Plants of the Gods: Hallucinogens, Healing, Culture and Conservation podcast

Today, we kick off Season 6 of Plants of the Gods, as host Dr. Mark Plotkin of the Amazon Conservation Team explores the fascinating history of cacao, highlighting its ancient origins in the Amazon rainforest and its transformation into the beloved chocolate consumed worldwide today. From its discovery by indigenous peoples in South America to its role in the highly sophisticated Mayan and Aztec cultures as a sacred and valued commodity, cacao's journey is a testament to its enduring significance across centuries and continents. Join Dr. Plotkin as he uncovers the delicious botanical, cultural, and economic legacy of this remarkable plant in a journey through the history of chocolate.

In this season finale of Plants of the Gods, join host Dr. Mark Plotkin as we learn about everything mushrooms, which are truly having a moment! Drawing from an article he published in HerbalGram, Dr. Plotkin provides an overview of how our daily lives are transformed by fungi, in the past, present and the future. From Pink Floyd to hit TV show “The Last of Us”, from magic mushrooms to our favorite dishes, we wrap up season five with learning about the ways fungi continue to shape our story.

In this episode of Plants of the Gods, join host Dr. Mark Plotkin in conversation with colleague Dr. Bruce Hoffman, Senior Manager of Scientific Research at ACT, as we learn about the ethnobotany of Amazonian lianas. Dr. Hoffman is a conservation biologist focusing on flora of the Guianas, with 20 years of experience in conducting biodiversity inventories and monitoring and assessing plant populations.  He has worked with local and indigenous communities in both Guyana and Suriname. Learn more in this penultimate episode of Season 5 of Plants of the Gods!

In this episode of Plants of the Gods, join ethnobotanists Dr. Mark Plotkin and Dr. Gary Nabhan in conversation as we learn about the power of the desert and its plants and animals, from mescal to tequila to magic toads. Dr. Nabhan is a McArthur Genius award-winning ethnobotanist and desert conservation biologist with 50 years of botanical, cultural and conservation research experience. In his seminal works “Gathering the Desert" and "The Desert Smells Like Rain,” Dr. Nabhan offers distinct yet interconnected explorations of the desert landscape, its people, and their unique relationship with nature. Catch some of this insight first-hand in this exclusive two-part episode of Plants of the Gods!

In this episode of Plants of the Gods, join ethnobotanists Dr. Mark Plotkin and Dr. Gary Nabhan in conversation as we learn about the power of the desert and its plants and animals, from mescal to tequila to magic toads. Dr. Nabhan is a McArthur Genius award-winning ethnobotanist and desert conservation biologist with 50 years of botanical, cultural and conservation research experience. In his seminal works “Gathering the Desert" and "The Desert Smells Like Rain,” Dr. Nabhan offers distinct yet interconnected explorations of the desert landscape, its people, and their unique relationship with nature. Catch some of this insight first-hand in this exclusive two-part episode of Plants of the Gods!

Shauheen Etminan, PhD, is the co-founder of VCENNA, a CNS drug discovery biotech company inspired by the ethnobotany and wisdom of ancestral medicinal practices for mental wellness treatment. Born and raised in Iran, Shauheen's heritage and background in chemical engineering fueled his interest in studying the intersection of plants, chemicals, religion and ancient wisdom. In this episode of Plants of the Gods, join us as Dr. Mark Plotkin and Dr. Shauheen Etminan discuss the fascinating history of mind-altering substances in Zoroastrianism.

Coffee is the most widely consumed mind-altering plant product in the world. The human species arose in or near the Rift Valley in East Africa, the northern edge of which abuts the forests of Ethiopia in which the coffee plants originated. The drunk monkey hypothesis proposes that human consciousness was born when our ancestors ingested fermented grapes. The stoned ape hypothesis suggests that the consciousness is due to proto humans consuming magic mushrooms. In the second half of two-part episode, Mark Plotkin discusses the botanical history of coffee, the specialty coffee movement, and how coffee has played a role in popular culture.

Coffee is the most widely consumed mind-altering plant product in the world. The human species arose in or near the Rift Valley in East Africa, the northern edge of which abuts the forests of Ethiopia in which the coffee plants originated. The drunk monkey hypothesis proposes that human consciousness was born when our ancestors ingested fermented grapes. The stoned ape hypothesis suggests that the consciousness is due to proto humans consuming magic mushrooms. In the first half of two-part episode, Mark Plotkin suggests that the human mind developed when these primates ate coffee berries, whose caffeine inspired both their thinking and their creativity. 

In this episode of Plants of the Gods, we hear from Rhett Butler, editor-in-chief and CEO of Mongabay. Mongabay is a nonprofit environmental science and conservation news platform that produces original reporting by leveraging over 800 correspondents in 70 different countries. With a main focus on forests, wildlife, oceans, and the conservation sector, Mongabay reports on many regions that POTG host Dr. Mark Plotkin has spent his career working in. Today, join us in conversation with Dr. Plotkin and Rhett Butler to hear about everything from Mongabay's origins, Rhett's inspiration for his work, and how best to save the rainforest.     Mongabay's podcast covers the whole environmental spectrum, from Indigenous ecological knowledge to the latest in conservation science, with a variety of expert guests, authors, researchers, and activists. Find the Mongabay Newscast wherever you get podcasts. https://www.mongabay.com/podcast/

