Podcasts about procedural sedation

Show notes at pharmacyjoe.com/episode799. In this episode, I’ll discuss an article about intranasal dexmedetomidine for procedural sedation in the ED. The post Episode 800: Intranasal Dexmedetomidine for Procedural Sedation in the ED appeared first on Pharmacy Joe.

Show notes at pharmacyjoe.com/episode799. In this episode, I’ll discuss an article about intranasal dexmedetomidine for procedural sedation in the ED. The post Episode 800: Intranasal Dexmedetomidine for Procedural Sedation in the ED appeared first on Pharmacy Joe.

Podcast summary of articles from the August 2022 edition of the Journal of Emergency Medicine from the American Academy of Emergency Medicine.  Topics include febrile neonates, procedural sedation, shoulder dislocations, hyperoxia in ECPR, and adrenal insufficiency.  Guest speaker is Dr. Jason Kleppel.

The post Episode 79. Stop the flex with Precedex: The Use of Dexmedetomidine for Procedural Sedation appeared first on The Pharm So Hard Podcast.

In this episode, Sam Ashoo, MD interviews Prayag Mehta, MD and Joshua Kern, MD - two of the authors of the June, 2022 EMP article on Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department. Listen to the discussion to hear more about the emergency medicine approach to sedation in adults and pediatrics ! Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department https://www.ebmedicine.net/topics/emergency-procedures/emergency-medicine-procedural-sedation EMplify - June 2022 Episode Outline: Procedural Sedation and Analgesia (PSA) - TerminologyLevels of sedationMinimalModerateDeepGeneral AnesthesiaPrehospital careED care - Patient assessmentASA class system Complications: these can be minor or major, and most are minor and easily handled by the EM physician?Equipment needed (Table 1 checklist) What is the Larson maneuver (Figure 2)Procedural TechniqueWhat is the current ACEP (and AAP) recommendation on this? Is there good data for 1 or 2 physician sedation? Pre-procedural FastingDo we even need to consider this in PSA?CapnographyOxygen supplementationOnly use when capnography is present.Pre-procedural Opioids - are they safe? do they reduce sedation needs? what's the ideal timing? Pre-procedural Sedatives-  are they safe? do they reduce sedation needs? do they help with agitation? Anticholinergics - is there evidence for their benefit in adults or peds? Antiemetics - before the procedure? after? only as needed? Treatment - Table 2 Fentanyl Remifentanil Midazolam Nitrous Oxide PropofolKetamineKetofolEtomidateReversal AgentsNaloxoneFlumazenilSpecial PopulationsPediatricsPregnancyGeriatricsCutting Edge - would you like to discuss any of these? Dexmedetomadine https://foamed.ebmedicine.net/rapid-reference/procedural-sedation-medications/

In this episode, Sam Ashoo, MD interviews Prayag Mehta, MD and Joshua Kern, MD - two of the authors of the June, 2022 EMP article on Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department. Listen to the discussion to hear more about the emergency medicine approach to sedation in adults and pediatrics ! Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department EMplify - June 2022 Episode Outline: Procedural sedation and analgesia (PSA): terminologyLevels of sedationMinimalModerateDeepGeneral anesthesiaPrehospital careED care: patient assessmentASA class systemComplicationsEquipment needed (Table 1)Larson maneuver (Figure 2)Procedural techniqueCurrent ACEP and AAP recommendationsData for 1- or 2-physician sedationPreprocedural fastingDo we even need to consider this in PSA?CapnographyOxygen supplementationPreprocedural opioidsPreprocedural sedativesAnticholinergicsAntiemeticsTreatment (Table 2)FentanylRemifentanilMidazolamNitrous oxidePropofolKetamineKetofolEtomidateReversal agentsNaloxoneFlumazenilSpecial populationsPediatricsPregnancyGeriatricsCutting edgeDexmedetomidine https://foamed.ebmedicine.net/rapid-reference/procedural-sedation-medications/

In this episode, Sam Ashoo, MD interviews Prayag Mehta, MD and Joshua Kern, MD – two of the authors of the June, 2022 EMP article on Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department. Listen to the discussion to hear more about the emergency medicine approach to sedation in adults and pediatrics !Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency DepartmentEMplify – June 2022Episode Outline:1.Procedural sedation and analgesia (PSA): terminology2.Levels of sedationMinimalModerateDeepGeneral anesthesia3.Prehospital care4.ED care: patient assessmentASA class systemComplicationsEquipment needed (Table 1)Larson maneuver (Figure 2)5.Procedural techniqueCurrent ACEP and AAP recommendationsData for 1- or 2-physician sedation6.Preprocedural fastingDo we even need to consider this in PSA?7.Capnography8.Oxygen supplementation9.Preprocedural opioids10.Preprocedural sedatives11.Anticholinergics12.Antiemetics13.Treatment (Table 2)FentanylRemifentanilMidazolamNitrous oxidePropofolKetamineKetofolEtomidate14.Reversal agentsNaloxoneFlumazenil15.Special populationsPediatricsPregnancyGeriatrics16.Cutting edgeDexmedetomidine

PROPOFOL Effect: Sedation and amnesia but does not elicit analgesic properties Initial Bolus Dosing (IV): 1 mg/kg Titration: 0.5 mg/kg every 3-5 min as needed Onset of Action IV: Fast  (30-60 seconds) Duration of Action: Short (5-10 minutes) Adverse Effect: Respiratory depression and hypotension Ketamine Effect: Unique procedural sedation agent, dissociative agent that creates a […] The post Episode 65. Let's Take A Timeout! Procedural Sedation with Quinn Cummings and Benjamin Jackson appeared first on The Pharm So Hard Podcast.

On this episode, we're lucky have a special guest from Texas Children's Hospital, pediatric sedation and pain management expert, Dr. Corrie Chumpitazi. Nitrous oxide has been in our protocols here at MCHD for some time, but probably doesn't get the recognition and appreciation that it deserves. We'll discuss NO history, dosing, indications, contraindications, and side-effects. Listen to learn why we all should be incorporating more Nitrous Oxide into our daily EMS practice. https://www.acep.org/patient-care/map/map-nitrous-oxide-tool/ REFERENCES 1. Ducassé JL et al (2013). Nitrous oxide for early analgesia in the emergency setting: a randomized, double-blind multicenter prehospital trial. Acad Emerg Med. 2013 Feb;20(2):178-84. 2. Annequin D and Carbajal R, et al; Fixed 50% Nitrous Oxide Oxygen Mixture for Painful Procedures: A French Survey. Pediatrics. 2000; 105; e47. 3. Collado V, Emmanuel N, et al; Expert Opinion: a Review of the Safety of 50% Nitrous Oxide/Oxygen in Conscious Sedation. Drug Safety. 2007, 6(5): 559-571. 4. Sanders R, Weimann J, Maze M; Biologic Effects of Nitrous Oxide. Anesthesiology. 2008, 109: 707-722 5. Gall O, Annequin D, et al; Adverse Events of Premixed Nitrous Oxide and Oxygen for Procedural Sedation in Children. Lancet. 2001; 358: 1514-15. 6. Tobias, JD, Review Article: Applications of Nitrous Oxide for Procedural Sedation in the Pediatric Population. Pediatric Emergency Care. 2013; 29: 245-265. 7. Onody P, Gil P, Hennequin M. Safety of Inhalation of a 50% Nitrous Oxide/Oxygen Premix: A Prospective Study of 35,828 Administrations. Drug Safety. 2006; 29(7):633-640. 8. American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry. (2013). Guideline on use of nitrous oxide for pediatric dental patients. Retrieved September 3, 2013, from www.aapd.org: http://www.aapd.org/media/Policies_Guidelines/G_Nitrous.pdf 9. Heinrich M, Menzel C, Hoffmann F, et al. Self-administered procedural analgesia using nitrous oxide/oxygen (50:50) in the pediatric surgery emergency room: effectiveness and limitations. Eur J Pediatr Surg. 2015;25(3):250-6. 10. 28. Pasaron R, Burnweit C, Zerpa J, et al. Nitrous oxide procedural sedation in non-fasting pediatric patients undergoing minor surgery: a 12-year experience with 1,058 patients. Pediatr Surg Int. 2015;31(2):173-80. 11. 29. Zier JL, Liu M. Safety of high-concentration nitrous oxide by nasal mask for pediatric procedural sedation: experience with 7802 cases. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2011;27(12):1107-12. 12. 30. Gamis AS, Knapp JF, Glenski JA. Nitrous oxide analgesia in a pediatric emergency department. Ann Emerg Med. 1989;18(2):177-81. 13. 31. Martin HA, Noble M, Wodo N. The Benefits of Introducing the Use of Nitrous Oxide in the Pediatric Emergency Department for Painful Procedures. J Emerg Nurs. 2018;44(4):331-5.

This week, we talk about how to use oral ketamine for (minor) procedural sedation in the agitated/ combative patientClick HERE to leave a review of the podcast!Subscribe HERE!References:All references for Episode 65 are found on my Read by QxMD collectionSupport the show (https://www.buymeacoffee.com/errxpodcast)

In this episode, we will be welcoming Dr. Maala Bhatt, the Associate Professor of Pediatrics at the University of Ottawa. She is the Research Director for the Division of Emergency Medicine and a pediatric emergency medicine physician at the Children's Hospital of Eastern Ontario (CHEO). She is a member of the Society for Pediatric Sedation. She led the development of the first standardized definitions for procedural sedation and has published the largest emergency department procedural sedation cohort, establishing practices associated with the safest sedation outcomes. Her primary research interest is in the safety of emergencies department procedural sedation. She has published multiple articles and peer review journals on sedation related topics including on fasting before procedural sedation. The first patient case scenario is of an eighteen month old girl scheduled for a brain MRI for a focal seizure which occurred three days ago, and her parents are asking if they have to keep their NPO for so long and whether there is any science behind this practice of fasting before sedation. The second case is one of a seven year old boy with a forearm fracture which requires redaction and casting under procedural sedation. The patient had eaten a peanut butter sandwich an hour before the fall. Join us as we dive into this insightful discussion with Dr. Bhatt on fasting before procedural sedation and how previous fasting guidelines came about, and what is changing about that. Enjoy!Show HighlightsOur understanding of aspiration and its risk factors with respect to the history of fasting guidelines (02:16)The risk for aspiration during procedural sedation (04:52)The aspiration risk for children prior to sedation when drinking clear liquids (05:38)Advantages and disadvantages of prolonged fasting in children with respect to clear liquids (06:51)Current guidelines being followed today in procedural sedation (08:31)The association between pre-procedural fasting duration and the incidence of sedation related adverse outcomes during emergency department sedation of children (10:43)Dr. Bhatt's thoughts on the 2016 study reporting on the association between aspiration and patient and procedure factors (12:26)Changes in practice that may come about from different publications stating that fasting is not a risk factor for aspiration (15:46)Understanding that NPO time on its own is not a predictor for aspiration (17:45)Additional ResourcesAssociation of Preprocedural Fasting With Outcomes of Emergency Department Sedation in Children

This PedsCases podcast we will explore approaches to procedural sedation in infants, children, and adolescents undergoing common diagnostic and therapeutic procedures requiring sedation and analgesia outside the operating room by non-anesthesiologists and non-intensivist clinicians. It will specifically focus on the prevention of sedation-related adverse events. This podcast was developed by Summer Hudson and Katie Gourlay, second-year medical students at the University of Alberta, in collaboration with Dr. Kristina Krmpotic, a pediatric intensivist at IWK Health.

In this episode, we will be welcoming Dr. Kevin Couloures, a clinical associate professor of pediatrics at Stanford University and a pediatric critical care physician at the Lucile Packard Children's Hospital and the California Pacific Medical Center in California. He has been with the Society for Pediatric Sedation for maNy years and is currently the vice-chair for the research committee and the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium, the research arm of the Society for Pediatric Sedation.The first patient case today is that of a four year old boy who needs a brain MRI for a focal seizure he had two days ago. The patient has no allergies and is previously healthy. He was sedated using a propofol bolus and is maintained on a propofol infusion in the MRI. It's going to be a very insightful episode so don't miss out. Show HighlightsWhy the monitoring of a patient undergoing procedural sedation is so important (01:32)How to classify intended levels of sedation (03:08)The monitoring tools used in pediatric procedural sedation (05:00)Monitoring a child who is receiving mild, moderate or deep sedation (05:24)The ideal monitoring for a patient who just went through a procedure and is waiting for discharge (07:37)Role of pulse oximetry and capnography in procedural sedation (08:43)Bispectral (Bispectral index monitor) analysis during pediatric procedural sedation outside the operating room and its role (12:12)Recommended monitoring for short hematology oncology procedures such as lumbar punctures (13:24)Information available from the pediatric sedation research consortium about monitoring (14:40)Dr. Couloures' personal clinical pearls regarding physiologic monitoring of patients undergoing procedural sedation (16:00)Additional Resourceswww.Capnography.comBispectral analysis during procedural sedation in the pediatric emergency department

In this episode, we will be welcoming Dr. Mary Landrigan-Ossar, a Senior Associate in Perioperative Anesthesia, Department of Anesthesiology, Critical Care and Pain Medicine at Boston Children's Hospital. Dr. Landrigan is also an Assistant Professor of Anesthesia at Harvard Medical School. She has been involved with the Society for Pediatric Sedation for a long time and serves on the executive committee as well as the board of directors. Dr. Landrigan comes on to help us gather insight on how sedation practitioners should approach procedural sedation in high risk patients outside of the operating room where they focus on pre-screening prior to procedural sedation. Join us to learn moreShow HighlightsWhy it's so important to assess a child's risk profile prior to procedural sedation (01:29)Patient risk factors associated with sedation related adverse events (03:02)Concerns regarding the sedation of infants where the infants are under 3 months of age (04:50)How prematurity poses a risk for sedation related adverse events (06:24)The relation between obesity and increased risk for adverse events in procedural sedation (07:58)Risks posed to procedural sedation by children that have upper respiratory tract infections (09:11)Scenario where a child snores like an adult while sleeping or has noisy breathing during sleep (11:07)Dealing with children who have heart disease when they are presented for procedural sedation (13:34)Different instances where sedation practitioners should be very cautious and consult an anesthesiologist (17:53)Clinical pearls in sedating high risk patients and the necessary careful pre-screening required for such patients (20:08)Resources:Society of Pediatric Sedation Website

In this episode, we will be welcoming Dr. Megan Peters and Dr. Abdallah Dalabih to have a chat with us about how to develop a sedation regimen for patients undergoing procedural sedation outside the operating room. Dr. Peters is the Assistant Professor of Pediatrics at the University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health. She is a pediatric intensivist and the Director of Pediatric Sedation Program at American Family Children's Hospital. Dr. Dalabih is the Associate Professor of Pediatrics at the University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences and is also a pediatric intensivist. He is the Director of Pediatric Sedation Programs at Arkansas Children's Hospital. One of the hypothetical cases is where the patient is a three year old boy who needs an MRI with contrast for a prolonged focal seizure which occurred four days ago. He is previously healthy, has no significant past medical history and has not been exposed to anesthesia or procedural sedation in the past. He has no known drug allergies and on examination, his physical exam is unremarkable with normative vital signs for his age. He is also appropriately NPO. Stay tuned to learn more from Dr. Peters and Dr. Dalabih!Show HighlightsFactors to consider when creating a sedation regimen for a child who will undergo procedural sedation (01:18)Examples of painful, non-painful and distressing procedures (02:45)How to go about choosing a sedation regimen for patients in line with the guidelines of the American Academy of Pediatrics (05:22)Sedation for a child who has proven allergies such as anaphylaxis (06:55)Second hypothetical case: 5 year old girl with symptoms consistent with acute lymphocytic Leukemia and requires procedural sedation for a diagnostic bone marrow aspiration and biopsy with a lumbar puncture (10:09)Procedural sedation for a 6 year old girl who has autism spectrum disorder and requires procedural sedation in order to undergo venipuncture, ECD, and Echo (13:36)9 year old with a distal radius and ulna fracture from a recent fall on his right arm requiring reduction and casting of the fracture (16:12)The importance of using a multidisciplinary team approach to sedation for (18:05)Additional ResourcesIs Orally Administered Pentobarbital a Safe and Effective Alternative to Chloral Hydrate for Pediatric Procedural Sedation?

