Podcasts about solar radiation

Episode: 1321 A modern solar collector, a century before its time.  Today, an idea whose time had not yet come.

Are the factors affecting air temperature what we previously thought? Based on physical evidence, there may be different culprits at hand. Listen in to learn: Major projections that may be filled with error The most significant factors affecting air temperature What major models are based on Patrick Frank, Scientific Affiliate at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, shares his experience researching climate change, the real reasons behind it, and the possible consequences. In recent years, the story of climate change has been centered on greenhouse gasses and a few other key factors. However, these factors may be based on errored evidence. Even with extensive modeled evidence and published studies, the evidence may be more akin to statistics than science. Due to this, the real causes and effects of climate change and rising air temperature may vary from what we have been told. To learn more, visit https://www.skeptic.com/reading_room/a-climate-of-belief/ Take advantage of a 5% discount on Ekster accessories by using the code FINDINGGENIUS. Enhance your style and functionality with premium accessories. Visit bit.ly/3uiVX9R to explore latest collection Episode also available on Apple Podcast: http://apple.co/30PvU9C

  BOOK *FREE* Download – Psychopath In Your Life   1815 eruption of Mount Tambora – Wikipedia   What is brimstone in the Bible? – My Spiritual Mind    Psychopath In Your Life Will USAF attack USA Citizens from the sky and FIREBOMB the USA next?  USAF history of FIREBOMBS in Oklahoma, Wuhan China, Japan, Korea. Sulphur […] The post Solar Radiation Modification (SRM) Shooting Sulphur Dioxide at the SUN to cool things down * TESTING STARTED.  Sulphur is Brimstone *Fire and Brimstone from the air to BLOCK the SUN or Hiding in Plain Sight MURDER PLOT? appeared first on Psychopath In Your Life.

The same clouds that create halos around the Moon also have a huge impact on Earth's climate.

In this episode of the Indiana Pioneer Agronomy podcast, hosts Brian Shrader, Ben Jacob and Carl Joern discuss solar radiation in corn production as well as the sun's impact on soybeans. The trio provide an Indiana weather and growing conditions roundup, talk about the 2024 solar eclipse and dive into the importance of solar radiation in corn production. They discuss shade studies, the role of photosynthesis and Pioneer genetics. ResourcesArticle: Solar Radiation in Corn Production: https://www.pioneer.com/us/agronomy/solar-radiation-corn.htmlArticle: Effects of Reduced Solar Radiation on Corn Growth and Yield: https://www.pioneer.com/us/agronomy/reduced-solar-radiation-on-corn.html

Today's guest is Ulrike Lohmann, Professor of Experimental Atmospheric Physics in the Institute for Atmospheric and Climate Science at ETH Zurich. Lohmann is also the Principal Investigator of the CLOUDLAB project, a multi-year project to investigate aerosol-cloud interactions in wintertime stratus clouds over the Alps. In this episode, we discuss the role of clouds and aerosols in our climate. We dive deep into aerosol-cloud interactions to uncover the science bheind solar radiation modification (SRM) techniques like marine cloud brightening, and discuss a novel proposed SRM technique - Mixed Phase Cloud Thinning.Links:Ulrike Lohmann's profileCheck out the CLOUDLAB projectSupport the showSubscribe for email updates