Welcome to part two of The Ethnobotany of Beer! This week, we continue to explore the question on everyone's mind these days: did civilization invent beer, or did beer invent civilization? And then we help solve a cold case: did ancient Africans know and use antibiotics? And why are we asking this in a discussion of beer? And is there really a 10 CD set comprised entirely of German beer drinking songs? And what did the late Frank Zappa say – and sing – about beer?   Works Cited Appleton, Frank. Brewing Revolution: Pioneering the Craft Beer Movement. Harbour Publishing, 2016. Caruso, Giuseppe, et al. The Botany of Beer: An Illustrated Guide to More than 500 Plants Used in Brewing. Columbia University Press, 2022. English, Camper. Doctors and Distillers: The Remarkable Medicinal History of Beer, Wine, Spirits, and Cocktails. Penguin Books, 2022. Hennessey, Jonathan, et al. The Comic Book Story of Beer: The World's Favorite Beverage from 7000 BC to Today's Craft Brewing Revolution. Ten Speed Press, 2015. Laws, Bill. Fifty Plants That Changed the Course of History. Firefly Books, 2015. McGovern, Patrick E. Uncorking the Past: The Quest for Wine, Beer, and Other Alcoholic Beverages. University of California Press, 2010. Muraresku, Brian. The Immortality Key: The Secret History of the Religion with No Name. St. Martin's Griffin, 2023. Oliver, Garrett. The Oxford Companion to Beer. Oxford University Press, 2012. Smith, Gavin D. Beer - a Global History. Reaktion Books, 2014. Standage, Tom. A History of the World in Six Glasses. Doubleday Canada, 2010.

This two-part special edition kicks off Season Five of "Plants of the Gods: Hallucinogens, Healing, Culture and Conservation." We start by asking the question that is on everyone's mind these days: did civilization invent beer, or did beer invent civilization? And then we help solve a cold case: did ancient Africans know and use antibiotics? And why are we asking this in a discussion of beer? And is there really a 10 CD set comprised entirely of German beer drinking songs? And what did the late Frank Zappa say – and sing – about beer?

Season 4 of Plants of the Gods wraps up today with an episode featuring Peter Grinspoon, MD, cannabis specialist at Harvard Medical School. During this conversation, Dr. Plotkin and Dr. Grinspoon discuss everything from the pain-relieving and uplifting qualities of cannabis sought by people with chronic illnesses to marijuana in popular culture (cannabis trilogy to brush up on your history!), as well as his father's successful efforts to fend off the Nixon Administration's attempts to deport John Lennon because of a cannabis conviction. Join us today for this captivating interview.

Today's episode features world-renowned mycologist Giuliana Furci. Giuliana is the founder of the Fungi Foundation, the first NGO in the world solely dedicated to Fungi. This two-part discussion between Giuliana and Dr. Plotkin covers everything from her experiences in the field of mycology, influential mycologists and their work, and even a new species of fungi named after fellow mycologist Paul Stamets. Join us today for part two of this captivating interview.

Today's episode features world-renowned mycologist Giuliana Furci. Giuliana is the founder of the Fungi Foundation, the first NGO in the world solely dedicated to Fungi. This two-part discussion between Giuliana and Dr. Plotkin covers everything from her experiences in the field of mycology, influential mycologists and their work, and even a new species of fungi named after fellow mycologist Paul Stamets. Join us today for part one of this captivating interview.

Today's episode features ethnobotanist and anthropologist, Dr. Glenn Shepard. This two-part discussion between Dr. Shepard and Dr. Plotkin covers an array of fascinating topics, including the role language plays in ethnobotany, shamanism in a changing world, and personal encounters and experiences with tobacco in indigenous Amazonian communities (revisit our most recent two episodes to brush up on tobacco!). In today's part two of this interview, we delve more deeply into tobacco use in indigenous Amazonian communities. Dr. Shepard also discusses his organization Rainforest Flow which is devoted to delivering clean water, sanitation, and hygiene programs to indigenous people in Peru's Amazon rainforest.   Episode Notes “A Deep History of Tobacco in Lowland South America.” The Master Plant : Tobacco in Lowland South America, https://doi.org/10.5040/9781474220279.ch-002.  Descola, Philippe. The Spears of Twilight: Life and Death in the Amazon Jungle. New Press, 2009.  Emboden, William. Narcotic Plants. Collier Books, 1980.  Furst, Peter T. Hallucinogens and Culture. Chandler & Sharp Publishers, Inc., 1997.  Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History and Culture. Thomson Gale, 2005.  Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. Routledge, 1994.  Hobhouse, Henry. Seeds of Wealth: Four Plants That Made Men Rich. Macmillan, 2012.  Marris, Emma. “The Anthropologist and His Old Friend, Who Became a Jaguar.” Culture, National Geographic, 4 May 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/160518-manu-park-peru-matsigenka-tribe-death-jaguar.  Narby, Jeremy, and Rafael Chanchari Pizuri. Plant Teachers: Ayahuasca, Tobacco, and the Pursuit of Knowledge. New World Library, 2021.  Ott, Jonathan. Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, Their Plant Sources and History. Natural Products, 1996.  Schultes, Richard Evans, and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use. A. Van Der Marck Editions, 1987.  Shepard, Glenn H. “Psychoactive Plants and Ethnopsychiatric Medicines of the Matsigenka.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 30, no. 4, 1998, pp. 321–332., https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1998.10399708.  Steffensen, Jennifer. “The Reality (TV) of Vanishing Lives: An Interview with Glenn Shepard.” Anthropology News, vol. 49, no. 5, 2008, pp. 30–30., https://doi.org/10.1525/an.2008.49.5.30.  Wilbert, Johannes. Tobacco and Shamanism in South America. Yale University Press, 1993.