In this first episode of the Society for Pediatric Sedation (SPS) Podcast, we will be discussing the use of intranasal medication in procedural sedation for children. We will be joined by Dr. Carmen Sulton, the Assistant Professor of Pediatrics at Emory University School of Medicine and Director of Children Sedation Services at Egleston campus in Atlanta. Dr. Sulton is well published in the field of pediatric procedural sedation including a recent paper on the use of intranasal Dexmedetomidine published in Pediatric Emergency Care in 2020. The paper uses patient outcomes data from the Pediatric Sedation Research Consortium database, the research arm of the Society for Pediatric Sedation.In our case today, we have a five months old infant who requires an MRI of his brain. The patient is an ex-32 week premature infant with a history of difficult IV access. There's no history of upper respiratory tract infection, no snoring, heart disease, or any medication allergy in this infant. The MRI is needed for a focal seizure that occured two weeks ago and the patient doesn't require an IV since this is not a contrasted MRI. Dr. Sulton will generously share with us why intranasal medications are needed in procedural sedation and so much more, so don't miss out if this is a topic of interest for you.Meet your hosts:Pradip Kamat, MD, MBA - Associate Professor of Pediatrics and Critical Care Physician at Emory University School of Medicine and Children's Healthcare of Atlanta/Egleston.Anne Stormorken, MD - Professor of Pediatrics and Critical Care Physician at UH Rainbow Babies and Children's Hospital and Case Western Reserve School of Medicine of Cleveland, OH.Show HighlightsDiving into how intranasal medications work (01:58)Circumstances where intranasal medications must not be used for procedural sedation (04:35)How she uses Dexmedetomidine and Midazolam (06:28)Research findings on the success rate with the use of intranasal medications (09:14)Other medications that can be used intranasally for procedural sedation (11:42)Optimizing the efficacy of intranasal medications when delivering them (12:09)Giving IV sedation where there is intranasal medication failure (13:23)Large dataset studies that support the successful use of intranasal medications in procedural sedation (14:23)Additional ResourcesThe Use of Intranasal Dexmedetomidine and Midazolam for Sedated Magnetic Resonance Imaging in Children

Nitrous oxide is a common choice for procedural sedation, for its rapid onset and offset and combination of sedation, anxiolysis, amnesia and some level of analgesia. It's great for short procedures like cannulas or suturing. In this episode, we will go through the use of nitrous oxide, common side effects, contraindications to be aware of, and proposed mechanisms of action.    Links and resources: Follow us on Instagram @yourekiddingrightdoctors Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/yourekiddingrightpod-107273607638323/ Our email is yourekiddingrightpod@gmail.com Make sure you hit SUBSCRIBE/FOLLOW so you don't miss out on any pearls of wisdom and RATE if you can to help other people find us! (This isn't individual medical advice, please use your own clinical judgement and local guidelines when caring for your patients)

We use midazolam a lot for procedural sedation in kids. It is a benzodiazepine medication. It has sedative, anxiolytic and amnesic effects - i.e. if it works well, it usually makes the patient a bit sleepy, less anxious, and they often don’t remember the procedure. It does NOT have analgesic effects, so you will often use some kind of analgesia for painful procedures.  Tune in to learn more about this commonly used medication - how we use it, when we use it and what we like and don't like about it!

All cultures have myths. Many myths have the dual effects of explaining why something is the way it is while at the same time warning us against danger. These two tennants are certainly the corner stones of most medical myths. Let's dive into three myths in pediatric EM, examine their roots, and think critically about changing our practice - in this episode of pediatric myth busters.