In a captivating exploration of sleep's profound impact on our mental and physical well-being, this episode delves into a wide array of topics, guided by notable experts. We start by discussing the pressing decline in mental health among girls, supported by insights from various sources including Forbes and Discover Magazine. The conversation then progresses with Dr. Mari Swingle and Jay Gunkelman, who provide an in-depth analysis of the Theta Beta Ratio's evolution since 1999, highlighting how decreased sleep and disrupted circadian rhythms contribute to ADD/ADHD and bipolar disorders. Through engaging discussions, we uncover the modern challenges families face, the pressures exerted by social media, and the phenomenon of "sleep competition." The experts also touch upon the transformation in lighting technology from incandescent to LED and its effects on our sleep cycles. With a focus on solutions, we explore practical interventions like "Granny Glechoma Glasses" for screen light filtration and neurofeedback techniques for improving sleep quality in athletes, students, and those dealing with trauma. The episode doesn't shy away from complex topics like the impact of sleep deprivation on mental states, the therapeutic potential of REM sleep, and the pitfalls of common sleep aids. Whether you're intrigued by the science of sleep, looking for ways to improve your mental health, or curious about the intersection of technology and well-being, this episode offers valuable knowledge, innovative solutions, and thought-provoking insights for everyone. Key Moments: 0:004:12 Links for Discussion https://www.forbes.com/sites/tracybrower/2024/02/28/the-devastating-decline-in-girls-mental-health-7-ways-you-can-help/?sh=6e1953443c04   https://www.discovermagazine.com/health/more-time-and-less-work-could-mean-that-mental-health-increases-as-we-age   https://www.shrm.org/topics-tools/news/employee-relations/meeting-mental-health-needs-across-generations   https://theconversation.com/sleep-and-circadian-rhythm-problems-linked-with-poor-mental-health-new-research-223895 4:29 Dr Mari Joins 5:37 Jay Gunkelman Screen Share on Theta Beta Ration ADD vs Normal 1999 across time 6:38 Kids are sleeping 2 hours less per night than in 1999 7:45 Circadian Problems ADD 8:49 Bipolar and circadian Rhythm 10:18 Map USA and Solar Radiation vs CDC Map Incidence ADDHD 11:35 Restless Legs Breathing problem 12:30 Theta Beta Drop Occipital Region Dr Mari Swingle 13:30 Expectations of young families play role 14:50 Comparatives online for young women 15:50 Sleep Competition who gets the social reward 16:50 The color of lights in past vs now Grandma's light shades 19:15 Melatonin Sunset 20:40 Granny Glechoma Glasses 23:17 Teen Suicide not coping with environments lack of sleep compounds the issue towards insanity Sleep Deprivation 25:14 Rage Events Pseudo bulbar affect 26:14 Excess Sleep Depression Martijin Arns 27:15 3 days without sleeping cut off 28:27 Is sleep the easiest thing to correct? 30:50 Elite Athlete Sleep Problems Using SMR to correct Beta 33:04 Students 33:20 Trauma 34z;55 Thalamic Gating Amygdala 35:50 Yuri Kropotov ERP 37:00 Dreams? 38:05 REM Sleep 41:10 Sleep Aids make it worse 42:40 Pete's dream 44:27 Pete's rubber sheets bed wetting 46:05 5-9 Bedwetting ages 47:10 Cut fof Urination ages to get checked 50:00 What are you training Neurofeedback for Sleep 51:50 Sleep Hygiene 52:30 Snoring Partners #SleepHealth #MentalWellbeing #Neurofeedback #CircadianRhythm #ADHD #BipolarDisorder #SocialMediaPressure #SleepHygiene #REMsleep #EliteAthletes #TraumaRecovery #LightingEffects #SleepAids #ThetaBetaRatio #MentalHealthAwareness --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/neuronoodle/message Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/neuronoodle/support

Right now, climate engineers are working on new technologies, called solar geoengineering, that would reflect the sun's rays away from Earth as a way to cool the planet. Those in favor argue it would be inexpensive and effective, and could buy us time to get carbon emissions down before the worst impacts of climate change. But others argue it would distract from the underlying issues of climate change and express concern about who would control such a powerful technology. So we debate: Is Engineering Solar Radiation A Crazy Idea? Learn more about your ad choices. Visit podcastchoices.com/adchoices

Many objections to solar radiation modification (SRM)--such as the fear it could undermine other forms of climate action--have been overtaken by events, says The Ministry of the Future author Kim Stanley Robinson in this C2GTalk. The world is in a growing crisis, and cutting and removing emissions is taking too long. It's time to learn whether SRM can help, and how to govern it. Kim Stanley Robinson is an American science fiction writer. His books include the best-selling Mars trilogy, Red Moon, New York 2140, and The Ministry for the Future. He was part of the U.S. National Science Foundation's Antarctic Artists and Writers' Program in 1995 and 2016, and a featured speaker at COP-26 in Glasgow, as a guest of the UK government and the UN. For more, please go to C2G's website.