Today's episode features ethnobotanist and anthropologist, Dr. Glenn Shepard. This two-part discussion between Dr. Shepard and Dr. Plotkin covers an array of fascinating topics including the role language plays in ethnobotany, shamanism in a changing world, and personal encounters and experiences with tobacco in indigenous Amazonian communities (revisit our last two episodes to brush up on tobacco!). Join us today for part one of this captivating interview.   Episode Notes “A Deep History of Tobacco in Lowland South America.” The Master Plant : Tobacco in Lowland South America, https://doi.org/10.5040/9781474220279.ch-002.  Descola, Philippe. The Spears of Twilight: Life and Death in the Amazon Jungle. New Press, 2009.  Emboden, William. Narcotic Plants. Collier Books, 1980.  Furst, Peter T. Hallucinogens and Culture. Chandler & Sharp Publishers, Inc., 1997.  Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History and Culture. Thomson Gale, 2005.  Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. Routledge, 1994.  Hobhouse, Henry. Seeds of Wealth: Four Plants That Made Men Rich. Macmillan, 2012.  Marris, Emma. “The Anthropologist and His Old Friend, Who Became a Jaguar.” Culture, National Geographic, 4 May 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/160518-manu-park-peru-matsigenka-tribe-death-jaguar.  Narby, Jeremy, and Rafael Chanchari Pizuri. Plant Teachers: Ayahuasca, Tobacco, and the Pursuit of Knowledge. New World Library, 2021.  Ott, Jonathan. Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, Their Plant Sources and History. Natural Products, 1996.  Schultes, Richard Evans, and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use. A. Van Der Marck Editions, 1987.  Shepard, Glenn H. “Psychoactive Plants and Ethnopsychiatric Medicines of the Matsigenka.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 30, no. 4, 1998, pp. 321–332., https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1998.10399708.  Steffensen, Jennifer. “The Reality (TV) of Vanishing Lives: An Interview with Glenn Shepard.” Anthropology News, vol. 49, no. 5, 2008, pp. 30–30., https://doi.org/10.1525/an.2008.49.5.30.  Wilbert, Johannes. Tobacco and Shamanism in South America. Yale University Press, 1993.

In today's episode, we continue learning about tobacco, one of the most widely used mind altering substances. During this two-part discussion, Dr. Plotkin addresses the duality of this well-known plant of the gods. Between its spiritual significance and its ties to addiction, disease and enslavement, the story of tobacco is complicated yet fascinating. In the second half, we'll hear about some of Dr. Plotkin's own experiences with tobacco, and how indigenous peoples in both Mexico and Amazonia employ this sacred plant for healing purposes.   Episode Notes “A Deep History of Tobacco in Lowland South America.” The Master Plant : Tobacco in Lowland South America, https://doi.org/10.5040/9781474220279.ch-002.  Descola, Philippe. The Spears of Twilight: Life and Death in the Amazon Jungle. New Press, 2009.  Emboden, William. Narcotic Plants. Collier Books, 1980.  Furst, Peter T. Hallucinogens and Culture. Chandler & Sharp Publishers, Inc., 1997.  Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History and Culture. Thomson Gale, 2005.  Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. Routledge, 1994.  Hobhouse, Henry. Seeds of Wealth: Four Plants That Made Men Rich. Macmillan, 2012.  Marris, Emma. “The Anthropologist and His Old Friend, Who Became a Jaguar.” Culture, National Geographic, 4 May 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/160518-manu-park-peru-matsigenka-tribe-death-jaguar.  Narby, Jeremy, and Rafael Chanchari Pizuri. Plant Teachers: Ayahuasca, Tobacco, and the Pursuit of Knowledge. New World Library, 2021.  Ott, Jonathan. Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, Their Plant Sources and History. Natural Products, 1996.  Schultes, Richard Evans, and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use. A. Van Der Marck Editions, 1987.  Shepard, Glenn H. “Psychoactive Plants and Ethnopsychiatric Medicines of the Matsigenka.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 30, no. 4, 1998, pp. 321–332., https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1998.10399708.  Steffensen, Jennifer. “The Reality (TV) of Vanishing Lives: An Interview with Glenn Shepard.” Anthropology News, vol. 49, no. 5, 2008, pp. 30–30., https://doi.org/10.1525/an.2008.49.5.30.  Wilbert, Johannes. Tobacco and Shamanism in South America. Yale University Press, 1993.