View the show notes in Google Docs here: http://bit.ly/3bFS43j Gonorrhea Updates Gonorrhea Treatment and Care. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention Website. https://www.cdc.gov/std/gonorrhea/treatment.htm. Published December 14, 2020. Accessed January 11, 2021. CDC No Longer Recommends Oral Drug for Gonorrhea Treatment. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention. https://www.cdc.gov/nchhstp/newsroom/2012/gctx-guidelines-pressrelease.html. Published August 9, 2012. Accessed January 11, 2021. Recurrent UTI Recurrent Uncomplicated Urinary Tract Infections in Women: AUA/CUA/SUFU Guideline (2019). American Urological Association. https://www.auanet.org/guidelines/recurrent-uti?fbclid=IwAR1TwSTQNHv8PDWLfW7WjsDan46D_9b6Qs1ptJxaXr6YFnDpBeptpW3BY. Published 2019. Accessed January 11, 2021. Combo Ibuprofen and Acetaminophen / Pain Advil® Dual Action. GSK Expert Portal. https://www.gskhealthpartner.com/en-us/pain-relief/brands/advil/products/dual-action/?utmsource=google&utmmedium=cpc&utmterm=ibuprofen+acetaminophen&utmcampaign=GS+-+Unbranded+Advil+DA+-+Alone+-+PH. Accessed January 11, 2021. FDA approves GSK's Advil Dual Action with Acetaminophen for over-the-counter use in the United States. GSK. https://www.gsk.com/en-gb/media/press-releases/fda-approves-gsk-s-advil-dual-action-with-acetaminophen-for-over-the-counter-use-in-the-united-states/. Published March 2, 2020. Accessed January 11, 2021. Tanner T, Aspley S, Munn A, Thomas T. The pharmacokinetic profile of a novel fixed-dose combination tablet of ibuprofen and paracetamol. BMC clinical pharmacology. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2906415/. Published July 5, 2010. Accessed January 11, 2021. Searle S, Muse D, Paluch E, et al. Efficacy and Safety of Single and Multiple Doses of a Fixed-dose Combination of Ibuprofen and Acetaminophen in the Treatment of Postsurgical Dental Pain: Results From 2 Phase 3, Randomized, Parallel-group, Double-blind, Placebo-controlled Studies. The Clinical journal of pain. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32271183/. Published July 2020. Accessed January 11, 2021. 1000 mg versus 600/650 mg Acetaminophen for Pain or Fever: A Review of the Clinical Efficacy. National Center for Biotechnology Information. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK373467/. Published June 17, 2016. Accessed January 11, 2021. Motov S. Is There a Limit to the Analgesic Effect of Pain Medications? Medscape. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/574279. Published June 17, 2008. Accessed January 11, 2021. Motov, Sergey. Faculty Forum: A Practical Approach to Pain Management. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lJSioPsGw3A. The Center for Medical Education. Published December 2, 2020. Accessed January 1, 2021. Wuhrman E, Cooney MF. Acute Pain: Assessment and Treatment. Medscape. https://www.medscape.com/viewarticle/735034_4. Published January 3, 2011. Accessed January 11, 2021. Social Pain Dewall CN, Macdonald G, Webster GD, et al. Acetaminophen reduces social pain: behavioral and neural evidence. Psychological science. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20548058/. Published June 14, 2010. Accessed January 11, 2021. Mischkowski D, Crocker J, Way BM. From painkiller to empathy killer: acetaminophen (paracetamol) reduces empathy for pain. Social cognitive and affective neuroscience. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27217114/. Published May 5, 2016. Accessed January 11, 2021. Other / Recurrent liner notes Center for Medical Education. https://courses.ccme.org/. Accessed January 11, 2021. Roberts M, Roberts JR. The Proceduralist. https://www.theproceduralist.org/. Accessed January 11, 2021. The Procedural Pause by James R. Roberts, MD, & Martha Roberts, ACNP, PNP. Emergency Medicine News. https://journals.lww.com/em-news/blog/theproceduralpause/pages/default.aspx. Accessed January 11, 2021. The Skeptics' Guide to Emergency Medicine. sgem.ccme.org. https://sgem.ccme.org/. Accessed January 11, 2021. Trivia Question: Send answers to 2viewcast@gmail.com Please note that you must answer the 2 part question to win a copy of the EMRA Pain Guide. “What controversial drug was given a black box warning for prolonged QT and torsades in 2012 and now has been declared by WHICH organization to be an effective and safe treatment use for nausea, vomiting, headache and agitation?” Practical Pain Management in Acute Care Setting Handout Sergey Motov, MD @painfreeED • Pain is one of the most common reasons for patients to visit the emergency department and other acute care settings. Due to the extensive number of visits related to pain, clinicians and midlevel providers should be aware of the various options, both pharmacological and nonpharmacological, available to treat patients with acute pain. • As the death toll from the opioid epidemic continues to grow, the use of opioids in the acute care setting as a first-line treatment for analgesia is becoming increasingly controversial and challenging. • There is a growing body of literature that is advocating for more judicious use of opioids and well as their prescribing and for broader use of non-pharmacological and non-opioid pain management strategies. • The channels/enzymes/receptors targeted analgesia (CERTA) concept is based on our improved understanding of the neurobiological aspect of pain with a shift from a symptom-based approach to pain to a mechanistic approach. This targeted analgesic approach allows for a broader utilization of synergistic combinations of nonopioid analgesia and more refined and judicious (rescue) use of opioids. These synergistic combinations result in greater analgesia, fewer side effects, lesser sedation, and shorter LOS. (Motov et al 2016) General Principles: Management of acute pain in the acute care setting should be patient-centered and pain syndrome-specific by using multimodal approach that include non-pharmacological modalities and pharmacological ones that include non-opioid and opioid analgesics. Assessment of acute pain should be based on a need for analgesics to improve functionality, rather than patients-reported pain scores. Brief pain inventory short form BPI-SF is better than NRS/VAS as it assesses quantitative and qualitative impact of pain (Im et al 2020). ED clinicians should engage patients in shared decision-making about overall treatment goals and expectations, the natural trajectory of the specific painful condition, and analgesic options including short-term and long-term benefits and risks of adverse effects. If acute pain lasting beyond the expected duration, complications of acute pain should be ruled out and transition to non-opioid therapy and non-pharmacological therapy should be attempted. Non-Pharmacologic Therapies • Acute care providers should consider applications of heat or cold as well as specific recommendations regarding activity and exercise. • Music therapy is a useful non-pharmacologic therapy for pain reduction in acute care setting (music-assisted relaxation, therapeutic listening/musical requests, musical diversion, song writing, and therapeutic singing (Mandel 2019). • The use of alternative and complementary therapies, such as acupuncture, guided imagery, cognitive-behavioral therapy, and hypnosis have not been systemically evaluated for use in the Acute care setting including ED. (Dillan 2005, Hoffman 2007) • In general, their application may be limited for a single visit, but continued investigation in their safety and efficacy is strongly encouraged. • Practitioners may also consider utilization of osteopathic manipulation techniques, such as high velocity, low amplitude techniques, muscle energy techniques, and soft tissue techniques for patients presenting to the acute care setting with pain syndromes of skeletal, arthroidal, or myofascial origins. (Eisenhart 2003) Opioids • Acute Care providers are uniquely positioned to combat the opioid epidemic by thoughtful prescribing of parenteral and oral opioids in inpatient setting and upon discharge, and through their engagement with opioid addicted patients in acute care setting. • Acute Care providers should make every effort to utilize non-pharmacological modalities and non-opioid analgesics to alleviate pain, and to use opioid analgesics only when the benefits of opioids are felt to outweigh the risks. (not routinely) • When opioids are used for acute pain, clinicians should combine them with non-pharmacologic and non-opioid pharmacologic therapy: Yoga, exercise, cognitive behavioral therapy, complementary/alternative medical therapies (acupuncture); NSAID's, Acetaminophen, Topical Analgesics, Nerve blocks, etc. • When considering opioids for acute pain, Acute Care providers should involve patients in shared decision-making about analgesic options and opioid alternatives, risks and benefits of opioid therapies, and rational expectations about the pain trajectory and management approach. • When considering opioids for acute pain, acute care providers should counsel patients regarding serious adverse effects such as sedation and respiratory depression, pruritus and constipation, and rapid development of tolerance and hyperalgesia. • When considering administration of opioids for acute pain, acute care providers should make every effort to accesses respective state's Prescription Drug Monitoring Program (PDMP). The data obtained from PDMP's to be used to identify excessive dosages and dangerous combinations, identify and counsel patients with opioid use disorder, offer referral for addiction treatment. • PDMPs can provide clinicians with comprehensive prescribing information to improve clinical decisions around opioids. However, PDMPs vary tremendously in their accessibility and usability in the ED, which limits their effectiveness at the point of care. Problems are complicated by varying state-to-state requirements for data availability and accessibility. Several potential solutions to improving the utility of PDMPs in EDs include integrating PDMPs with electronic health records, implementing unsolicited reporting and prescription context, improving PDMP accessibility, data analytics, and expanding the scope of PDMPs. (Eldert et al, 2018) • Parenteral opioids when used in titratable fashion are effective, safe, and easily reversible analgesics that quickly relieve pain. • Acute care clinicians should consider administering these analgesics for patients in acute pain where the likelihood of analgesic benefit is judged to exceed the likelihood of harm. • Parenteral opioids must be titrated regardless of their initial dosing regimens (weight-based or fixed) until pain is optimized to acceptable level (functionality status) or side effects become intolerable. • When parenteral opioids are used, patients should be engaged in shared-decision making regarding the route of administration, as repetitive attempts of IV cannulation and intramuscular injections are associated with pain. In addition, intramuscular injections are associated with unpredictable absorption rates, and complications such as muscle necrosis, soft tissue infection and the need for dose escalation. (Von Kemp 1989, Yamanaka 1985, Johnson 1976) • Morphine sulfate provides better balance of analgesic efficacy and safety among all parenteral opioids. a. Dosing regimens and routes: b. IV: 0.05-0.1mg/kg to start, titrate q 10-20 min c. IV: 4-6 mg fixed, titrate q 10-20 min d. SQ: 4-6 mg fixed, titrate q 20 min e. Nebulized: 0.2 mg/kg or 10-20 mg fixed, repeat q 15-20 min f. PCA: prone to dosing errors g. IM: should be avoided (pain, muscle fibrosis, necrosis, increase in dosing requirements) • Hydromorphone should be avoided as a first-line opioid due to significant euphoria and severe respiratory depression requiring naloxone reversal. Due to higher lipophilicity, Hydromorphone use is associated with higher rates of euphoria and subsequent development of addiction. Should hydromorphone be administered in higher than equi-analgesic morphine milligram equivalents, close cardiopulmonary monitoring is strongly recommended. Dosing h. IV: 0.2-0.5 mg initial, titrate q10-15 min i. IM: to be avoided (pain, muscle fibrosis, necrosis, increase in dosing requirements) j. PCA: prone to dosing errors (severe CNS and respiratory depression) k. Significantly worse AE profile in comparison to Morphine l. Equianalgesic IV conversion (1 mg HM=8mg of MS) m. Overprescribed in >50% of patients n. Inappropriately large dosing in EM literature: 2 mg IVP o. Abuse potential (severely euphoric due to lipophilicity) • Fentanyl is the most potent opioid, short-acting, requires frequent titration. Dosing: p. IV: 0.25-0.5 μg/kg (WB), titrate q10 min q. IV: 25-50 μg (fixed), titrate q10 min r. Nebulization: 2-4 μg/kg, titrate q20-30 min s. IN: 1-2 μg/kg, titrate q5-10min t. Transbuccal: 100-200μg disolvable tablets u. Transmucosal: 15-20 mcg/kg Lollypops • Opioids in Renal Insufficiency/Renal Failure Patients-requires balance of ORAE with pain control by starting with lower-than-recommended doses and slowly titrate up the dose while extending the dosing interval. (Dean 2004, Wright 2011) • Opioid-induced pruritus is centrally mediated process via μ-opioid receptors as naloxone, nalbuphine reverse it, and can be caused by opioids w/o histamine release (Fentanyl). Use ultra-low-dose naloxone of 0.25 -1 mcg/kg/hr with NNT of 3.5. (Kjellberg 2001) • When intravascular access is unobtainable, acute care clinicians should consider utilization of intranasal (fentanyl), nebulized (fentanyl and morphine), or transmucosal (rapidly dissolvable fentanyl tablets) routes of analgesic administration for patients with acute painful conditions. • Breath actuated nebulizer (BAN): enclosed canister, dual mode: continuous and on-demand, less occupational exposures. a. Fentanyl: 2-4 mcg//kg for children, 4 mcg/kg for adults: titration q 10 min up to three doses via breath-actuated nebulizer (BAN): systemic bioavailability of 50-60% of IV route. (Miner 2007, Furyk 2009, Farahmand 2014) b. Morphine: 10-20 mg g10 min up to 3 doses via breath-actuated nebulizer (BAN)-Systemic bioavailability (concentration) of 30-35% of IV Route. (Fulda 2005, Bounes 2009, Grissa 2015) c. Intranasal Fentanyl: IN via MAD at 1-2 mcg/kg titration q 5 min (use highly concentrated solution of 100mcg/ml for adults and 50 mcg/ml for children)- systemic bioavailability of 90% of IV dosing. (Karisen 2013, Borland 2007, Saunders 2010, Holdgate 2010) d. IN route: shorter time to analgesia, titratable, comparable pain relief to IV route, minimal amount of side effects, similar rates of rescue analgesia, great patients and staff satisfaction. Disadvantages: requires highly concentrated solutions that not readily available in the ED, contraindicated in facial/nasal trauma. Oral Opioids • Oral opioid administration is effective for most patients in the acute care setting, however, there is no appreciable analgesic difference between commonly used opioids (oxycodone, hydrocodone and morphine sulfate immediate release (MSIR). • When oral opioids are used for acute pain, the lowest effective dose and fewest number of tablets needed should be prescribed. In most cases, less than 3 days' worth are necessary, and rarely more than 5 days' worth are needed. • If painful condition outlasts three-day supply, re-evaluation in health-care facility is beneficial. Consider expediting follow-up care if the patient's condition is expected to require more than a three-day supply of opioid analgesics. • Only Immediate release (short-acting) formulary are to be prescribed in the acute care setting and at discharge. • Clinicians should not administer or prescribe long-acting, extended-release, or sustained-release opioid formulations, which include both oral and transdermal (fentanyl) medications in the acute care setting. These formulations are not indicated for acute pain and carry a high risk of overdose, particularly in opioid-naïve patients. • Acute care providers should counsel patients about safe medication storage and disposal, as well as the consequences of failure to do this; potential for abuse and misuse by others (teens and young adults), and potential for overdose and death (children and teens). • Oxycodone is no more effective than other opioids (hydrocodone, MSIR). Oxycodone has highest potential for abuse, misuse and diversion as well as increased risks of overdose, addiction and death. Oxycodone should be avoided as a first-line oral opioid for acute pain. ( Strayer 2016) • If still prescribed, lowest dose (5mg) in combination with acetaminophen (lowest dose of 325 mg) should be considered as it associated with less abuse and diversion (in theory). Potential for acetaminophen overdose exist though with combination. • Hydrocodone is three times more prescribed than oxycodone, but three times less used for non-medical purpose. Combo with APAP (Vicodin)-Use lowest effective dose for hydrocodone and APAP (5/325). (Quinn 1997, Adams 2006) • Immediate release morphine sulfate (MSIR) administration is associated with lesser degree of euphoria and consequently, less abuse potential (Wightman 2012). ED providers should consider prescribing Morphine Sulfate Immediate Release Tablets (MSIR) (Wong 2012, Campos 2014) for acute pain due to: o Similar analgesic efficacy to Oxycodone and Hydrocodone o Less euphoria (less abuse potential) o Less street value (less diversion) o More dysphoria in large doses o Less abuse liability and likeability • Tramadol should not be used in acute care setting and at discharge due to severe risks of adverse effects, drug-drug interactions, and overdose. There is very limited data supporting better analgesic efficacy of tramadol in comparison to placebo, or better analgesia than APAP or Ibuprofen. Tramadol dose not match analgesic efficacy of traditional opioids. (Juurlink 2018, Jasinski 1993, Babalonis 2013) • Side effects are: o Seizures o Hypoglycemia o Hyponatremia o Serotonin syndrome o Abuse and addiction • Codeine and Codeine/APAP is a weak analgesic that provides no better pain relief than placebo. Codeine must not be administered to children due to: o dangers of the polymorphisms of the cytochrome P450 iso-enzyme: o ultra-rapid metabolizers: respiratory depression and death o poor metabolizers: absent or insufficient pain relief • Transmucosal fentanyl (15 and 20 mcg/kg lollypops) has an onset of analgesia in 5 to 15 minutes with a peak effect seen in 15 to 30 minutes (Arthur 2012). • Transbuccal route can be used right at the triage to provide rapid analgesia and as a bridge to intravenous analgesia in acute care setting. (Ashburn 2011). A rapidly dissolving trans-buccal fentanyl (100mcg dose) provides fast pain relief onset (median 10 min), great analgesics efficacy, minimal need for rescue medication and lack of side effects in comparison to oxycodone/acetaminophen tablet (Shear 2010) • Morphine Milligram Equivalent (MME) is a numerical standard against which most opioids can be compared, yielding a comparison of each medication's potency. MME does not give any information of medications efficacy or how well medication works, but it is used to assess comparative potency of other analgesics. • By converting the dose of an opioid to a morphine equivalent dose, a clinician can determine whether a cumulative daily dose of opioids approaches an amount associated with increased risk of overdose and to identify patients who may benefit from closer monitoring, reduction or tapering of opioids, prescribing of naloxone, and other measures to reduce risk of overdose. • Opioid-induced hyperalgesia: o opioid-induced hyperalgesia (OIH) is a rare syndrome of increasing pain, often accompanied by neuroexcitatory effects, in the setting of increasing opioid therapy. o Morphine is by far the most common opiate implicated in OIH. Hydromorphone and oxycodone, members of the same class of opiate as morphine (phenanthrenes), can also cause OIH. Fentanyl, a synthetic opioid in the class of phenylpiperidine, is less likely to precipitate OIH. Existing data suggests that OIH is caused by multiple opioid-induced changes to the central nervous system including: -Activation of N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptors -Inhibition of the glutamate transporter system -Increased levels of the pro-nociceptive peptides within the dorsal root ganglia -Activation of descending pain facilitation from the rostral ventromedial medulla -Neuroexcitatory effects provoked by metabolites of morphine and hydromorphone • OIH can be confused with tolerance as in both cases patients report increased pain on opioids. The two conditions can be differentiated based on the patient's response to opioids. In tolerance, the patient's pain will improve with dose escalation. In OIH, pain will worsen with opioid administration. This paradoxical effect is one of the hallmarks of the syndrome. Non-opioid analgesics • Acetaminophen is indicated for management of mild to moderate pain and as a single analgesic and has modest efficacy at most. Addition of Acetaminophen to Ibuprofen does not provide better analgesia for patients with acute low back pain. The greatest limitation to the use of intravenous (IV) versus oral acetaminophen is the nearly 100-fold cost differential, which is likely not justified by any marginal improvement in pain relief. Furthermore, IV APAP provide faster onset of analgesia only after an initial dose. (Yeh 2012, Serinken 2012) • NSAIDs should be administered at their lowest effective analgesic doses both in the ED and upon discharge and should be given for the shortest appropriate treatment course. Caution is strongly advised when NSAIDs are used in patients at risk for renal insufficiency, heart failure, and gastrointestinal hemorrhage, as well as in the elderly. Strong consideration should be given to topical NSAID's in managing as variety of acute and chronic painful Musculo-skeletal syndromes. The analgesic ceiling refers to the dose of a drug beyond which any further dose increase will not result in additional analgesic efficacy. Thus, the analgesics ceiling for ibuprofen is 400 mg per dose (1200 mg/24 h) and for ketorolac is 10 mg per dose (10 mg/24 h). These doses are less than those often prescribed for control of inflammation and fever. When it comes to equipotent doses of different NSAIDs, there is no difference in analgesic efficacy. • Ketamine, at sub-dissociative doses (also known as low-dose ketamine or analgesic dose ketamine) of 0.1 to 0.4 mg/kg, provided effective analgesia as a single agent or as an adjunct to opioids (reducing the need for opioids) in the treatment of acute traumatic and nontraumatic pain in the ED. This effective analgesia, however, must be balanced against high rates of minor adverse side effects (14%–80%), though typically short-lived and not requiring intervention. In addition to IV rout, ketamine can be administered via IN,SQ, and Nebulized route. • Local anesthetics are widely used in the ED for topical, local, regional, intra-articular, and systemic anesthesia and analgesia. Local anesthetics (esters and amides) possess analgesic and anti-hyperalgesic properties by non-competitively blocking neuronal sodium channels. o Topical analgesics containing lidocaine come in patches, ointments, and creams have been used to treat pain from acute sprains, strains, and contusions as well as variety of acute inflammatory and chronic neuropathic conditions, including postherpetic neuralgia (PHN), complex regional pain syndromes (CRPS) and painful diabetic neuropathy (PDN). o UGRA used for patients with lower extremity fractures or dislocations (eg, femoral nerve block, fascia iliaca compartment block) demonstrated significant pain control, decreased need for rescue analgesia, and first-attempt procedural success. In addition, UGRA demonstrated few procedural complications, minimal need for rescue analgesia, and great patient satisfaction. o Analgesic efficacy and safety of IV lidocaine has been evaluated in patients with renal colic and acute lower back pain. Although promising, this therapy will need to be studied in larger populations with underlying cardiac disease before it can be broadly used. o knvlsd • Antidopaminergic and Neuroleptics are frequently used in acute care settings for treatment of migraine headache, chronic abdominal pain, cannabis-induced hyperemesis. • Anti-convulsant (gabapentin and pregabalin) are not recommended for management of acute pain unless pain is of neuropathic origin. Side effects, particularly when combined with opioids (potentiation of euphoria and respiratory depression), titration to effect, and poor patients' compliance are limiting factors to their use. (Peckham 2018) References: Chang HY, Daubresse M, Kruszewski SP, et al. Prevalence and treatment of pain in EDs in the United States, 2000 to 2010. Am J Emerg Med 2014;32(5):421–31. Green SM. There is oligo-evidence for oligoanalgesia. Ann Emerg Med 2012;60: 212–4. Strayer RJ, Motov SM, Nelson LS. Something for pain: Responsible opioid use in emergency medicine. Am J Emerg Med. 2017 Feb;35(2):337-341. Smith RJ, Rhodes K, Paciotti B, Kelly S,et al. Patient Perspectives of Acute Pain Management in the Era of the Opioid Epidemic. Ann Emerg Med. 2015 Sep;66(3):246-252 Meisel ZF, Smith RJ. Engaging patients around the risks of opioid misuse in the emergency department. Pain Manag. 2015 Sep;5(5):323-6. Wightman R, Perrone J. (2017). Opioids. In Strayer R, Motov S, Nelson L (Eds.), Management of Pain and Procedural Sedation in Acute Care. http://painandpsa.org/opioids/ Motov S, Nelson L, Advanced Concepts and Controversies in Emergency Department Pain Management. Anesthesiol Clin. 2016 Jun;34(2):271-85. doi: 10.1016/j.anclin.2016.01.006. Ducharme J. Non-opioid pain medications to consider for emergency department patients. Available at: http://www.acepnow.com/article/non-opioid-painmedications- consider-emergency-department-patients/. 2015. Wightman R, Perrone J, Portelli I, et al. Likeability and Abuse Liability of Commonly Prescribed Opioids. J Med Toxicol. September 2012. doi: 10.1007/s12181-012-0263-x Zacny JP, Lichtor SA. Within-subject comparison of the psychopharmacological profiles of oral oxycodone and oral morphine in non-drug-abusing volunteers. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2008 Jan;196(1):105–16. Hoppe JA, Nelson LS, Perrone J, Weiner SG, Prescribing Opioids Safely in the Emergency Department (POSED) Study Investigators. Opioid Prescribing in a Cross Section of US Emergency Departments. Ann Emerg Med. 2015;66(3):253–259. Baehren DF, Marco CA, Droz DE, et al. A statewide prescription monitoring program affects emergency department prescribing behaviors. Ann Emerg Med. 2010; 56(1):19–23 Weiner SG, Griggs CA, Mitchell PM, et al. Clinician impression versus prescription drug monitoring program criteria in the assessment of drug-seeking behavior in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 2013;62(4):281–9. Greenwood-Ericksen MB, Poon SJ, Nelson LS, Weiner SG, et al. Best Practices for Prescription Drug Monitoring Programs in the Emergency Department Setting: Results of an Expert Panel. Ann Emerg Med. 2016 Jun;67(6):755-764 Patanwala AE, Keim SM, Erstad BL. Intravenous opioids for severe acute pain in the emergency department. Ann Pharmacother 2010;44(11):1800–9. Bijur PE, Kenny MK, Gallagher EJ. Intravenous morphine at 0.1 mg/kg is not effective for controlling severe acute pain in the majority of patients. Ann Emerg Med 2005; 46:362–7. Birnbaum A, Esses D, Bijur PE, et al. Randomized double-blind placebo- controlled trial of two intravenous morphine dosages (0.10 mg/kg and 0.15 mg/kg) in emergency department patients with moderate to severe acute pain. Ann Emerg Med. 2007;49(4):445–53. Patanwala AE, Edwards CJ, Stolz L, et al. Should morphine dosing be weight based for analgesia in the emergency department? J Opioid Manag 2012; 8(1):51–5. Lvovschi V, Auburn F, Bonnet P, et al. Intravenous morphine titration to treat severe pain in the ED. Am J Emerg Med 2008;26:676–82. Chang AK, Bijur PE, Napolitano A, Lupow J, et al. Two milligrams i.v. hydromorphone is efficacious for treating pain but is associated with oxygen desaturation. J Opioid Manag. 2009 Mar-Apr;5(2):75-80. Sutter ME, Wintemute GJ, Clarke SO, et al. The changing use of intravenous opioids in an emergency department. West J Emerg Med 2015;16:1079-83. Miner JR, Kletti C, Herold M, et al. Randomized clinical trial of nebulized fentanyl citrate versus i.v. fentanyl citrate in children presenting to the emergency department with acute pain. Acad Emerg Med 2007;14:895–8. Furyk JS, Grabowski WJ, Black LH. Nebulized fentanyl versus intravenous morphine in children with suspected limb fractures in the emergency department: a randomized controlled trial. Emerg Med Australas 2009;21:203–9. Borland M, Jacobs I, King B, et al. A randomized controlled trial comparing intranasal fentanyl to intravenous morphine for managing acute pain in children in the emergency department. Ann Emerg Med 2007;49:335–40 Im DD, Jambaulikar GD, Kikut A, Gale J, Weiner SG. Brief Pain Inventory-Short Form: A New Method for Assessing Pain in the Emergency Department. Pain Med. 2020 Sep 11:ppnaa269. doi: 10.1093/pm/pnaa269. Epub ahead of print. PMID: 32918473. Mandel SE, Davis BA, Secic M. Patient Satisfaction and Benefits of Music Therapy Services to Manage Stress and Pain in the Hospital Emergency Department. J Music Ther. 2019 May 10;56(2):149-173. Piatka C, Beckett RD. Propofol for Treatment of Acute Migraine in the Emergency Department: A Systematic Review. Acad Emerg Med. 2020 Feb;27(2):148-160. Tzabazis A, Kori S, Mechanic J, Miller J, Pascual C, Manering N, Carson D, Klukinov M, Spierings E, Jacobs D, Cuellar J, Frey WH 2nd, Hanson L, Angst M, Yeomans DC. Oxytocin and Migraine Headache. Headache. 2017 May;57 Suppl 2:64-75. doi: 10.1111/head.13082. PMID: 28485846. Yeh YC, Reddy P. Clinical and economic evidence for intravenous acetaminophen. Pharmacotherapy 2012;32(6):559–79. Serinken M, Eken C, Turkcuer I, et al. Intravenous paracetamol versus morphine for renal colic in the emergency department: a randomised double-blinded controlled trial. Emerg Med J 2012;29(11):902–5. Wright JM, Price SD, Watson WA. NSAID use and efficacy in the emergency department: single doses of oral ibuprofen versus intramuscular ketorolac. Ann Pharmacother 1994;28(3):309–12. Turturro MA, Paris PM, Seaberg DC. Intramuscular ketorolac versus oral ibuprofen in acute musculoskeletal pain. Ann Emerg Med 1995;26(2):117–20. Catapano MS. The analgesic efficacy of ketorolac for acute pain [review]. J Emerg Med 1996;14(1):67–75 Dillard JN, Knapp S. Complementary and alternative pain therapy in the emergency department. Emerg Med Clin North Am 2005; 23:529–549. Hoffman BM, Papas RK, Chatkoff DK, Kerns RD. Meta-analysis of psychological interventions for chronic low back pain. Health Psychol 2007;26:1–9. Eisenhart AW, Gaeta TJ, Yens DP. Osteopathic manipulative treatment in the emergency department for patients with acute ankle injuries. J Am Osteopath Assoc 2003;103:417–421.