More research is needed to explore all aspects of solar radiation modification, including the technology and its impact on society, says UNESCO's Assistant Director-General Gabriela Ramos. It is important to build public trust in the research by engaging a wide and inclusive cross-section of society, including people from the arts and humanities. Gabriela Ramos is the assistant director-general for the social and human sciences of UNESCO, where she oversees the institution's contributions to building inclusive societies. Her mandate includes tackling economic inequalities of income and opportunity, and promoting social inclusion and gender equality For more, please go to C2G's website.

“Geoengineering” refers to the intentional intervention in Earth processes for the purpose of mitigating climate change. A controversial topic, geoengineering is typically divided into two categories: carbon dioxide removal and solar radiation management. This second category, also known as SRM, made headlines this summer when the White House released a report that “opened the door” to future research on the topic. In principle, SRM includes any technology that could be used to reflect some of the sun's energy from the Earth in order to decrease the amount of associated heating, effectively cooling the planet. And while the study of SRM has mostly been limited to the lab and to date no large-scale experiments have been conducted, more people are calling for the idea to be explored further as global warming increases. At the same time, others are saying the door needs to remain shut, as the potential for unintended political, societal and ecological side effects are just too great.To help us understand why - why is SRM being considered, and why are people concerned that it is being considered, Climate Now brought together five experts – Professors Frank Biermann (Utrecht Univ.), David Keith (Univ. Chicago), Chukwumerije Okereke (Alex Ekwueme Federal Univ. Ndufu-Alike, Nigeria), Jennie Stephens (Northeastern Univ.), and Claudia Wieners (Utrecht Univ.) – to debate the merits and risks of examining SRM as a possible climate solution.Follow us on Twitter, LinkedIn, Facebook, and Instagram.Contact us at contact@climatenow.comVisit our website for all of our content and sources for each episode.

It is important for scientists from the Global South to be engaged in research and discussions around solar radiation modification (SRM) because its potential impacts would affect everyone, says Inés Camilloni from the University of Buenos Aires. Researchers need to consider the risks of SRM against the risks of a dangerously warming planet. More research is needed, because the world currently does not know enough to make informed decisions. Dr. Camilloni is currently associate professor at the Department of Atmospheric and Oceanic Sciences of the University of Buenos Aires, senior researcher of the National Scientific and Technical Research Council at the Center for Atmosphere and Ocean Research (CIMA) in Argentina, and vice-chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change Working Group 1. For more, please go to carnegiecouncil.org. 

Young people need to learn more about solar radiation modification, and provide their inputs to governments, think tanks, and policymakers, says Brazilian climate activist Clara Botto, in this C2GTalk. “We need to have global conversations to address something that might have global impacts,” she adds. That is why she and her colleagues have launched SRM Youth Watch, a global platform aimed at informing and bringing new communities into the debate. Clara Botto has been engaged with sustainable development at a grassroots and international level, from arts to politics, for the past eight years. She is currently one of C2G's Youth Climate Voices. For more, please go to C2G's website. During this interview at 17:22, Botto acknowledges that she says “micro hollow sphere glasses” instead of the correct term "hollow glass microspheres."

It is essential for young people in the Global South to become more involved in international climate discussions, including around solar radiation modification, says Ghanaian climate activist Nii Noi Omaboe. His decision to screen a documentary about SRM at Accra sustainability week prompted many questions, both about the risks and insufficient governance, but also about opportunities for research. Omaboe is experienced in youth governance, human rights, and global sustainable development processes. He has organized and worked for nonprofit and international organizations like Amnesty International, Red Cross, and 350 Ghana. In 2019, Omaboe co-founded Sustainability Week Accra, the first local Sustainability Week in Africa, and he currently provides strategic support to Green Africa Youth Organisation's Ghana team as well as supporting establishment of Youth Climate Councils in the Global South. He is also a program analyst at Impact Hub Accra. For more, please go to C2G's website.

