, and by 1325 Yurii was murdered by Dmitri the Terrible-Eyes, a son of Mikhail of Tver'. Dmitri was executed by  Özbeg the next year, but the Grand Princely title was given to Dmitri's brother, Alexander of Tver'. Nearly did it seem that Tver' would monopolize the position; Tver's wealth was then greater than Moscow's, their right to rule better recognized internally in Rus'. So it would have stayed, until 1327, when there was an uprising in Tver' which resulted in the killing of several of Özbeg's officials. Tver' was then sacked as punishment and Grand Prince Alexander Mikhailovich fled for his life. And who stepped into the vacant spot of Grand Prince? Well, the brother of Yurii of Moscow, Ivan Daniilovich. Or as he is better known to posterity, Ivan I Kalita; Ivan “the purse,” or more usually translated as money-bags.   Ivan, as you may guess by his sobriquet, proved quite adept at providing Özbeg the much desired tax revenue. Enjoying the position of Grand Prince of Vladimir until his death in the 1340s,  Ivan Kalita's lengthy time in the position solidified Moscow's monopoly over the Grand Princely title, and began in earnest its ascendency. For Kalita greatly enriched the city itself, bringing other holdings to its authority and thereby turned the once minor city into one of the most eminent of the Rus' principalities. The Metropolitan of the Rus' Orthodox Church moved to Moscow in the 1320s, which also cemented it as the centre of Rus' Christianity, politically. On his death he was succeeded by his son Simeon —confirmed of course by  Özbeg Khan— as Prince of Moscow and Grand Prince of Vladimir, and so the title remained among their line. Ivan Kalita's descendents would transform Moscow and the Rus' principalities into the Tsardom of Russia, and ruled until the sixteenth century, when the extinct Rurikids gave way to the Romanovs.   But such dreams of conquest were far off in the mid-fourteenth century. Rus' history should not be read backwards. The fourteenth century Daniilovichi, the Moscow princely line, were not in a contest for independence against the khan. Far from it. As they had in effect, usurped the succession to the Grand Principality, and had numerous rivals due to it, the Princes of Moscow relied greatly on the khans for their legitimacy. The Grand Prince was the most important tax collector for the khan, and the basis had now been established for the khan to remove him if desired. And  Özbeg was not above reminding the Rus' of his might; some ten Rus' princes were executed on  Özbeg's order, more than any of his predecessors had done combined. As long as the Princes of Moscow kept bringing in the revenue that the khan wanted, then Özbeg kept the Daniilovichi propped up against any threat. Without the Golden Horde, there was therefore, no rise of Moscow.   When it came to the succession to the Golden Horde itself, as noted in our previous episode Özbeg had violently trimmed the Jochid lineage, hoping to ensure only his sons could succeed him. His favoured heir, Temür, predeceased him, leaving Özbeg with two troublesome boys; Tini Beg, and Jani Beg. Tini Beg seems to have been the favourite to succeed Özbeg, and after the death of Qutlugh-Temür, Tini Beg became the governor of Khwarezm on behalf of his father. A possible indication of falling out between though, comes from coinage minted near the end of Özbeg's life. Then, coins begin to be minted bearing the names of Özbeg and Jani Beg, and letters from foreign rulers were addressed to Özbeg and Jani Beg, perhaps suggesting Jani Beg had taken the #2 role in the khanate. Sadly our information on the internal situation on the Jochid court is scant, preventing us from making any proper conclusions or charting its history in this time, particularly as the history of Özbeg's final years is considerably less detailed.   Possible troubles between his sons were not the only issues he faced. In 1339 a coup attempt briefly had Özbeg besieged in his palace in New Sarai before the guards broke it up, captured and killed most of the conspirators. Evidently there had been Christians involved; a letter from Pope Benedict XIII thanked Özbeg for only executing three of the Christian conspirators. As this coincides with the appearance of Jani Beg's name on the coinage in place of Tini Beg, and Tini Beg apparently showed greater favour to Christians than Jani Beg ever did, we might wonder if Tini Beg had a hand in the coup attempt. How else would conspirators be so brazen as to attack the khan in his own palace? But this is mere speculation, and the origins of the coup are unfortunately lost to history.    For a man of such a lengthy reign, and relatively well covered in the primary sources, Özbeg's final days are surprisingly unclear. One Mamluk source, aš-Šuğā'īs, has Özbeg die while leading an attack on the Chagatai Khanate in 1342, an attempt by Özbeg to take advantage of that khanate's ongoing political struggles. Another Mamluk writer, al-Asadī, mentions Özbeg dying in New Sarai in 1341. Most sources simply note the fact of his death in late 1341 or 1342, with no additional details. Regardless, Özbeg, Khan of the Golden Horde, died likely late in 1341, after 28 years on the throne. He was likely in his late 50s or 60s, making him one of the longest reigning, and longest living, Mongol khans. Only Khubilai Khaan's 34 years on the throne was longer, while Chinggis Khan himself had only 21 years as Khan of the Mongol ulus. Wealth and prosperity within the khanate, and the violent removal of rival princes, ensured Özbeg enjoyed the longest reign of any khan in the 1300s, a century when most khans hardly ruled as long as 5 years and generally died in their mid-thirties.    What do we make of Özbeg's life then? In some respects it certainly was a Golden Age, in terms of the arts, crafts and city-building in the steppe. It's a period of staggering prosperity in comparison to the anarchy which would soon follow. The internal stability of the Horde in this period alone makes it appear an oasis compared to the years on either side of his life. But Özbeg's claim to fame, his efforts at islamization, were hollow and never complete, and likely they were never intended to be. In foreign policy Özbeg largely experienced defeats, or inadvertently laid the groundwork for the rapid loss in Mongol authority in certain regions. The Golden Horde likely enjoyed its greatest period of wealth and in some respects, international prestige under Özbeg. But the precedent he had set with horrific princely slaughters would soon reign ruin upon the Jochids, as would an event far outside of any monarch's control: the Black Death.   A final remark can be made regarding the modern Uzbeks. The name is sometimes attributed, even by medieval authors, as coming from Özbeg's name.  That is, that in some sense the Uzbeks saw themselves as followers of Özbeg Khan, and thereby named themselves for him. The argument though is rather weak; the Uzbek confederation would not emerge until well after Özbeg Khan's death, and Özbeg as a name is hardly unique to the Jochid khan, for it dates back to the twelfth century, if not earlier. Much like the attribution of the Nogai Horde to the thirteenth century prince Nogai, it's an effort to attach a nomadic union to an earlier prominent figure which rests on little or no direct evidence.   With Özbeg's death, it was time for his son Tini Beg to take the throne. But things would not go well for Tini Beg, as the Jochid state was soon to experience a period of anarchy it would never recover from. So be sure to subscribe to the Kings and Generals Podcast to follow. If you enjoyed this and would like to help us continue bringing you great content, consider supporting us on patreon at www.patreon.com/kingsandgenerals. This episode was researched and written by our series historian, Jack Wilson. I'm your host David, and we'll catch you on the next one.