Meet Jeanine McManus: Jeanine will talk about her initial nursing experiences as a travel nurse including her time spent at Bethesda Naval Hospital, her 11 years of volunteering during summers at the iconic Hole In The Wall Gang Camp, and finally putting her roots down at Children's Hospital here in Boston. Jeanine is a Procedural Nurse who specializes in Procedural Sedation with pediatric cancer patients who mainly are being treated for blood cancers or brain tumors. Support the show (http://danafarber.jimmyfund.org/goto/pediatricpodcast)

Dr. Maxim Ben-Yakov and Dr. Maala Bhatt discuss emergency procedural sedation in children. They cover safety, protocol, sedative agents, recommendations around fasting for this emergency procedure and more. Dr. Maala Bhatt is an emergency physician and the director of emergency research at the Children’s Hospital of Eastern Ontario in Ottawa and also associate professor at the University of Ottawa. Dr. Maxim Ben-Yakov is assistant professor of pediatrics and medicine at the University of Toronto and an emergency physician in Toronto. Their practice article is published in CMAJ: www.cmaj.ca/lookup/doi/10.1503/cmaj.200332 ----------------------------------- This podcast is brought to you by Health Match BC, a free health professional recruitment service funded by the Government of British Columbia. Health Match BC is currently recruiting for physicians of all specialties on behalf of BC's publicly funded health employers. Visit www.healthmatchbc.org for more information and to speak with one of the recruitment consultants. ----------------------------------- This podcast episode is brought to you by Audi Canada. The Canadian Medical Association has partnered with Audi Canada to offer CMA members a preferred incentive on select vehicle models. Purchase any new qualifying Audi model and receive an additional cash incentive based on the purchase type. Details of the incentive program can be found at www.audiprofessional.ca. ----------------------------------- Subscribe to CMAJ Podcasts on Apple Podcasts, iTunes, Google Play, Stitcher, Overcast, Instacast, or your favourite aggregator. You can also follow us directly on our SoundCloud page or you can visit www.cmaj.ca/page/multimedia/podcasts.

Hey all you cats and kittens, happy April,   I hope you all are finding some rest and balance during this uncertain time. Please know that what you do is greatly appreciated by those around you.    This month continues with the awesome peer review by Drs. Clay Josephy and Mike McLaughlin. If you didn’t listen to last month’s episode, you need to so you can hear all the many ways they appropriately use sedation. Clay and Mike continue to put us in our place this month as they discuss their favorite sedative, including some stuff we glossed over.    Thank you guys for your expertise and for all you do,   The AZEMCast Team  Email: aleetch@aemrc.arizona.edu Twitter: @arizonaemcast   https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/arizona-emcast/id685439303?mt=2 https://azemcast.podbean.com/feed/

Well, it's March, everyone! Since there is nothing but COVID-19 coverage everywhere you look, we at AZEMCast are going to do the opposite. We are going to finish the marathon procedural sedation coverage we started last year with a TWO-PART Peer Review from Drs. Clay Josephy and Dr. Mike McLaughlin. We are not covering COVID-19 for several reasons. Partially to give you something different. Partially because we already have this recorded. But mostly because we know NOTHING about COVID-19 worth recording.  Keep your heads up! The AZEMCast Team  Email: aleetch@aemrc.arizona.edu Twitter: @arizonaemcast   https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/arizona-emcast/id685439303?mt=2 https://azemcast.podbean.com/feed/

Happy October everyone! You know the EM stereotype about adrenaline junkies who love taking risks and shooting from the hip? Apparently, that kind of behavior can get you in trouble. Who knew? And when it comes to procedural sedation, it can get your patient in trouble. Safety is a huge concern with ED procedural sedation because it's easy to put a patient to sleep. The hard part is making sure they wake up. Several years ago ACEP came out with a clinical policy on procedural sedation to ensure that we not only keep our privilege to do sedation but that we show we can do it right. So this month, we comb through that policy and tell you everything you need to be certain you are prepped and ready to sedate. The AZEMCast Team  Email: aleetch@aemrc.arizona.edu Twitter: @arizonaemcast   https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/arizona-emcast/id685439303?mt=2 https://azemcast.podbean.com/feed/

Happy September everyone! As the days get shorter and pumpkin spice infiltrates every part of our lives, we decided to talk about the closest thing we get to do in the ED to be master bakers and chefs: procedural sedation. A cup of propofol, a dollop of ketamine and a pinch of fentanyl all added to a heavy base of pre-procedure safety checklists is the perfect receipt for a happy, sleepy patient who will never remember the awful things we discussed regarding abscesses over the summer. Sedations are fun if done well. Done poorly, they're like pumpkin-spiced Spam (real product, can't make this stuff up). So we're starting from the beginning with the why, the who and the how on procedural sedation in the ED. The AZEMCast Team  Email: aleetch@aemrc.arizona.edu Twitter: @arizonaemcast   https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/arizona-emcast/id685439303?mt=2 https://azemcast.podbean.com/feed/  

Caring for kids in the ED can be challenging - they often can’t (or won’t) tell you what’s wrong or where it hurts; they may have trouble sitting still during an exam or procedure; and their screams put everyone on edge. But let’s think about it from their perspective. It must be pretty confusing and frightening at times. Did you ever have to go to the ED as a kid? Do you remember what it was like? We ask some kids to share their thoughts and experiences. Then we get some valuable tips from the experts - Child Life Specialists, Pediatric ED Nurses, and Pediatric Emergency Medicine Physicians, including our own Dr. Julia Magaña. Learn what you can do to improve the ED experience for both you and your young patients. What tips do you have for taking care of kids in the ED? Did you try any of the things we mentioned in this episode? If so, did they work for you? We want to know! Share your thoughts on social media, @empulsepodcast, or on our website, ucdavisem.com.  Hosts: Dr. Julia Magaña, Assistant Professor of Pediatric Emergency Medicine at UC Davis Dr. Sarah Medeiros, Assistant Professor of Emergency Medicine at UC Davis Guests: The kids: Isa, Jordan, Benny, Katelyn, Wesley and Elia UC Davis Department of Emergency Medicine Child Life Specialists, Nurses and Pediatric Emergency Medicine Physicians. Resources: DistrACTION Cards that Julia mentioned Information and protocols for using intranasal medications at www.intranasal.net Wong-Baker FACES pain scale FLACC Score for pain in infants ACEP Guidelines for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in the Emergency Department (2013) An Evidence-Based Approach to Minimizing Acute Procedural Pain in the Emergency Department and Beyond. Ali S, McGrath T, Drendel AL. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2016 Jan;32(1):36-42; quiz 43-4. doi: 10.1097/PEC.0000000000000669. Review. Patient- and family-centered care of children in the emergency department. Dudley N, Ackerman A, Brown KM, Snow SK; American Academy of Pediatrics Committee on Pediatric Emergency Medicine; American College of Emergency Physicians Pediatric Emergency Medicine Committee; Emergency Nurses Association Pediatric Committee. Pediatrics. 2015 Jan;135(1):e255-72. doi: 10.1542/peds.2014-3424. Ten Practical Ways to Make Your ED Practice Less Painful and More Child-Friendly Amy L.DrendelDO, MS*SaminaAliMDCM, Clinical Pediatric Emergency Medicine Volume 18, Issue 4, December 2017, Pages 242-255 ********************************************************* Ski and CME! Join us for the UC Davis Emergency Medicine Winter Conference, March 4th-8th at the Ritz Carlton in Lake Tahoe. Thank you to the UC Davis Department of Emergency Medicine for supporting this podcast and to Orlando Magaña at OM Audio Productions for audio production services.

This updated episode of CRACKCast cover’s Rosen’s Chapter 004, Procedural Sedation and Analgesia (9th Ed.).

This updated episode of CRACKCast cover’s Rosen’s Chapter 004, Procedural Sedation and Analgesia (9th Ed.).

Evaluating Patient-Centered Outcomes in Clinical Trials of Procedural Sedation, Part 2 Safety: Sedation Consortium on Endpoints and Procedures for Treatment, Education, and Research Recommendations

Join the EMGuideWire team as they discuss the basics of successful procedural sedation. Explore the various medication options that can keep our patients comfortable.

In this video, Dr. Kamat, Director of Children’s Sedation Services at Children’s Hospital of Atlanta, explains the changing landscape of pediatric anesthesiology, the growing involvement of pediatric intensivists, and provides a forecast for the future of pediatric sedation. Please visit: http://www.openpediatrics.orgOPENPediatrics™ is an interactive digital learning platform for healthcare clinicians sponsored by Boston Children’s Hospital and in collaboration with the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies. It is designed to promote the exchange of knowledge between healthcare providers around the world caring for critically ill children in all resource settings. The content includes internationally recognized experts teaching the full range of topics on the care of critically ill children. All content is peer-reviewed and open access-and thus at no expense to the user. For further information on how to enroll, please email: openpediatrics@childrens.harvard.edu

  Author: Sam Killian, MD Educational Pearls:   Recent study examining fasting and adverse events during procedural sedation found no association between fasting duration and any type of adverse event. Of the 6,183 children in the study, about 6 vomited during the procedure, and about 300 vomited recently after the procedure, and there were no episodes of aspiration.   References Bhatt, M, et al.  (2018). Association of Preprocedural Fasting With Outcomes of Emergency Department Sedation in Children. JAMA Pediatrics, doi: 10.1001/jamapediatrics.2018.0830. [Epub ahead of print]

In this video, Dr. Eric Fleegler reviews pediatric sedation and analgesia. Please visit: http://www.openpediatrics.org OPENPediatrics™ is an interactive digital learning platform for healthcare clinicians sponsored by Boston Children’s Hospital and in collaboration with the World Federation of Pediatric Intensive and Critical Care Societies. It is designed to promote the exchange of knowledge between healthcare providers around the world caring for critically ill children in all resource settings. The content includes internationally recognized experts teaching the full range of topics on the care of critically ill children. All content is peer-reviewed and open access-and thus at no expense to the user. For further information on how to enroll, please email: openpediatrics@childrens.harvard.edu

Post-anesthesia negative behavioral changes in children are well documented in surgical and anesthesia literature, and these changes can last for days to weeks. It is not known if this is true for children receiving procedural sedation in the emergency department. We speak with Dr Jean Pearce about her her study was to evaluate the proportion of pediatric patients who experience negative post-discharge behaviors in the 1-2 weeks after procedural sedation for fracture reduction in the emergency department, and to determine predictors of negative post-discharge behaviors among study subjects. 