Consultation and engagement with civil society in the Global South is essential for inclusive governance of solar radiation modification (SRM), says Dr. Shuchi Talati, the founder of the Alliance for Just Deliberation on Solar Geoengineering in this  C2GTalk. This will not be easy, and requires building trust and knowledge over time, but as international attention to SRM increases, it will be increasingly important to empower vulnerable communities. Talati is an emerging climate technology governance expert co-chair of the Independent Advisory Committee to oversee SCoPEx, an effort to provide oversight for the potential outdoor solar geoengineering experiment proposed by Harvard University. She most recently served as a presidential appointee in the Biden-Harris administration as chief of staff of the Office of Fossil Energy & Carbon Management at the U.S. Department of Energy where she was focused on creating just and sustainable frameworks for carbon dioxide removal. For more, please go to C2G's website.

Former AG Holder is parsing words involving Trump. The White House comes out with a study reviewing Solar Radiation Modification; eg chemtrails. 44 pages of shoulder shrugs should not reassure anyone about their plans to inject aerosolized nano-metals in the atmosphere.

Episode: 2670 The Expanded Human Habitat: Our Solar System as a Defining Environment.  Today, we expand the notion of environment.

This interview was recorded on December 16, 2022. Solar radiation modification may one day be needed to reduce climate risks, but great uncertainties remain, and more research and inclusive governance is needed to assess it, says Maarten Van Aalst, during a  C2GTalk. That requires discussions at all levels with people from a range of political and ethical backgrounds, in ways which respect different perspectives. Van Aalst is director general and chief science officer at the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI), having assumed that role on February 1, 2023. Before that, and at the time of this recording, he was director of the International Red Cross Red Crescent Climate Centre, the reference center on climate risk management for the international Red Cross Red Crescent movement. Van Aalst is also coordinating lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC WGII) and member of the European Advisory Board on Climate Change under the European Climate Law. For more, including translation into 中文, Español, and Français, please go to C2G's website.

The sun brings light and heat to Earth, but it can also blast our planet with stormy weather, flares, and massive coronal mass ejections that can impact our power grids, satellites, and even endanger astronauts in space and, eventually, back on the moon. And it's heating up as the sun approaches Solar Maximum of its latest Solar Cycle 25. NASA solar astrophysicist Dr. C. Alex Young of the Helioscience Division of the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland joins us to dish on the latest from the sun and what it means for us on Earth.         Hosts: Rod Pyle and Tariq Malik Guest: C. Alex Young Download or subscribe to this show at https://twit.tv/shows/this-week-in-space. Get episodes ad-free with Club TWiT at https://twit.tv/clubtwit

The sun brings light and heat to Earth, but it can also blast our planet with stormy weather, flares, and massive coronal mass ejections that can impact our power grids, satellites, and even endanger astronauts in space and, eventually, back on the moon. And it's heating up as the sun approaches Solar Maximum of its latest Solar Cycle 25. NASA solar astrophysicist Dr. C. Alex Young of the Helioscience Division of the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland joins us to dish on the latest from the sun and what it means for us on Earth.         Hosts: Rod Pyle and Tariq Malik Guest: C. Alex Young Download or subscribe to this show at https://twit.tv/shows/this-week-in-space. Get episodes ad-free with Club TWiT at https://twit.tv/clubtwit

The sun brings light and heat to Earth, but it can also blast our planet with stormy weather, flares, and massive coronal mass ejections that can impact our power grids, satellites, and even endanger astronauts in space and, eventually, back on the moon. And it's heating up as the sun approaches Solar Maximum of its latest Solar Cycle 25. NASA solar astrophysicist Dr. C. Alex Young of the Helioscience Division of the Goddard Space Flight Center in Maryland joins us to dish on the latest from the sun and what it means for us on Earth.         Hosts: Rod Pyle and Tariq Malik Guest: C. Alex Young Download or subscribe to this show at https://twit.tv/shows/this-week-in-space. Get episodes ad-free with Club TWiT at https://twit.tv/clubtwit

Caribbean countries have led the global push to limit warming to 1.5°C because the impacts of going above that would be so severe for their future wellbeing. In a C2GTalk, University of the West Indies' Professor Michael Taylor said it was important for the region to be involved in the research and governance of solar radiation modification, because decisions may soon be needed as to whether it could be an option to keep temperatures down. Taylor is professor of climate science and dean of the Faculty of Science and Technology at the Mona campus of The University of the West Indies (UWI). He is the co-director of the Climate Studies Group, Mona (CSGM) which is a center of regional thought and expertise with respect to climate change science for small islands and the wider Caribbean. He is a coordinating lead author for Chapter 3 of the Special Report on 1.5 Degrees of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). Taylor has also received the Silver Musgrave Medal for Science from the Institute of Jamaica and is the 2019 ANSA Caribbean Laureate for Excellence in Science. For more, please go to C2G's website. 