In today's episode, we embark on a journey learning about one of the most widely used mind-altering substances: tobacco. During this two-part discussion, Dr. Plotkin addresses the duality of this well-known Plant of the Gods. Between its spiritual significance and its ties to addiction, disease and enslavement, the story of tobacco is complicated but fascinating. With his usual mix of knowledge, insight and humor, Mark provides an ethnobotanical perspective on tobacco's pleasure and pain.   Episode Notes “A Deep History of Tobacco in Lowland South America.” The Master Plant : Tobacco in Lowland South America, https://doi.org/10.5040/9781474220279.ch-002.  Descola, Philippe. The Spears of Twilight: Life and Death in the Amazon Jungle. New Press, 2009.  Emboden, William. Narcotic Plants. Collier Books, 1980.  Furst, Peter T. Hallucinogens and Culture. Chandler & Sharp Publishers, Inc., 1997.  Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History and Culture. Thomson Gale, 2005.  Goodman, Jordan. Tobacco in History: The Cultures of Dependence. Routledge, 1994.  Hobhouse, Henry. Seeds of Wealth: Four Plants That Made Men Rich. Macmillan, 2012.  Marris, Emma. “The Anthropologist and His Old Friend, Who Became a Jaguar.” Culture, National Geographic, 4 May 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/culture/article/160518-manu-park-peru-matsigenka-tribe-death-jaguar.  Narby, Jeremy, and Rafael Chanchari Pizuri. Plant Teachers: Ayahuasca, Tobacco, and the Pursuit of Knowledge. New World Library, 2021.  Ott, Jonathan. Pharmacotheon: Entheogenic Drugs, Their Plant Sources and History. Natural Products, 1996.  Schultes, Richard Evans, and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods: Origins of Hallucinogenic Use. A. Van Der Marck Editions, 1987.  Shepard, Glenn H. “Psychoactive Plants and Ethnopsychiatric Medicines of the Matsigenka.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 30, no. 4, 1998, pp. 321–332., https://doi.org/10.1080/02791072.1998.10399708.  Steffensen, Jennifer. “The Reality (TV) of Vanishing Lives: An Interview with Glenn Shepard.” Anthropology News, vol. 49, no. 5, 2008, pp. 30–30., https://doi.org/10.1525/an.2008.49.5.30.  Wilbert, Johannes. Tobacco and Shamanism in South America. Yale University Press, 1993.

In today's episode, we continue our discussion with Brian Muraresku, author of the New York Times bestselling book, The Immortality Key, and Dr. Mark Plotkin, the President of the Amazon Conservation Team. This two-part discussion between Muraresku and Plotkin examines the role psychedelics have played in Western civilization. In the second half, we'll cover topics spanning from ancient wine and beer, experiencing spirituality, the Jewish concept of "tikkun olam," and much more.

Today's episode features Brian Muraresku, author of the New York Times bestselling book, The Immortality Key. This two-part discussion between Muraresku and Dr. Plotkin examines the role psychedelics have played in the development of Western civilization. In the first half, we'll cover topics ranging from the Eleusinian Mysteries, early Christianity, and the pagan continuity hypothesis to the work of philosopher and psychologist William James.

In today's episode, we launch Season 4 of Plants of the Gods by delving more deeply into our most popular topic to date: ayahuasca. Also known as “the vine of the soul”, ayahuasca is native to the northwest Amazon and is employed by indigenous shamans for therapeutic and other purposes. This sacred potion has played a fundamental role in the ongoing mainstreaming of hallucinogenic plants into western therapeutic practices. In this episode, Dr. Plotkin recounts the participatory research of his mentor Richard Evans Schultes and how it forever changed Western understanding of ayahuasca, shamanism and the Amazon rainforest. 

Dr. Christopher Hobbs is a world-renowned author, clinician, botanist, mycologist, and research scientist, with over 35 years of experience with herbal medicine. He is the author of the classic, "Medicinal Mushrooms: The Essential Guide." In this second half of a two-part episode, Dr. Hobbs and Dr. Plotkin look at the history of medicinal herbs and fungi, discuss the benefits and questions surrounding microdosing, and ponder their healing potential in the context of modern times.

Dr. Christopher Hobbs is a world-renowned author, clinician, botanist, mycologist, and research scientist, with over 35 years of experience with herbal medicine. He is the author of the classic, "Medicinal Mushrooms: The Essential Guide." In this first half of a two-part episode, Dr. Hobbs and Dr. Plotkin look at the history of medicinal herbs and fungi, discuss how to find the best products, and  discuss their healing potential in the context of modern times.

Hamilton Morris is an American journalist, filmmaker and scientific researcher. Previously a writer for Vice magazine with a monthly column “Hamilton's Pharmacopeia”, Morris currently conducts pharmacological research at St. Joseph's University in Philadelphia. Interested in psychoactive substances and hallucinogens, Morris' interests overlap with those of ethnobotanist Dr. Mark Plotkin. In this second half of a two-part episode, Morris and Dr. Plotkin ponders synthetic versus organic psychedelics, microdosing and the magic of hallucinogens.

Hamilton Morris is an American journalist, filmmaker and scientific researcher. Previously a writer for Vice magazine with a monthly column “Hamilton's Pharmacopeia”, Morris currently conducts pharmacological research at St. Joseph's University in Philadelphia. Interested in psychoactive substances and hallucinogens, Morris' interests overlap with those of ethnobotanist Dr. Mark Plotkin. In this first half of a two-part episode, Morris and Dr. Plotkin ponder magic frogs, Iboga and the magic of hallucinogens.

Paul Stamets is a leading American mycologist, author of many books and best known for his role in the award-winning documentary and accompanying book "Fantastic Fungi". An advocate of medicinal fungi, Stamets' interests overlap with those of ethnobotanist Dr. Mark Plotkin. In this episode, Stamets and Dr. Plotkin continue their discussion pondering mushrooms, magic and mortality, while challenging some Western beliefs with personal observations, experiences and ideas.   Recorded by award-winning nature photographer Joshua Bloom (realityinbloom.com) at the ESPD55 – Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs – Conference (espd55.com). Special thanks to Joshua Bloom, Dylan Fitchett, Dennis McKenna, and the McKenna Academy of Natural Philosophy.