Learn about the intricacies of sedation with Drs. Jessica Kanis and Dan Slubowski

Today, we're going to build on our last lecture regarding anterior shoulder dislocations. If you missed it, you can watch that here: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xihtc7UfcDQ&list=PLU4UKgzxXhWma3ryfYvX5tp1WvTO5Vfiy&index=4 Last week we touched on reducing the shoulder without sedation. But, truth is, there will be times where you will need to sedate the patient to properly reduce the shoulder. Some instances include: 1. The procedure is too painful for the patient 2. Really muscular individuals 3. Patient is too tense to reduce without sedation So, let's talk about how to safely and effectively sedate your patient. - Subscribe to our YouTube here: http://www.youtube.com/subscription_center?add_user=paboards Follow us on Instagram here: https://www.instagram.com/paboards and https://www.instagram.com/pance_panre_usmle_review/ - Ace your exams: https://learn.physicianassistantboards.com/collections - Have questions about this podcast? Email gray@physicianassistantboards.com

Reuben Strayer, MD Courtesy of Reuben Strayer, MD Emergency Medicine Physician who works in New York City Author of emupdates.com One of the authors of painandspa.org Twitter @emupdates Created the phrase "ketamine brain continuum" No financial disclosure     Ready to continue your Special K Trip? Today's episode is Part 2 out of a 3-part series and will cover the use of ketamine for procedural sedation and intubations in the ED with Reuben Strayer, MD. If you didn't listen to Reuben talk about ketamine, the safety measures of ketamine, or confused by this graphic with different dosing - go back and listen to Episode 7 for Part 1 where this is explained in detail.   Ketamine for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia (PSA) Prep Your Patient Therapeutic Communication - let your patient have whatever fantasy they want and encourage it! Any fantasy can be a reality with ketamine...seriously. If they are in so much pain that they are already freaking out and you're not doing your procedure you can give opioids to help calm them down - but remember, ketamine is a powerful analgesia as well...you can always keep them dissociative for a longer duration of time. Situation dependent. Administer your ketamine dosage diluted in Normal Saline and give it slow...best method to prevent psychiatric disturbance. Prep Yourself Place patient on continuous telemonitoring and pulse oximetry Bonus points: CO2 monitoring Airway capable Doctor Watch respirations and breathing closely May have periods of apnea Prevent apnea by administering ketamine slowly (approx. 2 minutes diluted or diluted in Normal Saline 50/100mL over a longer period of time) Expect apnea if you administer ketamine as a fast IV push bolus (1-2 seconds) Patient may still have apnea - MD must know maneuvers to open airway (head position, jaw thrust, BVM, intubation) Nasal Cannula on patient - turn on oxygen as needed I like to have everything connected even if the oxygen is turned off NRM on standby Airway Cart, BVM, and Intubation Kit on standby Suction on standby Nurse who is dedicated to monitor sedation - lots of paperwork and frequent monitoring including watching those respirations! Consent PSA Ketamine Dose Reuben gives a dissociative dose (Ketamine 1-1.5mg/kg). You can get away with giving an analgesic dose but if a patient comes in with a bad fracture - give the dissociative dose and have propofol on hand to counter ketamine's side effects. Ketamine can be used as monotherapy for PSA. Propofol - to counter ketamine's effects (HTN, muscle rigidity, psychiatric emergence, etc.) Draw up in separate syringe. Administer in 20/30/40mg IV pushes as needed Ketofol - Effective but you are not dosing propofol separately. What is it? Ketamine and propofol drawn up in single syringe and administered at the same time. Always Treat Psychiatric Disturbance As your patient metabolizes the ketamine, your patient may "freak out" or have a psychiatric emergence and you must always treat it. It's inhumane to not ignore it and let the patient "ride it out." Use conventional medications to treat: propofol, midazolam, haloperidol, droperidol (if you can get your hands on it) Post PSA Ketamine Pearls NPO until fully alert. Don't stimulate patient prematurely. Minimal noise and minimal physical contact. Nurse with patient entire time monitoring patient until fully alert. Ketamine for Rapid Sequence Intubation (RSI) Okay to use for polytrauma or head trauma (ICP) patients. Has neuroprotective properties - good for ICP/head trauma patients. Induction agent independent from paralytic - doesn't matter if you use rocuronium or succinylcholine - but we are fans of rocuronium for RSIs in the ED. Roc Rocks vs. Sux Sucks -LITFL Extra Ketamine in your syringe? Can use like a push dose pressor while setting up post intubation drips.

This week we drop into some of the nitty gritty on PSA including preparation and patient assessment as well as discuss some common pitfalls. https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Episode_106_0_Final_Cut.m4a Download Leave a Comment Tags: Pitfalls, Procedural Sedation, PSA Show Notes Take Home Points Always perform a full pre-PSA evaluation including an airway assessment. Time of last meal shouldn’t delay your sedation based on the best available evidence. Always do a complete setup including consideration of different agents, dosage calculations, preparation of airway equipment and reversal agents. PSA serious adverse events are rare but you still must be prepared for them. Careful agent selection and dosing can help prevent issues but, know your outs. If apnea develops, do some basic maneuvers before you reach for the BVM or laryngoscope. Remember OOPS as in “oops, my patient went apneic.” Oxygen on, pull the mandible forward and sit the patient up. This fixes most issues Show Notes Core EM: Procedural Sedation and Analgesia Resources EM Updates:E...

This week we drop into some of the nitty gritty on PSA including preparation and patient assessment as well as discuss some common pitfalls. https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Episode_106_0_Final_Cut.m4a Download Leave a Comment Tags: Pitfalls, Procedural Sedation, PSA Show Notes Take Home Points Always perform a full pre-PSA evaluation including an airway assessment. Time of last meal shouldn't delay your sedation based on the best available evidence. Always do a complete setup including consideration of different agents, dosage calculations, preparation of airway equipment and reversal agents. PSA serious adverse events are rare but you still must be prepared for them. Careful agent selection and dosing can help prevent issues but, know your outs. If apnea develops, do some basic maneuvers before you reach for the BVM or laryngoscope. Remember OOPS as in “oops, my patient went apneic.” Oxygen on, pull the mandible forward and sit the patient up. This fixes most issues Show Notes Core EM: Procedural Sedation and Analgesia Resources EM Updates:

This week we dive into the various common agents used in procedural sedation and analgesia in the ED. https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Episode_104_0_Final_Cut.m4a Download 2 Comments Tags: Anesthesia, Critical Care, Procedural Sedation, PSA Show Notes Show Notes Core EM : Parenteral Benzodiazepines Core EM: Procedural Sedation and Analgesia Resources EM Updates: Ketamine Brain Continuum First 10 EM: Managing laryngospasm in the emergency department Read More

This week we dive into the various common agents used in procedural sedation and analgesia in the ED. https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Episode_104_0_Final_Cut.m4a Download 2 Comments Tags: Anesthesia, Critical Care, Procedural Sedation, PSA Show Notes Show Notes Core EM : Parenteral Benzodiazepines Core EM: Procedural Sedation and Analgesia Resources EM Updates: Ketamine Brain Continuum First 10 EM: Managing laryngospasm in the emergency department Read More

This podcast is taken from a talk I gave at Grand Rounds at The Bristol Royal Infirmary on the Top 10 Papers in EM over the last 12 months. Many of these have been covered in previous podcasts, but running through them gives a good opportunity for further recap and reflection. Papers Covered; Chest wall thickness and decompression failure: A systematic review and meta-analysis comparing anatomic locations in needle thoracostomy. Laan DV1. Injury. 2015 Dec 13. pii: S0020-1383(15)00768-8. doi: 10.1016/j.injury.2015.11.045. [Epub ahead of print] (more in February'sPapers of the month) Platelet transfusion versus standard care after acute stroke due to spontaneous cerebral haemorrhage associated with antiplatelet therapy (PATCH): a randomised, open-label, phase 3 trial. Baharoglu MI. Lancet.2016 May 9. pii: S0140-6736(16)30392-0. doi: 10.1016/S0140-6736(16)30392-0. [Epub ahead of print] (more in July's Papers of the month) Causes of Elevated Cardiac Troponins in the Emergency Department and Their Associated Mortality. Meigher S. Acad Emerg Med. 2016 (more in our Troponins podcast) Propofol or Ketofol for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in Emergency Medicine-The POKER Study: A Randomized Double-Blind Clinical Trial. Ferguson I, et al. Ann Emerg Med. 2016. (more in September's Paper's of the month) Prevalence of Pulmonary Embolism among Patients Hospitalized for Syncope. Prandoni P. N Engl J Med. 2016 (more in our podcast PE The Controversy) Association Between Tracheal Intubation During Adult In-Hospital Cardiac Arrest and Survival. Andersen LW. JAMA. 2017 (more in March's Papers of the month) Review article: Why is there still a debate regarding the safety and efficacy of intravenous thrombolysis in the management of presumed acute ischaemic stroke? A systematic review and meta-analysis. Donaldson L. Emerg Med Australas. 2016 Aug 25 (more in our Stroke Thrombolysis podcast) Prophylactic hydration to protect renal function from intravascular iodinated contrast material in patients at high risk of contrast-induced nephropathy (AMACING): a prospective, randomised, phase 3, controlled, open-label, non-inferiority trial. Nijssen EC. Lancet. 2017 (more in April's Papers podcast) Immediate total-body CT scanning versus conventional imaging and selective CT scanning in patients with severe trauma (REACT-2): a randomised controlled trial. Sierink JC. Lancet. 2016 Jun 28 (more in August's Papers podcast) Accuracy of point-of-care focused echocardiography in predicting outcome of resuscitation in cardiac arrest patients: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Tsou PY. Resuscitation. 2017  (more coming up in May's Papers podcast!) Enjoy and we'll be back with our papers of the month next week! Simon  

Procedural sedation is one of the core procedures in Emergency Medicine. You WILL see this during your clerkship Common Scenarios Cardioversion Orthopedic reductions Painful procedures Three Step Approach to Procedural Sedation Step 1: Risk stratify the patient Mallampati score (aka “How visible is the uvula?”) Level 1: Can visualize THE WHOLE uvula Level 2: Can […]

One of the most common procedures we do in the emergency department is procedural sedation. One doctor does the primary procedure, one doctor pushes meds and watches airway. There are 5 common medications that I have seen used in the ED. We will cover these as well as the general approach today.