Solar radiation storms are yet another way space weather can impact humans and technology. How? All the answers are in the episode. I also include next week's space weather forecast, with a bit of a break from the constant activity we've had lately!

One of the more uncomfortable truths about climate change is that temperatures are going to rise for the next 30 to 40 years no matter what we do, just based on carbon dioxide already in the atmosphere and the reduction of aerosol pollutants that are now shielding us from some of the worst of it. That's going to bring about potentially devastating changes that we do not yet well understand and are not prepared for.How can that short-term risk be mitigated? One proposal is to add particles to the atmosphere that would do on purpose what our aerosol pollution has been doing by accident: shield us from some of the rising heat. No one credible who advocates for solar radiation management (SRM) believes that it is a substitute for reducing greenhouse gas emissions. Instead, it would be a way to buy a little more time to reach zero carbon.My guest today, Kelly Wanser, is the head of a non-profit organization called SilverLining that advocates for research and policy around near-term climate risks and direct climate interventions like SRM that can address them.I've long been curious about — and wary of — solar radiation management, so I was eager to talk to Wanser about the case for SRM, what we know and don't know about it, and what we need to research. Get full access to Volts at www.volts.wtf/subscribe

What exactly is The Gulf Stream? What causes The Gulf Stream? How does The Gulf Stream keep the Earth cool? And for today's awesome 5 Minute SMARTYQUIZ - check out the SMARTYQUIZ email. If you're not getting our free SMARTYQUIZ email, you are really missing out on making fun memories & locking in the learning with our research-backed gamification - it's our gift to you 3 times a week! Sign up here.For free home activities sign-up at www.WhoSmarted.comSee Privacy Policy at https://art19.com/privacy and California Privacy Notice at https://art19.com/privacy#do-not-sell-my-info.

C2G is pleased to announce the launch of its first youth C2GDiscuss, which explores youth perspectives on solar radiation modification (SRM) and its governance in the face of the increasing likelihood that global warming temporarily exceeds (overshoots) the 1.5-2C Paris Agreement limits. Moderated by C2G's Executive Director Janos Pasztor, a diverse all-youth panel of speakers discuss their perspectives about the risk of overshooting 1.5-2C or even higher levels of global warming and whether they think young people are aware of SRM and the governance challenges it raises. Speakers included: Ineza Grace, global coordinator of the Loss and Damage Youth Coalition and CEO of The Green Protector; Lydia Dai, student in environmental sciences at University College London, Adaptation Working Group facilitator of YOUNGO and regional youth focal point of the United International Federation of Youth (UN1FY); and, John Ferguson, U.S. 2023 Schwarzman Scholar at Tsinghua University in Beijing, China For more, please go to c2g2.net. 

The fragmentation of international environmental governance creates challenges for states looking to create governance for solar radiation modification (SRM), says Dr. Marcos Regis da Silva, executive director of the Inter-American Institute for Global Change Research (IAI) during a C2GTalk. Policymakers in the Americas welcomed a recent IAI meeting which provided more information about SRM, and the state of its governance, to help them take decisions about the best way forward. As IAI's executive director, Regis da Silva is responsible for the provision of strategic advice to high-level policymakers on issues related to global change and their socio-economic impacts. He also provides advice on linkages between the IAI's scientific agenda and global governance environmental frameworks, especially the Sustainable Development Goals. Previously Regis da Silva held the post of chief, knowledge management and outreach services with the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES). For more, please go to C2G's website.