Paul Stamets is a leading American mycologist, author of many books, and best known for his role in the award-winning documentary and accompanying book, Fantastic Fungi. An advocate of medicinal fungi, Stamets' interests overlap with those of ethnobotanist Dr. Mark Plotkin. In this episode, Stamets and Dr. Plotkin ponder mushrooms, magic, and mortality, challenging some Western beliefs with personal observations, experiences, and ideas.   Recorded by Joshua Bloom at the ESPD55 – Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs – Conference. Special thanks to Joshua Bloom, Dylan Fitchett, Dennis McKenna, and the McKenna Academy.

In the previous episode, we learned how and why Absinthe was considered the ultimate creative elixir in 19th century Belle Epoque France. However, absinthe also served as an inspiration for artists in New Orleans, long regarded as the most European city in the US. As we heard in previous episodes on opium (S1E6) and cannabis (S2E7), New Orleans has long been awash in mind-altering plant products, all of which have played a vital role in the city's fecund creativity which gave rise to jazz, rhythm and blues, and rock and roll. 

Wormwood - the basis of absinthe - has been valued medicinally since ancient times. However, the development of absinthe several hundred years ago created a drink which turbocharged the creativity of geniuses as diverse as Toulouse Lautrec, Oscar Wilde, Ernest Hemingway and Pablo Picasso. This episode details that story.   Sources: Adams, Jennifer, et al. Philip Collier's Mixing New Orleans: Cocktails and Legends. Philbeau, 2007.   Baker, Phil. The Book of Absinthe. Grove Press. 2001.  Conrad, Barnaby. Absinthe: History in a Bottle. Chronicle Books, 1997.   Crowley, Aleister. Absinthe, the Green Goddess. Contra/Thought, 1995.   Hemingway, Ernest. For Whom the Bell Tolls. Scribner, 2020.   Hepworth, David. Uncommon People: The Rise and Fall of the Rock Stars. Black Swann, 2018.   Mann, J. Turn on and Tune in: Psychedelics, Narcotics and Euphoriants. Royal Society of Chemistry, 2019.   Wittels, Betina J., and T. A. Breaux. Absinthe: The Exquisite Elixir. Fulcrum Publishing, 2017.   Wondrich, David, and Noah Rothbaum. The Oxford Companion to Spirits and Cocktails. Oxford University Press, 2022.  

Today, we'll follow Dr. Mark Plotkin as he shares the story of Richard Evans Schultes, who, as a busy work-study undergraduate student at Harvard, chose the shortest book he could find to serve as the subject of his term paper for his Plants & Human Affairs class. As fate would have it, this short book – which happened to be about peyote – would launch his career. Not only would he go on to teach this very same class years later, he has come to be revered as the father of ethnobotany.

Peyote is a tiny cactus that has had a giant impact on history and culture. It is one of the most ancient hallucinogens - finds near the Texas-Mexico border indicate that humans have been consuming this Plant of the Gods for over 6000 years. Many credit Aldous Huxley's 1954's book "The Doors of Perception" - based on his experiences with mescaline, the most active alkaloid in peyote - as launching the Psychedelic Renaissance. And this cactus and this alkaloid and this book impacted The Beatles, The Doors and The Who as well. This episode tells that story. 

In this bonus episode, Dr. Mark Plotkin shares insights and personal experiences regarding the hallucinogens and arrow poisons of the uncontacted tribes of the Amazon rainforest. Join us for tales and observations regarding these extraordinary peoples who provide an unexpected and vivid link to a deep past, as well as a unique window onto the present and the future.

Dr. Plotkin continues the discussion of zoopharmacognosy with part two of “Plants of the Apes: How Animals Use Medicinal Plants." From the carefully selected flora used in certain birds' nests as insect repellents, to the tropical daisy species eaten by chimpanzees as an antibiotic, we'll learn how some creatures have a sophisticated knowledge of the healing power of plants.

We have all seen dogs eat grass to alleviate illnesses; why would we not think that other animals do not consume other plants for therapeutic purposes? In fact, it was the great Jane Goodall and other colleagues in East Africa who recorded chimps and even elephants eating medicinal plants. This episode ranges from Tanzania to eastern Brazil to Wisconsin to document animals' use of medicinal and even toxic plants.   Acosta, William. Bombardier Beetles and Fever Trees: A Close-up Look at Chemical Warfare and Signals in Animals and Plants. Addison-Wesley, 1997. Cowen, Ron. “Medicine on the Wild Side.” Science News, vol. 138, no. 18, 1990, p. 280., https://doi.org/10.2307/3974722. Engel, Cindy. Wild Health: How Animals Keep Themselves Well and What We Can Learn from Them. Phoenix, 2003. Huffman, Michael A. “Animal Self-Medication and Ethno-Medicine: Exploration and Exploitation of the Medicinal Properties of Plants.” Proceedings of the Nutrition Society, vol. 62, no. 2, 2003, pp. 371–381., https://doi.org/10.1079/pns2003257. Huffman, Michael A. “Current Evidence for Self-Medication in Primates: A Multidisciplinary Perspective.” American Journal of Physical Anthropology, vol. 104, no. S25, 1997, pp. 171–200., https://doi.org/10.1002/(sici)1096-8644(1997)25+3.0.co;2-7. INGRAHAM, CAROLINE. Animal Self-Medication: How Animals Heal Themselves Using Essential Oils, Herbs and ... Minerals. INGRAHAM TRADING LTD, 2019. Link, K. P. “The Discovery of Dicumarol and Its Sequels.” Circulation, vol. 19, no. 1, 1959, pp. 97–107., https://doi.org/10.1161/01.cir.19.1.97. Montgomery, Sy. Walking with the Great Apes: Jane Goodall, Dian Fossey, Biruté Galdikas. Chelsea Green Publishing, 2009. Plotkin, Mark J. Medicine Quest: In Search of Nature's Healing Secrets. Penguin Books, 2001. Strier, Karen B. Faces in the Forest: The Endangered Muriqui Monkeys of Brazil. Harvard University Press, 1999. Strier, Karen B. Primate Behavioral Ecology. Routledge, Taylor & Francis Group, 2021.