N.B.: This month's show notes are a departure from the usual summary.  Below is a reprint (with permission) of a soon-to-be released chapter, Horeczko T. "Acute Pain in Children". In Management of Pain and Procedural Sedation in Acute Care. Strayer R, Motov S, Nelson L (eds). 2017.  Rather than the customary blog post summary, the full chapter (with links) is provided as a virtual reference. INTRODUCTION Pain is multifactorial: it is comprised of physical, psychological, emotional, cultural, and contextual features.  In children often the predominant feature may not be initially apparent.  Although clinicians may focus on the physical component of pain, much time, energy, and suffering can be saved through a holistic approach.  What is the age and developmental stage of the child?  How is the child reacting to his condition?  What are the circumstances?  What is the family or caregiver dynamic? We rely much on how patients and families interact with us to gauge pain.  Assessing and managing children’s pain can be challenging, because they may not exhibit typically recognized signs and symptoms (Srouji 2010).  Further, children participate in and absorb their family’s culture and specific personality from a very young age (Finley 2009).  Knowing the context of the episode may help.  For example, a very anxious caregiver can easily transmit his or her anxiety to the child, which may either inhibit or amplify presentation of symptoms (Bearden 2012). The guiding principles in pediatric pain assessment and management are: know the child; know the family; and know the physiology.  Children have long suffered from an under-treatment of their pain, due both to our incomplete acknowledgement of their pain and our fear of treatment (Howard 2003).  As the pendulum on pain management swings one way or the other, do not let your pediatric patient get knocked by the wayside.  Take a thoughtful approach: know the signs and symptoms, and aggressively treat and reassess. ASSESSMENT Each stage of development offers a unique framework to the child’s signs and symptoms of pain.  In pre-verbal children, use your observational skills in addition to the parent’s report of behavior.  Verbal children can self-report; younger children require pictorial descriptions, while older children and adolescents may use standard adult scales.  In all ages, ask open-ended questions and allow the child to report and speak for himself whenever possible. Neonates Neonates are a unique group in pain assessment.  The neonate (birth to one month of age) has not yet acquired social expression of pain, and his nascent nervous system is only now learning to process it.  Do not expect typical pain behaviors in neonates.  Facial grimacing is a weak indicator of pain in neonates (Liebelt 2000).  When this behavior is present, look for a furrowed brow, eyes squeezed shut, and a vertically open mouth.  Tachycardia, tachypnea, and a change in behavior can be indicators not only to the presence of pain, but possibly to its etiology as well. Neonatal observational scales have been validated in the intensive care and post-operative settings; ED-specific quantitative scales are lacking.  CRIES is a 10-point scale, using a physiologic basis similar to APGAR: Crying; Requires increased oxygen administration (distress and breath-holding); Increased vital signs; Expression; and Sleeplessness (Krechel 1995).  CRIES (Table 1) was validated for post-operative patients; to adapt its use for the ED, the most conservative approach is to substitute “preoperative baseline” with normal range for age.  Although the numerical values of CRIES have not been validated to date in the ED, the clinician may find the domains included in CRIES to be a useful cognitive construct in assessing neonatal pain. Neonatal pain pathways are particularly plastic; prompt assessment of and increased alertness to neonatal pain may help to mitigate long-lived pain sensitivity and hyperalgesia (Taddio 2002).  In other words, treat the neonate’s pain seriously, as you may save him long-term pain sequelae in the future. Infants and Toddlers This group will begin to exhibit more reproducible, reliable signs and symptoms of pain. For infants of less than one year of age, the Neonatal Infant Pain Scale (NIPS) uses observational and physiologic parameters to detect pain (Table 2).  A score of 0-2 indicates no pain present.  A score of 3-4 indicates mild to moderate pain; non-pharmacologic techniques may be tried first.  A score of 5 or greater indicates severe pain; some pharmacologic intervention is indicated (Lawrence 1993). For children greater than one year who are preverbal, a well performing scale is the FLACC score: Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability (Table 3). Contextual and caregiver features predominate in this group.  Frequent reassessments are helpful, as the initial trepidation and fright in triage may not accurately reflect the child’s overall pain status. Preschool and School-age children Increasing language development offers the hope of more information to the clinician, but be careful not to ask leading questions.  Do not jump directly to “does this hurt?”.  Preschoolers will say ‘yes’ to anything, in an attempt to please you.  School-age children may passively affirm your “statement”, if only to validate their human need for care or attention.  Start with some ice-breaking banter, lay down the foundations for rapport, and then ask open-ended questions.  Be careful not to allow the caregiver to “instruct” the child to tell you where it hurts, how much, how often, etc.  Rather, engage the parents by asking them what behavior they have noticed.  Eliciting history from both the child and the parent will go a long way in constructing a richer picture of the etiology and severity of the pain, and will help to build rapport and trust. The Baker-Wong FACES Pain Rating scale (Figure 1) was developed with feedback from children and has been validated for use in those 3 years of age and older (Keck 1996, Tomlinson 2010). Adolescents Adolescents vary in their development, maturity, and coping mechanisms.  You may see a mixture of childhood and adult behaviors in the same patient; e.g. he may be initially stoic or evades questioning, then later exhibits pseudo-inconsolability.  Do what you can to see the visit from the adolescent’s perspective, and actively transmit your concern and intention to help – many will respond to a warm, open, non-judgemental, and helpful attitude.  The overly “tough” adolescent is likely secretly fearful, and the “dramatic” adolescent may simply be very anxious.  Take a moment to gauge the background behind the presentation. You may use the typical adult scale of 0 (no pain) to 10 (worst pain), or the Faces Pain Scale–Revised (FPS-R).  The FPS-R uses more neutral and realistic faces and, unlike the Wong Baker scale, does not use smiling or crying faces to anchor the extremes of pain (Tsze 2013). PAIN PHYSIOLOGY Pain includes two major components: generation and perception.  Generation of pain involves the actual propagation of painful stimuli, either through nociceptive pain or neuropathic pain.  Nociceptive pain arises from free nerve endings responding to tissue damage or inflammation. Nociceptive pain follows a specific sequence: transduction (an action potential triggered by chemical mediators in the tissue, such as prostaglandins, histamine, bradykinin, and substance P); transmission (the movement of the action potential signal along the nerve fibers to the spinal cord); perception (the impulse travels up the spinothalamic tract to the thalamus and midbrain, where input is splayed out to the limbic system, somatosensory cortex, and parietal and frontal lobes); and modulation (the midbrain enlists endorphins, enkephalins, dynorphin, and serotonin to mitigate pain) (Pasero 2011).  As clinicians we can target specific “stations” along the pain route to target the signal more effectively. Simple actions such as ice, elevation, local anesthetics, or splinting help in pain transduction.  Various standard oral, intranasal, or IV analgesics may help with pain’s transmission. Non-pharmacologic techniques such as distraction, re-framing, and others can help with pain perception.  The sum of these efforts encourage pain modulation. A phenomenon separate from nociceptive pain is neuropathic pain, the abnormal processing of pain stimuli.  It is a dysregulated, chaotic process that is difficult to manage in any setting.  Separating nociceptive from neuropathic symptoms may help to select specific pain treatments and to clarify treatment goals and expectations. Neonates Neonates are exquisitely sensitive to many analgesics.  Hepatic enzymes are immature and exhibit decreased clearance and prolonged circulating levels of the drug administered.  Once the pain is controlled, less frequent administration of medications, with frequent reassessments, are indicated. The neonate’s vital organs (brain, heart, viscera) make up a larger proportion of his body mass than do muscle and fat.  That is to say, the volume of distribution is unique in a neonate.  Water-soluble drugs (e.g. morphine) reach these highly perfused vital organs quickly; relatively small overdosing will have rapid and exaggerated central nervous system and cardiac effects.  The neonate’s small fat stores and muscle mass limit the volume of distribution of lipophilic medications (e.g. fentanyl, meperidine), also making them more available to the central nervous system, and therefore more potent.  Other factors that predispose neonates to accidental analgesic overdose are their decreased concentrations of albumin and other plasma proteins, causing a higher proportion of unbound drug.  Renal clearance is also decreased in the first few months of life. Clinical note: in the ED, neonates often require analgesia for procedures more than for injury.  Non-pharmacologic techniques predominate (see below).  Make liberal use of local anesthetics such as eutectic mixture of local anesthetics (EMLA; for intact skin, e.g. IV access, lumbar puncture) and lidocaine-epinephrine-tetracaine gel (LET; for superficial open skin and soft tissue application).  Oral sucrose (30%) solutions (administered either with a small-volume syringe or pacifier frequently dipped in solution) are effective for minor procedures (Harrison 2010, Stevens 2013) via the release of dopamine and through distraction by mechanical means.  Neonates with severe pain may be managed with parenteral analgesics, on a monitor, and with caution. Infants and Toddlers With increasing body mass comprised of fat stores in conjunction with an increase in metabolism, this group will require a different approach than the neonate.  For many medications, these children will have a greater weight-normalized clearance than adults (Berde 2002).  They will often require more frequent dosing.  Infants and toddlers have a larger functioning liver mass per kilogram of body weight, with implications for medications cleared by cytochrome p-450. Clinical note: some drugs, such as benzodiazepines, will have both a per-kilogram dosing as well as an age-specific modification.  When giving analgesics or anxiolytics to young children, always consult a reference for proper dosing and frequency. School-age children and Adolescents This group retains some hyper-metabolic features of younger children, but the dose-effect relationship is more linear and transparent.  Physiologic clearance is improved, and from a physical standpoint, these are typically lower-risk children.  From a psychological standpoint, this group may need more non-pharmacologic consideration and support to modulate pain optimally. NON-PHARMACOLOGIC TREATMENT The first line of treatment in all pain management is non-pharmacopeia (Horeczko 2016).  Not only is this the safest of all techniques, but often the most effective.  Some are simple comfort measures such as splinting (fracture or sprain), applying cold (acute soft tissue injury) or heat (non-traumatic, non-specific pain), or other targeted non-pharmacology. Many a pain control regimen is sabotaged without consideration of non-pharmacologic techniques, which may augment, or at times replace, analgesics.  Think of non-pharmacopoeia as your “base coat” or “primer” before applying additional coats of analgesic treatment.  With the right base coat foundation, you have a better chance of painting a patient’s symptoms a more tolerable and long-lasting new color. A tailored approach based on age will allow the practitioner to employ a child’s developmental strengths and avoid the frustration that results in asking the child to do what he is not capable of doing.  A brief review of Piaget’s stages of development will help to meet the child at his developmental stage for best effect (Piaget 1928, Sheppard 1977) during acute painful presentations and minor procedures. Sensorimotor stage (from birth to age 2): Children use the five senses and movement to explore the world.  They are egocentric: they cannot see the world from another’s viewpoint.   At 6 to 9 months, object permanence is established: understanding that objects (or people) exist even without seeing them. Preoperational stage (from ages 2 to 7):  Children learn to use language.  Magical thinking predominates. They do not understand rational or logical thinking. Concrete operational stage (from age 7 to early adolescence): Children can use logic, but in a very straightforward, concrete manner (they do well with simple examples).  By this stage, they move from egocentrism to understanding another point of view.  N.B. Some children (and adults) never completely clear this stage. Formal operational stage (early adolescence to adult): children are capable of abstract thinking, rationalizing, and logical thinking. It is important to assess the child’s general level of development when preparing and guiding him through the minor procedure or distracting him until his pain is controlled.  It is not uncommon for acutely ill or injured to regress temporarily in their behavior (not their development) as a coping mechanism. Neonate and Infant (0-12 months) Involve the parent, and have the parent visible to the child at all times if possible.  Make advances slowly, in a non-threatening manner; limit the number of staff in the room.  Use soothing sensory measures: speak softly, offer a pacifier, and stroke the skin softly.  Swaddle the infant and encourage the parent to comfort him during and after the procedure.  Engage their developing sensorimotor skills to distract them. Toddler to Preschooler (1-5 years) Use the same techniques as for the infant, and add descriptions of what he will see, hear, and feel; you can use a doll or toy to demonstrate the procedure.  Use simple, direct language, and give calm, firm directions, one at a time.  Explain what you are doing just before doing it (do not allow too much time for fear or anxiety to take root).  Offer choices when appropriate; ignore temper tantrums.  Distraction techniques include storytelling, bright and flashy toys, blowing bubbles, pinwheels, or having another staff member play peek-a-boo across the room.  The ubiquitous smart phone with videos or games can be mesmerizing at this age. School age (6-12 years) Explain procedures using simple language and (briefly) the reason (understanding of bodily functions is vague in this age group).  Allow the child to ask questions, and involve him when possible or appropriate.  Distraction techniques may include electronic games, videos, guided imagery, and participation in the minor procedure as appropriate. Adolescent (13 and up) Use the same techniques for the school age child, but can add detail.  Encourage questioning.  Impose as few restrictions as possible – be flexible.  Expect more regression to childish coping mechanisms in this age group.  Distraction techniques include electronic games, video, guided imagery, muscle relaxation-meditation, and music (especially the adolescent’s own music, if available). APPLIED PHARMACOLOGY No amount of knowledge of the above physiology, pharmacology, or developmental theory will help your little patient in pain without a well constructed and enacted plan.  Aggressively search out and treat your pediatric patient’s presence and source of pain.  Frequent reassessments are important to ensure that breakthrough pain treatment is achieved, when re-administration is indicated, or when a change of plan is necessary.  This is the time to involve the parents or caregivers to let them know what the next steps are, and what to expect. Start with the least invasive modality and progress as needed.  After non-pharmacologic treatments such as splinting, ice, elevation, distraction, and guided imagery, have an escalation of care in mind (Figure 2). From a pharmacologic perspective, various options are available.  Your pain management plan will differ depending on whether a painful procedure is performed in the ED (Table 4).  Once pain is addressed, create a plan to keep it managed.  Consider the trajectory of illness and the expected time frame of the painful episode.  Include practicalities such as how well the pain may be controlled as an outpatient.  Poorly controlled pediatric pain is more often managed as an inpatient than the same condition in an adult.  Speak frankly with the parents about what drug is indicated for what type of pain and that treatment goals typically do not include absence of all pain, but function in face of the pain, in anticipation for clinical improvement. A special note on codeine: Tylenol with codeine (“T3”) has never been a very effective pain medication, as up to 10% of patients lack enzymatic activity to metabolize it into morphine, its active form (Crews 2014).  New evidence is emerging on the erratic and unpredictable individual metabolism of codeine.  Some children are ultra-rapid-metabolizers of codeine to morphine, causing a rapid “bolus” of the available drug, with respiratory depression and death in some cases (Ciszkowski 2009, Racoosin 2013).  Author’s advice: take codeine off your formulary. COMMON SCENARIOS Head and neck pain Most common non-traumatic head and neck complaints can be managed non-pharmacologically (e.g. headache: improved hydration, sleep, stress, nutrition) or with PO medications, such as NSAIDs.  The anti-inflammatory nature of ibuprofen (10 mg/kg PO q 4-6 h prn, up to adult dose) for example, will treat the cause as well as the symptoms of ear pain, sore throat, and muscular pain.  Ibuprofen may be more effective than acetaminophen (paracetamol) for odontogenic pain (Bailey 2013).  For most applications, acetaminophen may be as effective; however, the combination of both NSAIDs is not likely to be more effective than either agent individually (Merry 2013). True migraine headache may be treated with all of the above, and rescue therapy may include prochlorperamide (0.15 mg/kg IV, up to 10 mg ) (Brousseau 2004), often given with diphenhydramine (1 mg/kg PO or IV, up to 50 mg) and IV fluids.  Ketoralac (0.5 mg/kg IV, up to 10 mg) may be substituted for ibuprofen (Paniyot 2016).  Other specific therapies may be considered, although evidence for them varies. Chest pain After ruling out important pulmonary (e.g. the under-recognized spontaneous pneumothorax) and cardiac (e.g. pericarditis, myocarditis) etiologies, many chest complaints are amenable to NSAIDs.  There is often a large component of anxiety in the child and/or parents in chest pain; no amount of medication will assuage them without addressing their concerns as well. Abdominal pain Abdominal pain in children is challenging, as it is common, often benign, but may be disastrous if the etiology is missed.  For mild pain, consider acetaminophen as indicated (15 mg/kg/dose q 4-6 h prn, up to 650 mg).  The oral route is preferred, but intravenous acetaminophen is an option for patients unable to tolerate PO, or for those in whom the per rectum (PR) route is contraindicated (e.g. neutropenia) (Babl 2011, Dokko 2014).  For children with moderate to severe abdominal pain in whom a nil per os (NPO) status is ideal, consider rehydration/volume repletion, and small, frequent aliquots of a narcotic agent.  Surgical pain is not “erased” by opioids (Thomas 2003, Poonai 2014); treating pain improves specificity to certain surgical emergencies with retained diagnostic accuracy (Manterola 2007).  If there is inter-departmental concern about prolonged effects, sedation, limitation in the physical exam, or there is a need to “see if the pain will come back”, you may opt to use fentanyl initially for its shorter half-life.  More frequent re-assessments may help the surgical team in its deliberations.  Transition quickly to a longer-acting opioid as soon as possible. Long-bone injuries Fracture pain should be addressed immediately with splinting and analgesia.  Oral, intranasal, and intravenous routes are all acceptable, depending on the severity of the injury and symptoms. Intranasal (IN) medications offer the advantage of a fast onset for moderate-to-severe pain (Graudins 2015), either as monotherapy or as a bridge to parenteral treatment (Table 4).  The ideal volume of IN medication is 0.25 mL/naris, with a maximum of 1 mL/naris.  Common concentrations of fentanyl limit its mg/kg use to the school-aged child; intranasal ketamine may be used for pain (i.e. sub-dissociative dose) up to adult weight. Long-bone injuries are a good opportunity to employ a speedy modality that requires little technical skill in administration: nebulized fentanyl.  Clinically significant improvement in pain scales are achieved with 3 mcg/kg/dose of fentanyl administered via standard nebulizer in children 3 years of age or older (Miner 2007, Furyk 2009).  Nebulized fentanyl is a rapid, non-invasive alternative to the IN route for older children, adolescents, or adults, in whom the volume of IN medication would exceed the recommended per naris volume (Deaton 2015). Consider an aggressive, multi-modal approach to control symptom up front.  For example, for a simple forearm fracture, you may opt to give an oral opioid, perform a hematoma block, and offer inhaled nitrous oxide for reduction, rather than a formal intravenous procedural sedation (Luhmann 2006). Ultrasound-guided peripheral nerve blocks are a good pain control adjunct, after initial treatment, and in communication with referring consultants (Ganesh 2009, Suresh 2014). Skin and Soft tissue Skin and soft tissue injuries or abscesses often require solid non-pharmacopoeia in addition to local anesthetics.  For IV cannulation, consider EMLA if the patient is stable and a minor delay is acceptable. Topical ethyl chloride vapo-coolant offers transient pain relief due to rapid cooling and may be used just prior to an IV start (Farion 2008).  Try this: engage your young child’s imagination to distract him and say, “have you ever held a snow ball? You are in luck – it’s just like that – here, do you feel it?”. Vibratory adjuncts such as the “BUZZY” bee can be placed near the IV cannulation site to provide mechanical and cognitive distraction (Moadad 2016). Needleless lidocaine injectors may facilitate IV placement without obscuring the target vein (Spanos 2008, Lunoe 2015).  The medication is propelled into the dermis by a CO2 cartridge that makes a loud popping sound; try this to alleviate anxiety, just before using it: “your skin looks thirsty – it needs a drink – there you are!”. As with any minor procedure, when you tell the child what you are doing, be sure to do it right away.  Do not delay or build suspense. Lidocaine-epinephrine-tetracaine gel (LET) is used for open or mucosal wounds.  Apply as soon as possible in the visit.  The goal of LET is to pretreat the wound to allow for a painless administration of injectable anesthetic.  A common practice to apply LET two or three times at 15-minute intervals for deeper anesthesia, in an attempt to avoid injection altogether.  Researchers are currently working to offer an evidence base to this anecdotal practice. Pediatric burns should be assessed carefully and treated aggressively.  Submersion of the affected extremity in room-temperature water (if possible) or applying room-temperature saline-soaked gauze will both thwart ongoing thermal damage, soothe the wound, and provide foundational first-aid.  Minor burns can be treated topically and with oral medications.  Major burns require IN, IM, or IV analgesics with morphine.  Treatment may escalate to ketamine (Gandhi 2010), in analgesic or dissociative dosing, depending on the context.  Post-traumatic disorders are common in burns; effective pain management is ever-more important in these cases. SPECIFIC SCENARIOS The child with chronic medical problems Children with acute exacerbations of their chronic pain or episodic painful crises require special attention.  Some examples of children with recurring pain are those suffering from sickle cell disease, juvenile idiopathic arthritis, complex regional pain syndrome, and cancer.  Find out whether these symptoms and circumstances are typical for them, and what regimen has helped in the past.  Previous unpleasant experiences may prime these children with amplified anxiety and perception of pain (Cornelissen 2014).  Target the disease process and do your best to show the patient and his family you understand his condition and needs. An equally challenging scenario is the child with chronic pain.  Treat the entire patient with a multimodal approach.  Limit opioids as possible.  As an opioid-sparing strategy or as rescue therapy, consider sub-dissociative ketamine, especially for conditions such as sickle cell crisis, complex regional pain syndrome, autoimmune disorders, or chronic pain due to sub-acute trauma (Sheehy 2015). Intranasal ketamine may be used for sub-dissociative pain control at 0.5 – 1 mg/kg (Andolfatto 2013, Yeaman 2013).  Intravenous infusions of ketamine at 0.1 – 0.3 mg/kg/h may be initiated in the ED and continued 4 – 8 h/d, up to a maximum of 16 h total in 3 consecutive days (Sheehy 2015).  In vaso-occlusive episodes, dexmedetomidine has been shown to be an effective adjunct for severe pain poorly responsive to opioids and/or ketamine (Sheehy 2015b). The child with cognitive impairment Children with cognitive impairment such as those with various genetic or metabolic syndromes, or primary neurologic conditions such as some with cerebral palsy are a challenge to assess and treat properly.  These children not only cannot explain their symptoms, but they also have atypical expressions of pain.  Pain responses in severely intellectually disabled children include a full-blown smile (which may or may not accompany inappropriate laughter), stiffening, and non-cooperation (Hadden 2002).  Other observed behaviors include the freezing phenomenon, in which the child acutely feels the pain, and he abruptly pauses without moving his face for several seconds.  Look also for episodes of unexplained pallor, diaphoresis, breath-holding, and shrill vocalizations. The FLACC has been revised (r-FLACC) for children with cognitive impairment and appears to be reliable for acute care (Malviya 2006). The most distressing and perplexing presentation is the parent who brings his or her child with cognitive impairment for “fussiness”, “irritability”, or “I think he’s in pain”.  Often, this is after significant investigations have been performed, sometimes repeatedly.  Poorly controlled spasticity is an often under-appreciated cause of unexplained pain; treat not with opioids, but with GABA-receptor agonists, such as baclofen or benzodiazepines. Take special precautions in the administration of opioids or benzodiazepines in children with metabolic disorders (e.g. mitochondrial disease) or various syndromes (e.g. Trisomy 21).  They may have a disproportionate reaction to the medication.  Start with a low dose in these children and reassess frequently, titrating in small aliquots as needed. After careful, meticulous investigation in the ED to rule out occult infection, trauma, electrolyte imbalance, or surgical causes, the child with cognitive impairment who continues to be symptomatic despite ED treatment may be admitted for observation.  However, in some cases, the addition of gabapentin to the typical regimen has been shown to manage unexplained irritability in these children (Hauer 2007) by treating visceral hyperalgesia. Multi-trauma The child with multi-trauma is in need of meticulous critical care.  Frequent assessments of pain analgesic response (typically via the intravenous route) are necessary to gauge the child’s trajectory.  Unexplained tachycardia may be the early signs of shock.  Without controlling the child’s pain, it is difficult to distinguish the extreme tachycardia from pain or from blood loss.  If intubated, control the pain first with a fentanyl drip, then use a sedative in addition as needed to keep him comfortable. The child under palliative care Children undergoing palliative care require a multidisciplinary approach.  This includes engaging the patient’s car team as well as “treating” members of the patient’s family.  Examples include the natural course of devastating chromosomal, neurologic, and other congenital conditions; terminal cancer; and trauma, among others (Michelson 2007).  Family dynamics and family members’ needs are often overlooked; the family as a whole must be considered.  Focus on the productive and beneficial treatments that can be offered.  Treat pain promptly, but speak with the parents about end-of-life goals as early as possible, as any analgesic or sedative may have an untoward effect.  You do not want to be caught in the position of potentially precipitously providing cardiopulmonary resuscitation in a child undergoing palliative care, because of a lack of understanding of how increasingly large doses of pain medications can affect breathing and circulation (AAP 2000). Children with ongoing opioid requirements may present not so much with an exacerbation of their chronic pain, but a complication of its treatment.  Identify, assess and aggressively treat constipation, nausea and vomiting, pruritus, and urinary retention (Friedrichsdorf 2007); treating side-effects of pain management may be just as important for quality of life as treating the pain itself. PEARLS AND PITFALLS IN PEDIATRIC PAIN Allow the child to speak for himself whenever possible.  After acknowledging the parent’s input, perhaps try “I want to make sure I understand how the pain is for you.  Tell me more.” Engage parents and communicate the plan to them.  Elicit their expectations, and give them of preview of what to expect in the ED. Opioids are meant for pain caused by acute tissue injury, for the briefest period of time feasible.  Older school-aged children and adolescents are increasingly at risk for opioid dependence and addiction. Premature infants present a challenge in pain control.  Their pain is under-recognized, as they often display atypical responses to painful stimuli.  Treatment is equally difficult, as they are particularly sensitive to analgesia-sedation.  This is important, as this group is even more likely to undergo painful procedures due to their higher-risk status. Give detailed advice on how to manage pain at home.  Set expectations.  Let them know you understand and will help them through your good advice that will carry them through this difficult time.  Patients and families often just need a plan.  Map it out clearly. SUMMARY In pediatric acute pain, know the child; know the family; and know the physiology. Use your observational skills enhanced with collateral information to assess and reassess for pain in children. Treat pediatric pain well and often. Failure to address the child’s pain has long-lasting consequences. Non-pharmacologic treatments for all, pharmacologic treatments for many. A multi-modal approach is the most effective. Neonates, infants and toddlers, and school-aged children and adolescents exhibit specific physiology in expression of pain and in response to treatment. Tailor your regimen to your young patient’s physiologic pitfalls and needs. References American Academy of Pediatrics. Committee on Bioethics and Committee on Hospital Care. Palliative care for children. Pediatrics. 2000 Aug;106(2 Pt 1):351-7. Andolfatto G, Willman E, Joo D, Miller P, Wong WB, Koehn M, Dobson R, Angus E, Moadebi S. Intranasal ketamine for analgesia in the emergency department: a prospective observational series. Acad Emerg Med. 2013 Oct;20(10):1050-4. Babl FE, Theophilos T, Palmer GM. Is there a role for intravenous acetaminophen in pediatric emergency departments? Pediatr Emerg Care. 2011 Jun;27(6):496-9. Bailey E, Worthington HV, van Wijk A, Yates JM, Coulthard P, Afzal Z. Ibuprofen and/or paracetamol (acetaminophen) for pain relief after surgical removal of lower wisdom teeth.Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Dec 12;(12):CD004624. Bearden DJ, Feinstein A, Cohen LL. The influence of parent preprocedural anxiety on child procedural pain: mediation by child procedural anxiety. J Pediatr Psychol. 2012 Jul;37(6):680-6. Berde CB, Sethna NF. Analgesics for the treatment of pain in children. N Engl J Med. 2002 Oct 3;347(14):1094-103. Brousseau DC, Duffy SJ, Anderson AC, Linakis JG. Treatment of pediatric migraine headaches: a randomized, double-blind trial of prochlorperazine versus ketorolac. Ann Emerg Med. 2004 Feb;43(2):256-62. Ciszkowski C, Madadi P, Phillips MS, Lauwers AE, Koren G. Codeine, ultrarapid-metabolism genotype, and postoperative death. N Engl J Med. 2009 Aug 20;361(8):827-8. Cornelissen L, Donado C, Kim J, Chiel L, Zurakowski D, Logan DE, Meier P, Sethna NF, Blankenburg M, Zernikow B, Sundel RP, Berde CB. Pain hypersensitivity in juvenile idiopathic arthritis: a quantitative sensory testing study. Pediatr Rheumatol Online J. 2014 Sep 6;12:39. Crews KR, Gaedigk A, Dunnenberger HM, Leeder JS, Klein TE, Caudle KE, Haidar CE, Shen DD, Callaghan JT, Sadhasivam S, Prows CA, Kharasch ED, Skaar TC; Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium. Clinical Pharmacogenetics Implementation Consortium guidelines for cytochrome P450 2D6 genotype and codeine therapy: 2014 update. Clin Pharmacol Ther. 2014 Apr;95(4):376-82. Deaton T, Auten JD, Darracq MA. Nebulized fentanyl vs intravenous morphine for ED patients with acute abdominal pain: a randomized double-blinded, placebo-controlled clinical trial. Am J Emerg Med. 2015 Jun;33(6):791-5. Dokko D. Best practice for fever management with intravenous acetaminophen in pediatric oncology. J Pediatr Oncol Nurs. 2015 Mar-Apr;32(2):120-5. Farion KJ, Splinter KL, Newhook K, Gaboury I, Splinter WM. The effect of vapocoolant spray on pain due to intravenous cannulation in children: a randomized controlled trial. CMAJ. 2008 Jul 1;179(1):31-6. Finley GA, Kristjánsdóttir O, Forgeron PA. Cultural influences on the assessment of children's pain. Pain Res Manag. 2009 Jan-Feb;14(1):33-7. Friedrichsdorf SJ, Kang TI. The management of pain in children with life-limiting illnesses. Pediatr Clin North Am. 2007 Oct;54(5):645-72. Furyk JS, Grabowski WJ, Black LH. Nebulized fentanyl versus intravenous morphine in children with suspected limb fractures in the emergency department: a randomized controlled trial. Emerg Med Australas. 2009 Jun;21(3):203-9. Gandhi M, Thomson C, Lord D, Enoch S.  Management of Pain in Children with Burns. Int J Pediatr. 2010; 2010: 825657. Ganesh A, Gurnaney HG. Ultrasound guidance for pediatric peripheral nerve blockade. Anesthesiol Clin. 2009 Jun;27(2):197-212. Graudins A, Meek R, Egerton-Warburton D, Oakley E, Seith R. The PICHFORK (Pain in Children Fentanyl or Ketamine) trial: a randomized controlled trial comparing intranasal ketamine and fentanyl for the relief of moderate to severe pain in children with limb injuries. Ann Emerg Med. 2015 Mar;65(3):248-254.e1. Hadden KL, von Baeyer CL. Pain in children with cerebral palsy: common triggers and expressive behaviors. Pain. 2002 Sep;99(1-2):281-8. Harrison D, Bueno M, Yamada J, Adams-Webber T, Stevens B. Analgesic effects of sweet-tasting solutions for infants: current state of equipoise. Pediatrics. 2010 Nov;126(5):894-902. Hauer JM, Wical BS, Charnas L. Gabapentin successfully manages chronic unexplained irritability in children with severe neurologic impairment. Pediatrics. 2007 Feb;119(2):e519-22. Horeczko T, Mahmoud MA. The sedation mindset: philosophy, science, and practice. Curr Opin Anaesthesiol. 2016 Feb;29 Suppl 1:S48-55. Howard RF. Current status of pain management in children. JAMA. 2003 Nov 12;290(18):2464-9. Keck JF, Gerkensmeyer JE, Joyce BA, Schade JG. Reliability and validity of the Faces and Word Descriptor Scales to measure procedural pain. J Pediatr Nurs. 1996 Dec;11(6):368-74. Krechel SW, Bildner J. CRIES: a new neonatal postoperative pain measurement score. Initial testing of validity and reliability. Paediatr Anaesth. 1995;5(1):53. Lawrence J, Alcock D, McGrath P, Kay J, MacMurray SB, Dulberg C. The development of a tool to assess neonatal pain. Neonatal Netw. 1993;12(6):59–66. Liebelt EL. Assessing children's pain in the emergency department. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2000; 1(4):260-269. Luhmann JD, Schootman M, Luhmann SJ, Kennedy RM. A randomized comparison of nitrous oxide plus hematoma block versus ketamine plus midazolam for emergency department forearm fracture reduction in children. Pediatrics. 2006 Oct;118(4):e1078-86. Lunoe MM, Drendel AL, Levas MN, Weisman SJ, Dasgupta M, Hoffmann RG, Brousseau DC. A Randomized Clinical Trial of Jet-Injected Lidocaine to Reduce Venipuncture Pain for Young Children. Ann Emerg Med. 2015 Nov;66(5):466-74. Malviya S, Voepel-Lewis T, Burke C, Merkel S, Tait AR. The revised FLACC observational pain tool: improved reliability and validity for pain assessment in children with cognitive impairment. Paediatr Anaesth. 2006 Mar;16(3):258-65. Manterola C, Astudillo P, Losada H, Pineda V, Sanhueza A, Vial M. Analgesia in patients with acute abdominal pain. Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2007 Jul 18;(3):CD005660. Maxwell LG, Malavolta CP, Fraga MV. Assessment of pain in the neonate. Clin Perinatol. 2013 Sep;40(3):457-69. Merry AF, Edwards KE, Ahmad Z, Barber C, Mahadevan M, Frampton C. Randomized comparison between the combination of acetaminophen and ibuprofen and each constituent alone for analgesia following tonsillectomy in children. Can J Anaesth. 2013 Dec;60(12):1180-9. Michelson KN, Steinhorn DM. Pediatric End-of-Life Issues and Palliative Care. Clin Pediatr Emerg Med. 2007 Sep; 8(3): 212–219. Miner JR, Kletti C, Herold M, Hubbard D, Biros MH. Randomized clinical trial of nebulized fentanyl citrate versus i.v. fentanyl citrate in children presenting to the emergency department with acute pain. Acad Emerg Med. 2007 Oct;14(10):895-8. Moadad N, Kozman K1, Shahine R, Ohanian S, Badr LK. Distraction Using the BUZZY for Children During an IV Insertion. J Pediatr Nurs. 2016 Jan-Feb;31(1):64-72. Patniyot IR, Gelfand AA. Acute Treatment Therapies for Pediatric Migraine: A Qualitative Systematic Review. Headache. 2016 Jan;56(1):49-70. Pasero C, McCaffery M. Pain Assessment and Pharmacologic Management. St. Louis, Mo: Mosby; 2011. Piaget J. Judgment and reasoning in the child. Harcourt & Brace. Oxford, England. 1928. Poonai N, Paskar D, Konrad SL, Rieder M, Joubert G, Lim R, Golozar A, Uledi S, Worster A, Ali S. Opioid analgesia for acute abdominal pain in children: A systematic review and meta-analysis. Acad Emerg Med. 2014 Nov;21(11):1183-92. Racoosin JA, Roberson DW, Pacanowski MA, Nielsen DR. New evidence about an old drug--risk with codeine after adenotonsillectomy. N Engl J Med. 2013 Jun 6;368(23):2155-7. Sheehy KA, Muller EA, Lippold C, Nouraie M, Finkel JC, Quezado ZM. Subanesthetic ketamine infusions for the treatment of children and adolescents with chronic pain: a longitudinal study. BMC Pediatr. 2015 Dec 1;15:198. Sheehy KA, Finkel JC, Darbari DS, Guerrera MF, Quezado ZM. Dexmedetomidine as an Adjuvant to Analgesic Strategy During Vaso-Occlusive Episodes in Adolescents with Sickle-Cell Disease. Pain Pract. 2015 Nov;15(8):E90-7. Sheppard JL. The application of Piaget's theory to physiotherapy. Aust J Physiother. 1977 Dec;23(4):133-40. Spanos S, Booth R, Koenig H, Sikes K, Gracely E, Kim IK. Jet Injection of 1% buffered lidocaine versus topical ELA-Max for anesthesia before peripheral intravenous catheterization in children: a randomized controlled trial. Pediatr Emerg Care. 2008 Aug;24(8):511-5. Srouji R, Ratnapalan S, Schneeweiss S. Pain in children: assessment and nonpharmacological management. Int J Pediatr. 2010;2010. Stevens B, Yamada J, Lee GY, Ohlsson A. Sucrose for analgesia in newborn infants undergoing painful procedures. Cochrane Database of Systematic Reviews 2013, Issue 1. Art. No.: CD001069. Suresh S, Sawardekar A, Shah R. Ultrasound for regional anesthesia in children. Anesthesiol Clin. 2014 Mar;32(1):263-79. Taddio A, Shah V, Gilbert-MacLeod C, Katz J. Conditioning and hyperalgesia in newborns exposed to repeated heel lances. JAMA. 2002;288(7):857. Thomas SH, Silen W. Effect on diagnostic efficiency of analgesia for undifferentiated abdominal pain. Br J Surg. 2003 Jan;90(1):5-9. Tomlinson D, von Baeyer CL, Stinson JN, Sung L. A systematic review of faces scales for the self-report of pain intensity in children. Pediatrics. 2010 Nov;126(5):e1168-98. Tsze DS, von Baeyer CL, Bulloch B, Dayan PS. Validation of Self-Report Pain Scales in Children. Pediatrics. 2013 Oct; 132(4): e971–e979. Voepel-Lewis T, Merkel S, Tait AR, Trzcinka A, Malviya S. The reliability and validity of the Face, Legs, Activity, Cry, Consolability observational tool as a measure of pain in children with cognitive impairment. Anesth Analg. 2002 Nov;95(5):1224-9. Yeaman F, Oakley E, Meek R, Graudins A. Sub-dissociative dose intranasal ketamine for limb injury pain in children in the emergency department: a pilot study. Emerg Med Australas. 2013 Apr;25(2):161-7   This post and podcast are dedicated to Sergey M. Motov, MD, FAAEM, for his integrity, hard-won expertise, humility, and innovation.  Thank you for making us better doctors, Sergey, and for getting us ever closer to a pain-free ED. Pediatric Pain Powered by #FOAMed -- Tim Horeczko, MD, MSCR, FACEP, FAAP