In a new segment we're trying out, this week we watch a NEW show that neither of us has seen before. It's a Turkish Netflix end-of-the-world drama set on a submarine. So much pressure.  Join us for Yakamoz S-245   To contact the show email show@isawthatyearsago.com   You can also support us via Patreon - https://www.patreon.com/istya

0:00 Intro 3:05 Funny Story 20:50 Solar Radiation 29:23 Fast Facts For more updates, visit: http://www.brighteon.com/channel/hrreport NaturalNews videos would not be possible without you, as always we remain passionately dedicated to our mission of educating people all over the world on the subject of natural healing remedies and personal liberty (food freedom, medical freedom, the freedom of speech, etc.). Together, we're helping create a better world, with more honest food labeling, reduced chemical contamination, the avoidance of toxic heavy metals and vastly increased scientific transparency. ▶️ Every dollar you spend at the Health Ranger Store goes toward helping us achieve important science and content goals for humanity: https://www.healthrangerstore.com/ ▶️ Sign Up For Our Newsletter: https://www.naturalnews.com/Readerregistration.html ▶️ Brighteon: https://www.brighteon.com/channels/hrreport ▶️ Join Our Social Network: https://brighteon.social/@HealthRanger ▶️ Check In Stock Products at: https://PrepWithMike.com

More research and better governance is needed to help developing countries make decisions about solar radiation modification (SRM), says Thelma Krug, vice-chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC), during a C2GTalk. SRM has come into focus due to a likely overshoot of the 1.5C warming goal, which would bring increasing risks to people and natural ecosystems, and—depending on the length and extent of overshoot—potentially irreversible impacts. Thelma Krug is a former researcher at the Earth Observation Coordination at the National Institute for Space Research in Brazil, under the Ministry of Science, Technology, Innovation and Communication (MCTIC). She was elected vice-chair of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) for the Sixth Cycle of Panel (October 2015 – October 2022), after having been co-chair of the IPCC Task Force on National Greenhouse Gas Inventories from 2002 until 2015. For more, go to carnegiecouncil.org. 

The American West is in the throes of a two-decade-long drought.  The climate there is getting warmer and drier, which has led to increasing demand for water resources from both humans and ecosystems.  According to a new study by the Desert Research Institute and collaborators, the atmosphere across much of the U.S. is also demanding […]

The debate around solar radiation modification has broadened in recent years, but there has not yet been significant progress on international mechanisms to govern it, says Economist senior editor Oliver Morton in this C2GTalk. He adds: "I don't want a world with solar geoengineering come what may, but I also don't want future generations to look back and say, 'I wish they'd thought about this just a bit more thoroughly.'" Oliver Morton previously worked at Nature  and  Wired  and contributed to a range of other publications, including The New York Times and Science.  He is the author of Mapping Mars: Science, Imagination and the Birth of a World; Eating the Sun: How Plants Power the Planet; The Planet Remade: How Geoengineering Could Change the World; and The Moon: A History for the Future. Asteroid 10716 Olivermorton is named in his honor. This interview was recorded on February 10, 2022 and will be available with interpretation into  中文,  Español,  and Français. For more, including an edited transcript, please go to C2G's website. 

The natural world has an important part to play in mitigating the effects of climate change.  We mostly think about the role of plant life which absorbs carbon in trees, grasses, and other flora.  However, a new study published by Oxford University looks at the role of large wild animals in restoring ecosystems and reducing […]

The Paris Agreement set a target to limit global warming to "well below 2 degrees, but preferably to 1.5 degrees celsius compared to pre-industrial levels."  However, if present trends continue the world is set to blow past those international targets. This has lead scientists, the policy community and ethicists to consider strategies on climate change that assume the Paris Agreement targets will not be met in time.  This includes the technological innovation called "Solar Radiation Modification," which can include the injection of aerosols into the atmosphere to essentially block heat from reaching the earth.   And to that end, my guest today, Janos Pasztor has done some important work on Solar Radiation Modification for global governance and climate justice. He is the executive director of Carnegie Climate Governance Initiative and we kick off discussing what me mean by a global warming overshoot scenario that may necessitate the use of this potentially controversial Solar Radiation Modification Technology. 