In today's episode, Dr. Plotkin will discuss the history and biology of magic frogs. From poison dart frogs to the hallucinogenic green monkey frog, we'll learn how these amphibians have been used in traditional societies for a multitude of purposes, and their unexpected yet promising potential for therapeutic uses in western medicine.

From New Orleans bordellos to The Beatles, marijuana played a seminal - but often-overlooked - role in inspiring the greatest music of the 20th century. This episode - the third and final installment of the Marijuana Trilogy - delves into this history and tells the story of two remarkable African American Jewish men: Louis Armstrong and Mezz Mezzrow.

The birth of the Psychedelic Renaissance is often attributed to Richard Schultes' research on peyote and magic mushrooms in the 1930's. Nonetheless, it was his collaboration with both Gordon Wasson and Albert Hofmann that brought this indigenous wisdom and chemistry to a wider world. At the same time, the equally extraordinary contributions of Valentina Wasson and Maria Sabina merit equal recognition and appreciation.   Allen, John W. “Mushroom Pioneers.” Www.erowid.org/Library/Books, 2002. De Rios, Marlene Dobkin. “María Sabina: Her Life and Chants.” Journal of Psychoactive Drugs, vol. 14, no. 3, 1982, pp. 259–260., doi:10.1080/02791072.1982.10471940. Erowid, www.erowid.org/. Estrada, Alvaro. María Sabina, Her Life and Chants. Ross-Erikson, 1981. Forte, Robert. Entheogens and the Future of Religion. Park Street Press, 2012. Furst, Peter T. Hallucinogens and Culture. Chandler & Sharp Publishers, Inc., 1997. Johnson, Cody. Magic Medicine: A Trip through the INTOXICATING History and Modern-Day Use of Psychedelic Plants & Substances. Fair Winds Press, 2018. Letcher, Andy. Shroom: A Cultural History of the Magic Mushroom. Ecco, 2007. Pfister, Donald H. “R. Gordon WASSON: 1898-1986.” Mycologia, vol. 80, no. 1, 1988, p. 11., doi:10.2307/3807487. Riedlinger, Thomas J. Sacred Mushroom Seeker: Essays for R. Gordon Wasson. Dioscorides Press, 1990. Schultes, Richard Evans, and Siri Von Reis. Ethnobotany: Evolution of a Discipline. Timber Press, 2008. Schultes, Richard Evans. “Plantae Mexicanae II, the Identification Of TEONANACATL, a Narcotic Basidiomycete of the Aztecs.” Botanical Museum Leaflets of Harvard University, vol. 7, no. 3, 1939, pp. 37–54. Schultes, Richard Evans. “Teonanacatl: The Narcotic Mushroom of the Aztecs.” American Anthropologist, vol. 42, no. 3, 1940, pp. 429–443., doi:10.1525/aa.1940.42.3.02a00040. Sheldrake, Merlin. Entangled Life: How Fungi Make Our Worlds, Change Our Minds & Shape Our Futures. Random House, 2021. Wasson, Gordon. “The Death of Claudius, or Mushrooms for Murders.” Harvard Botanical Museum Leaflets, vol. 23, no. 3, 1972, pp. 101–128.

"Yo Ho Ho and a bottle of rum!” This immortal chant from Robert Louis Stevenson's classic “Treasure Island” encapsulates much of the history of sugar and rum and the role they played not only in piracy, but also the rise of capitalism and slavery. This episode covers those issues as well as the underappreciated role these plant products played in the American Revolution. Also discussed is the rebirth of rum culture in the 21st century with an emphasis on all things Tiki.

The much-heralded Psychedelic Renaissance began in 1938 when Harvard graduate student Richard Schultes traveled to southern Mexico to investigate reports that the Mazatec peoples were ingesting mind-altering mushrooms for healing and divinatory purposes. His findings led to further research in both the field and the lab by folks like Gordon Wasson and Albert Hofmann, and this in turn eventually brought the healing potential of these and other mind-altering natural substances to the outside world.    

Palms- The Sacred Princes of the Plant Kingdom - In the words of the late ethnobotanist Richard Schultes, “A panorama does not seem tropical unless palms occupy a distinct and conspicuously visible part of the flora.” Although primarily associated with lowland rainforests, palms range as far north as Scotland and as high as 10,000 feet in the Andes. Furthermore, palms are considered sacred by many if not most of the world's religions.