Here's a look at some of the papers that caught our eye this month. We cover a paper looking at the the potential benefits of ketofol over propofol for conscious sedation, the role of aggressive blood pressure reduction in haemorrhage stroke and finally a really interesting paper of PE thrombolysis in cardiac arrest. This month our great sponsors ADPRAC our giving away a £50 iTunes voucher to spend on education/entertainment for you to spend on supporting your work life balance! All you need to do is email through the answer to the following question; With regards to this September 2016 Papers podcast and The PEA-PETT study, which of the following is correct; A. The RCT shows a statistically significant benefit in PE thrombolysis intra arrest B. The paper focussed on peri-arrest thrombolysis C. The paper was a case series of PE's thrombolysed during arrest Send your answer via email to contacttheresusroom@gmail.com with your name, answer and iTunes email address, entries close on 15th September and we'll announce the winner in October's podcast. Enjoy!   References Propofol or Ketofol for Procedural Sedation and Analgesia in Emergency Medicine-The POKER Study: A Randomized Double-Blind Clinical Trial. Ferguson I, et al. Ann Emerg Med. 2016. Intensive Blood-Pressure Lowering in Patients with Acute Cerebral Hemorrhage. Qureshi AI, et al. N Engl J Med. 2016 Pulseless electrical activity in pulmonary embolism treated with thrombolysis (from the "PEAPETT" study). Sharifi M. Am J Emerg Med. 2016 Jun 30.  

