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Marcus Aurelius (121–180 CE), a Roman emperor and prominent Stoic philosopher, ruled from 161 to 180 CE. As the last of the Five Good Emperors, his reign marked the end of the Pax Romana, a period of relative peace in the Roman Empire. Known for his military campaigns against Parthians and Germanic tribes, he also endured the devastating Antonine Plague. His philosophical reflections, compiled in Meditations, offer insight into Stoic ethics and personal leadership. Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whose rule marked a decline in Rome's stability. His legacy endures in both historical and philosophical contexts.
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Nāgārjuna (c. 150 – c. 250 CE) was an Indian Buddhist monk and philosopher, regarded as the founder of the Madhyamaka (Middle Way) school of Mahāyāna Buddhism. His most famous work, Mūlamadhyamakakārikā (Root Verses on the Middle Way), presents the concept of śūnyatā (emptiness) and the two truths doctrine, emphasizing dependent origination and rejecting inherent existence. Nāgārjuna's philosophy has profoundly influenced Mahāyāna thought and continues to shape Buddhist studies and practice today.
Pyrrho of Elis (c. 360–270 BCE) was an ancient Greek philosopher and founder of Pyrrhonism, a school of philosophical skepticism. He advocated for epoché (suspension of judgment) as a path to ataraxia (peace of mind). Influenced by his travels to India with Alexander the Great, Pyrrho believed that nothing could be definitively known and that by refraining from beliefs, one could achieve tranquility. His teachings laid the foundation for later skeptical thought in philosophy and medicine.
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Zeno of Citium (c. 334 – c. 262 BC) was a Hellenistic philosopher from Cyprus and the founder of Stoicism. His philosophy emphasized living in harmony with nature and practicing virtue to attain peace of mind (ataraxia). Zeno's teachings influenced ethics, logic, and natural philosophy, laying the foundation for Stoicism's prominence during the Roman era and beyond. Despite losing his original writings, Zeno's ideas survived through the works of later Stoics like Cleanthes and Chrysippus.