It is important to see proposed solar radiation modification experiments in a wider social context, says Sheila Jasanoff, the Pforzheimer Professor of Science and Technology Studies at the Harvard Kennedy School, during a C2GTalk interview. People want to know who is doing the experiment, and what their intentions are—and it is important for scientists and engineers to recognize and address these concerns, and for governance to be built around that. Sheila Jasanoff is a leading expert on the role of science and technology in the law, politics, and policy of modern democracies, and her work offers fascinating insights into how society navigates emerging technologies, and how decision-makers assess evidence and expertise—which is extremely relevant to our governance conversations. She is the author or editor of more than 15 books, including The Ethics of Invention and Can Science Make Sense of Life; has held distinguished appointments at leading universities around the world; and served on the board of the American Association for the Advancement of Science. For more, including an edited transcript, please go to C2G's website. 

Over the last two decades, solar radiation modification has gone from an intellectual experiment to something people are seriously considering, says pioneering climate scientist Ken Caldeira during a C2GTalk. The world needs to understand what would happen if somebody felt the need to cool the Earth rapidly, and that requires the ability for scientists to do more research. "There is a case to limit knowledge acquisition if it would lead to imminent harm," says Caldeira, but this is not the case for solar radiation modification experiments. Ken Caldeira is senior staff scientist (emeritus) with Carnegie Institution for Science, and world famous for his work on the global carbon cycle and climate change. He was a lead author for the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's fifth assessment report and a co-author of the 2010 US National Academy America's Climate Choices report. Caldeira also participated in the UK Royal Society's geoengineering panel in 2009. He is also senior scientist at Breakthrough Energy, which supports innovation to reach zero carbon emissions. For more, including an edited transcript, please go to C2G's website.

Are the factors affecting air temperature what we previously thought? Based on physical evidence, there may be different culprits at hand. Listen in to learn: Major projections that may be filled with error The most significant factors affecting air temperature What major models are based on Patrick Frank, Scientific Affiliate at the SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory, shares his experience researching climate change, the real reasons behind it, and the possible consequences. In recent years, the story of climate change has been centered on greenhouse gasses and a few other key factors. However, these factors may be based on errored evidence.  Even with extensive modeled evidence and published studies, the evidence may be more akin to statistics than science. Due to this, the real causes and effects of climate change and rising air temperature may vary from what we have been told. To learn more, visit https://www.skeptic.com/reading_room/a-climate-of-belief/ Episode also available on Apple Podcast: http://apple.co/30PvU9C

Every year the ocean absorbs ludicrous amounts of energy, even more as a result of climate change and global warming. The team sits down with distinguished scholar Keven Trenbert of the National Center of Atmospheric Research about the recent paper he co-authored called "Another Record: Ocean Warming Continues through 2021 despite La Niña Conditions" and learn about why that is important.

In response to climate change risks, scientists are considering the viability of developing and deploying marine cloud brightening (MCB), which seeks to whiten clouds over the ocean to reflect solar radiation back into space in order to achieve cooling. MCB is still largely theoretical, but if ever deployed at scale, could create large and potentially long-term risks and governance challenges. The recent first outdoor MCB experiment conducted by Australian scientists went largely unnoticed by the general public and has generated some interesting but limited debate. In this C2GDiscuss, the panelists explore:  How to situate MCB in the global challenges of response to climate risks context?  What is the latest research and debate about MCB as well as the governance implications of potential deployment?  What could we learn from the recent MCB outdoor experiment in Australia to move forward the governance of solar radiation modification research? The C2GDiscuss features:  Kerryn Brent, lecturer at the University of Adelaide and member of the Australian Forum for Climate Intervention Governance; Silvia Ribeiro, Latin America Director, ETC Group; Phillip Williamson, Honorary Reader, School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia Paul Rouse, Science Advisor, C2G (Moderator) For more, please go to C2G's website.

Pioneer Agronomist Adam Banks and Pioneer Product Agronomist talk with Mark Jeschke, Pioneer Agronomy Manager specifically around the Pioneer Agronomy Research Book for 2022. How this publication was created, what's in it and what to expect for the future.