Hemp—a fiber of the Cannabis plant—has played an outsized role in world history. It was not only one of the first crops cultivated by our species, but also one of the crops planted by the first Europeans who landed in the eastern US. The Pilgrims grew it, as did George Washington and Thomas Jefferson. The foundational documents of American democracy, the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, were initially drafted on hemp paper. Hemp fiber played a role in the rise of the American military and the Allies' subsequent victory in WWII. This episode tells that story—and more. 

Marijuana – What do the ancient Chinese, George Bush and The Beatles have in common? Knowingly or not, all benefited from one of the most well-known plants of the gods: marijuana. Between the highly practical uses of hemp fiber and its popular mind-altering properties, marijuana has been part of the human experience for thousands of years. Even so, marijuana remains a contentious topic in the United States in the 21st century. This episode explores the past and present of marijuana's impact on shaping human history.

The Life and Times of Richard Evans Schultes – Schultes was a scholarship student at Harvard College when entered as a Freshman in 1933. An undergraduate term paper on peyote resulted in an opportunity to partake in a traditional ceremony with the Kiowa in Oklahoma, which then led to research in southern Mexico where he produced the first detailed, scientific account of the so-called “magic mushrooms.” Post-graduate research led him to the Colombian Amazon where he produced the first detailed scientific account of ayahuasca and other Plants of the Gods. In 1967, he organized a conference in San Francisco with Albert Hoffman where the conclusion was that the Plants of the Gods would reshape the treatment of certain emotional and psychiatric disorders at some point in the future, a prediction, which has recently come to full fruition. Sources: Kreig, Margaret. Green Medicine: the Search for Plants That Heal. Bantam Books, 1966. Mann, John. Murder, Magic, and Medicine. Oxford University Press, 2000. Plotkin, Mark J. Ph. D. Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice: an Ethnobotanist Searches for New Medicines in the Amazon Rain Forest. Viking, 1993. Prance, Ghillean T., et al. Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs. Synergetic Press, in Association with Heffter Research Institute, 2018.   Stewart, Amy, et al. Wicked Plants: the Weed That Killed Lincoln's Mother & Other Botanical Atrocities. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2009.

Ergot, LSD and the Birth of Western Religions – Ergot is a fungus that parasitizes rye where - in the Middle Ages - it was sometimes milled into the flour used to make bread. Unfortunately for the unsuspecting folks who ate the bread, ergot is rich in powerful alkaloids that can cause a range of symptoms, from visions to gangrene to death. Some historians have postulated that consumption of ergotized bread may have cause the bizarre behaviors that resulted in the Salem Witch Trials in Massachusetts in the late 17th century. When employed correctly, ergot offers many beneficial curative properties in terms of treating medical problems in childbirth as well as migraines. And it was the ergot alkloids that inspired Swiss chemist Albert Hoffman in 1938 to devise synthetic chemicals similar to the ergot alkaloids - and one of the results was LSD. This episode also delves into whether visions caused by ergot or other plants of the gods may have played an important role in the formation of several western religions. Sources: Balick, Michael J., and Paul Alan Cox. Plants, People, and Culture the Science of Ethnobotany. CRC Press, 2020.  Harner, Michael. Hallucinogens and Shamanism. Oxford University Press. 1981. Mann, John. Murder, Magic, and Medicine. Oxford University Press, 2000. Muraresku, Brian. The Immortality Key: the Secret History of the Religion with No Name. St. Martin's Press, 2020.  Schultes, Richard Evans., and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods. Vandermarck, 1979. Simpson, Beryl Brintnall., and Molly Conner-Ogorzaly. Economic Botany:Plants in Our World. McGraw-Hill, 2001. Stewart, Amy, et al. Wicked Plants: the Weed That Killed Lincoln's Mother & Other Botanical Atrocities. Algonquin Books of Chapel Hill, 2009.

Hexing Herbs and the Witches of Medieval Europe –  The archetypal image of the witch as an old woman riding a broomstick was not a Hollywood creation. In the Middle Ages, “witches” were often skilled herbalists. Some used powerful plants of the Solanaceae family - plants like henbane and mandrake - that are rich in hallucinogenic compounds known as tropane alkaloids that can induce sensations of flying - to achieve altered states. And these plants were then rubbed on broomsticks that were applied to vaginal membranes, so they did fly through the hallucinogenic landscapes of their mind... Sources: Balick, Michael J., and Paul Alan Cox. Plants, People, and Culture the Science of Ethnobotany. CRC Press, 2020.  Harner, Michael. Hallucinogens and Shamanism. Oxford University Press. 1981. Mann, John. Murder, Magic, and Medicine. Oxford University Press, 2000. Plotkin, Mark J. Medicine Quest: in Search of Nature's Healing Secrets. Penguin Books, 2001. Schultes, Richard Evans., and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods. Vandermarck, 1979. 

The Ethnobotany of Warfare – Plants have played a fundamental role in warfare, not just as poisons and medicines but as ships, chariots, weapons and wound bandages. This episode traces this history from the time of primate clobbering each other with sticks to potential new battlefield medicines from plants.  Sources: Hughes, J.D. Pan's Travail. Johns Hopkins Press, 1996. Majno, Guido. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World. Harvard University Press, 1975.  Perlin, J. Forest Journey: The Role of Wood in the Development of Civilization. Harvard Press, 1991. Plotkin, Mark J. “The Ethnobotany of Warfare,” Herbalgram: 101: 48-57.