This week we discuss some of the critical issues in preparation, preoxygenation and positioning in RSI. https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Podcast_Episode_54_0_Final_Cut.m4a Download Leave a Comment Tags: 7 Ps, High-flow Nasal Cannula, Intubation, Preoxygenation, RSI Show Notes Read More EM Updates: Intubation Checklist Core EM: Episode 4.0 – Perimortem C-section, Procedural Sedation and Airway Pearls Core EM: Episode 6.0 – Airway Workshops Sales JC et al. The Importance of First Pass Success When Performing Orotracheal Intubation in the Emergency Department. Acad Emerg Med 2013; 20(1): 71-8. PMID: 23574475

This week we discuss some of the critical issues in preparation, preoxygenation and positioning in RSI. https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Podcast_Episode_54_0_Final_Cut.m4a Download Leave a Comment Tags: 7 Ps, High-flow Nasal Cannula, Intubation, Preoxygenation, RSI Show Notes Read More EM Updates: Intubation Checklist Core EM: Episode 4.0 – Perimortem C-section, Procedural Sedation and Airway Pearls Core EM: Episode 6.0 – Airway Workshops Sales JC et al. The Importance of First Pass Success When Performing Orotracheal Intubation in the Emergency Department. Acad Emerg Med 2013; 20(1): 71-8. PMID: 23574475

This week we discuss some of the critical issues in preparation, preoxygenation and positioning in RSI. https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Podcast_Episode_54_0_Final_Cut.m4a Download Leave a Comment Tags: 7 Ps, High-flow Nasal Cannula, Intubation, Preoxygenation, RSI Show Notes Read More EM Updates: Intubation Checklist Core EM: Episode 4.0 – Perimortem C-section, Procedural Sedation and Airway Pearls Core EM: Episode 6.0 – Airway Workshops Sales JC et al. The Importance of First Pass Success When Performing Orotracheal Intubation in the Emergency Department. Acad Emerg Med 2013; 20(1): 71-8. PMID: 23574475

Procedural sedation is an amazingly useful skill to have, but it is not without its perils. Listen to our podcast for some tips on how to get started or to improve your practice

The dangers of procedural sedation.

In this EM Cases episode on Pediatric Procedural Sedation with Dr. Amy Drendel, a world leader in pediatric pain management and procedural sedation research, we discuss how best to manage pain and anxiety in three situations in the ED: the child with a painful fracture, the child who requires imaging in the radiology department and the child who requires a lumbar puncture. Without a solid understanding and knowledge of the various options available to you for high quality procedural sedation, you inevitably get left with a screaming suffering child, upset and angry parents and endless frustration doe you. It can make or break an ED shift. With finesse and expertise, Dr. Drendel answers such questions as: What are the risk factors for a failed Pediatric Procedural Sedation? Why is IV Ketamine preferred over IM Ketamine? In what situations is Nitrous Oxide an ideal sedative? How long does a child need to be observed in the ED after Procedural Sedation? Do children need to have fasted before procedural sedation? What is the anxiolytic of choice for children requiring a CT scan? and many more... The post Episode 76 Pediatric Procedural Sedation appeared first on Emergency Medicine Cases.

In this EM Cases episode on Pediatric Procedural Sedation with Dr. Amy Drendel, a world leader in pediatric pain management and procedural sedation research, we discuss how best to manage pain and anxiety in three situations in the ED: the child with a painful fracture, the child who requires imaging in the radiology department and the child who requires a lumbar puncture. Without a solid understanding and knowledge of the various options available to you for high quality procedural sedation, you inevitably get left with a screaming suffering child, upset and angry parents and endless frustration doe you. It can make or break an ED shift. With finesse and expertise, Dr. Drendel answers such questions as: What are the risk factors for a failed Pediatric Procedural Sedation? Why is IV Ketamine preferred over IM Ketamine? In what situations is Nitrous Oxide an ideal sedative? How long does a child need to be observed in the ED after Procedural Sedation? Do children need to have fasted before procedural sedation? What is the anxiolytic of choice for children requiring a CT scan? and many more... The post Episode 76 Pediatric Procedural Sedation appeared first on Emergency Medicine Cases.

This episode covers Chapter 4 of Rosen's Emergency Medicine. Episode Overview: What are the depths of procedural sedation (PSA)? Describe the continuum of procedural sedation? Describe the recommended personnel and monitoring during PSA? What are contraindications for PSA in the ED? What agents can be used for procedural sedation and analgesia? Describe ASA classification system? Describe appropriate discharge instructions for patients post-procedural sedation? List 8 complications / side effects of ketamine and how some can be treated? List 4 situations when ketamine may be contraindicated? List 4 side effects of propofol in procedural sedation?

This episode covers Chapter 4 of Rosen's Emergency Medicine. Episode Overview: What are the depths of procedural sedation (PSA)? Describe the continuum of procedural sedation? Describe the recommended personnel and monitoring during PSA? What are contraindications for PSA in the ED? What agents can be used for procedural sedation and analgesia? Describe ASA classification system? Describe appropriate discharge instructions for patients post-procedural sedation? List 8 complications / side effects of ketamine and how some can be treated? List 4 situations when ketamine may be contraindicated? List 4 side effects of propofol in procedural sedation?

Episode 4.0 features pearls on perimortem C-sections, procedural sedation and an interview with Reuben Strayer on Airway Nightmares https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Core_EM_4_0_Final_Version.m4a Download Leave a Comment Tags: Airway, Perimortem C-section, Procedural Sedation, RSI Show Notes Perimortem C-Section Links EMCrit: Perimortem C-Section Procedural Sedation Links EM Updates: Emergency Department Procedural Sedation Checklist V2 EM Updates: The Procedural Sedation Screencast Trilogy EMCrit: Procedural Sedation Resources Airway Nightmares EM Updates: Direct vs. Video Laryngoscopy in 10 Minutes   Read More

Episode 4.0 features pearls on perimortem C-sections, procedural sedation and an interview with Reuben Strayer on Airway Nightmares https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Core_EM_4_0_Final_Version.m4a Download Leave a Comment Tags: Airway, Perimortem C-section, Procedural Sedation, RSI Show Notes Perimortem C-Section Links EMCrit: Perimortem C-Section Procedural Sedation Links EM Updates: Emergency Department Procedural Sedation Checklist V2 EM Updates: The Procedural Sedation Screencast Trilogy EMCrit: Procedural Sedation Resources Airway Nightmares EM Updates: Direct vs. Video Laryngoscopy in 10 Minutes   Read More

Episode 4.0 features pearls on perimortem C-sections, procedural sedation and an interview with Reuben Strayer on Airway Nightmares https://media.blubrry.com/coreem/content.blubrry.com/coreem/Core_EM_4_0_Final_Version.m4a Download Leave a Comment Tags: Airway, Perimortem C-section, Procedural Sedation, RSI Show Notes Perimortem C-Section Links EMCrit: Perimortem C-Section Procedural Sedation Links EM Updates: Emergency Department Procedural Sedation Checklist V2 EM Updates: The Procedural Sedation Screencast Trilogy EMCrit: Procedural Sedation Resources Airway Nightmares EM Updates: Direct vs. Video Laryngoscopy in 10 Minutes   Read More

Jim Miner discusses the fine points of ED/ICU procedural sedation

A Novel Index of Hypoxemia for Assessment of Risk during Procedural Sedation

This one is really good!

This episode is part 2 of the procedural sedation podcast. This episode focuses on the medications that we commonly use for procedural sedation. First, we'll review the use of oxygen during procedural sedation and then talk about basic airway maneuvers before we talk about individual medications. For each drug, the drug class, dosing, duration of action, and adverse effects will be discussed with the overall theme of patient safety.

This is the first of two episodes on procedural sedation. In the ED we need to provide safe and effective procedural sedation and analgesia whenever we do painful procedures. It is our job to relieve anxiety and pain in our patients and we need to know how to do this right. This episode will focus on how to prepare for a procedural sedation. We will talk about how to make the decision as to who is an appropriate candidate for procedural sedation in the ED, the depth of sedation, and how to prepare all of our equipment so that we leave nothing to chance. This will be in preparation for the second episode where we will talk about the medications that we use in procedural sedation.

2. UCI-Only

It seems the government and other specialties are trying hard to make sedation as difficult as possible in the ED. We must persevere to provide the best procedural sedation to allow maximal comfort and safety for our patients. This continues the discussion started in Part I.

Here is a piece I wrote for EMPGU

This is the audio only version of the previous post (Part I of the Sedation Talk).

It seems the government and other specialties are trying hard to make sedation as difficult as possible in the ED. We must persevere to provide the best procedural sedation to allow maximal comfort and safety for our patients. This brief lecture was originally posted on the defunct EMCrit Lecture Site on 8/7/2009.