Opium – Perhaps the most ancient of the “Plants of the Gods,” plant remains in Europe clearly indicate that opium was being used by people more than 10,000 years ago. And not only was opium the first effective painkiller, it was also employed as an inspiration by composers and poets. Only in the 19th century did it become widely realized as a highly addictive substance. Some have suggested that this “Plant of the God” might also be termed a “Plant of the Devil.” Sources: Balick, Michael J., and Paul Alan Cox. Plants, People, and Culture the Science of Ethnobotany. CRC Press, 2020.  Booth, M. Opium: A History. MacMillan, 1999. Emboden, William A. Narcotic Plants. Collier Books, 1980.  Grinspoon, Lester, and James B. Bakalar. Cocaine: a Drug and Its Social Evolution. Basic Books, 1985. Jay, Mike. High Society: the Central Role of Mind-Altering Drugs in History, Science, and Culture. Park Street Press, 2010. Levetin, E. and K McMahon. Plants and Society. McGraw-Hill, 2002 Majno, Guido. The Healing Hand: Man and Wound in the Ancient World. Harvard University Press, 1975.  Mann, J. Chasms of Delight: How Mind-Expanding Drugs Helped to Change the World. Memoirs Books, 2012. Marks, Geoffrey, and William K. Beatty. The Medical Garden: Illustrated. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.  Muraresku, Brian. The Immortality Key: the Secret History of the Religion with No Name. St. Martin's Press, 2020.  Simpson, Beryl Brintnall., and Molly Conner-Ogorzaly. Economic Botany: Plants in Our World. McGraw-Hill, 2001.

Curare – Once known as the “flying death of the Amazon,” curare is a mixture of rainforest plants that indigenous peoples smear on the tips of their arrows or blowdarts to give them a deadly effectiveness. In the hands of western physicians, however, curare has been converted into a life-sustaining medication, a muscle relaxant in abdominal surgery.  Sources: Balick, Michael J., and Paul Alan Cox. Plants, People, and Culture the Science of Ethnobotany. CRC Press, 2020.   Marks, Geoffrey, and William K. Beatty. The Medical Garden: Illustrated. Charles Scribner's Sons, 1971.  Plotkin, Mark J. Amazon: What Everyone Needs to Know®. Oxford University Press, 2020.  Plotkin, Mark J. Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice: an Ethnobotanist Searches for New Medicines in the Amazon Rain Forest. Viking, 1993.  Prance, Ghillean T., et al. Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs. Synergetic Press, in Association with Heffter Research Institute, 2018.  Schultes, Richard Evans., and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods. Vandermarck, 1979. 

Wine – Wine grapes and wine are unquestionably the world's most valuable medicinal plants: the global annual value of wine is over 300 billion dollars. And the history of wine predates the origin of the human species: primates are known to consume fermented fruit to enter an altered state. This episode traces the use of wine as medicine, from ancient Transcaucasia on the Black Sea 8000 years ago, through classical Greece and Rome to the Holy Land at the period when Judaism, Christianity and Islam first arose.  Sources: McGovern, P. Uncorking the Past. U. of California Press. 2010.  McGovern, P. and S. Calagione. Ancient Brews. W.W. Norton, 2018. Muraresku, Brian. The Immortality Key: The Secret History of the Religion with No Name. St. Martin's Press, 2020.  Plotkin, Mark J. The Ethnobotany of Medical Wine in the Ancient World. (in press). Herbalgram 2021. Robinson, J. and J. Harding. The Oxford Companion to Wine. Oxford University Press. 2015

Coca – not to be confused with coconuts or with cacao, the source of chocolate - is a large bush or small tree native to northwestern South America. Cocaine extracted from the leaves found favor among personages as diverse as Sigmund Freud and Ulysses S. Grant as it was once used as a component of various tonics, patent medicines and even a popular wine. Coca leaves are still widely used in this corner of South America for a variety of purposes by the indigenous tribes of the region.  Sources: Plotkin, Mark J. Amazon: What Everyone Needs to Know®. Oxford University Press, 2020.  Plowman, Timothy. “The Ethnobotany of Coca.” Advances in Economic Botany, Volume 1, Sept. 1984, pp. 62–111.  Prance, Ghillean T., et al. Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs. Synergetic Press, in Association with Heffter Research Institute, 2018.  Schultes, Richard Evans., and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods. Vandermarck, 1979. 

Hallucinogenic snuffs – though most hallucinogens like magic mushrooms or ayahuasca are taken orally, the indigenous peoples of Amazonia have created two different and highly potent snuffs from Amazonian trees which they consume for a variety of healing and divinatory purposes. As with ayahuasca, the author draws on his personal insights and experiences with these plants and these peoples to describe the biocultural importance of these snuffs.  Sources: Chagnon, Napoleon A. The Fierce People. Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1968.  Plotkin, Mark J. Amazon: What Everyone Needs to Know®. Oxford University Press, 2020.  Plotkin, Mark J. Tales of a Shaman's Apprentice: an Ethnobotanist Searches for New Medicines in the Amazon Rain Forest. Viking, 1993. Prance, Ghillean T., et al. Ethnopharmacologic Search for Psychoactive Drugs. Synergetic Press, in Association with Heffter Research Institute, 2018.  Schultes, Richard Evans, and Robert F. Raffauf. Vine of the Soul: Medicine Men, Their Plants and Rituals in the Colombian Amazonia. Synergetic Press, 2004.  Schultes, Richard Evans., and Albert Hofmann. Plants of the Gods. Vandermarck, 1979.