When author Eliot Peper first heard about solar geoengineering, or solar radiation modification, he knew he had to write a novel. "There are so many different angles on this kind of a problem. It raises so many questions that impact every area of our lives," he told C2GTalk. Speculative fiction, says Peper, can spark people's curiosity and inspire them to become engaged. "If it makes other people look more deeply and pay more attention, to me that's a huge win." Eliot Peper is the author of nine novels, including Veil, Cumulus, Bandwidth, and Neon Fever Dream. He also publishes a blog, and sends a monthly newsletter. He is on Twitter, @eliotpeper. Peper's most recent novel, Veil, is a speculative thriller about diplomats, hackers, spies, scientists, and billionaires racing to control our climate future. Janos Pastor, C2G's executive director, calls Veil "the tale we need to confront climate change. Peper deftly explores one of the most controversial ideas on the climate agenda—solar geoengineering—and its geopolitical quandaries—raising tough questions and showing why we require new forms of governance to answer them." This interview was recorded on  December 14, 2021 and will be available with interpretation into 中文,  Español, and Français. For an edited transcript, please go to C2G's website.

It is important to reflect internationally on climate-altering approaches such as Solar Radiation Modification, in case the world is not capable of meeting the mitigation challenge, says Marc Vanheukelen the European External Action Service's ambassador at large for climate diplomacy during a C2GTalk interview. But these approaches should not become an “alibi for inaction. International governance will be needed, but strategically it is best not to move too quickly, but rather first familiarize smaller groups with these ideas, at the expert level, and then to start moving these ideas gradually up the policy ladder as discussions gain traction. Marc Vanheukelen is "hors classe" adviser and ambassador at large for climate diplomacy at the EU's External Action Service. From 2015 till 2019 he was the EU ambassador to the World Trade Organisation in Geneva. Prior to his ambassadorial posting, Vanheukelen was director in DG TRADE (European Commission) responsible for sustainable development, economic partnership agreements, and agri-food and fisheries, preceded by his role as head of cabinet for former EU Trade Commissioner Karel de Gucht. He has also served as head of cabinet to the former Belgian minister for foreign affairs. This interview was recorded on May 25, 2021, and is available with interpretation into 中文, Español, and Français. For more, including an edited transcript, please go to C2G's website.

Don't you love seeing the northern lights? Is it not a sight of beauty?Behind that wall of green lights there is a monster lurking behind it to end the very thing we love - the internet. In this podcast, Darnley discusses what a solar storm is, which country is most affected and how to mitigate the problem. 

Episode: 2670 The Expanded Human Habitat: Our Solar System as a Defining Environment.  Today, we expand the notion of environment.

In this episode of the Navigating Interdisciplinarity series, Hita, Maria and Dane  were joined by Vanesa Castán Broto, Professor of Climate Urbanism at the Urban Institute, The University of Sheffield; and Jennifer Vanos, Professor of Climate at Health at the School of Sustainability, Arizona State University. We talked about Jenni's and Vanesa's journey towards interdisciplinary research, and the idea of interdisciplinarity as an interplay of disciplinary institutions. We also touched upon balancing our passion for research with strategizing for career advancement, and ended with our guests sharing some of their epic fails in their academic journey.   Vanesa's website: https://urbaninstitute.group.shef.ac.uk/who-we-are/prof-vanesa-castan-broto/   Jenni's website: https://sustainability.asu.edu/person/jennifer-vanos/   Dane's website: https://sustainability.asu.edu/person/dane-whittaker/    References: Castán Broto, Vanesa, Maya Gislason, and Melf-Hinrich Ehlers. 2009. “Practising Interdisciplinarity in the Interplay between Disciplines: Experiences of Established Researchers.” Environmental Science & Policy 12 (7): 922–33. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envsci.2009.04.005. Vanos, Jennifer K., Ariane Middel, Michelle N. Poletti, and Nancy J. Selover. 2018. “Evaluating the Impact of Solar Radiation on Pediatric Heat Balance within Enclosed, Hot Vehicles.” Temperature (Austin, Tex.) 5 (3): 276–92. https://doi.org/10.1080/23328940.2018.1468205.   We also spoke about these other books and lectures Bogaard, Paul, ed. Harvard Lectures of Alfred North Whitehead: Philosophical Presuppositions of Science, 1924-1925. Edinburgh University Press, 2017. Kuhn, Thomas S. The structure of scientific revolutions. University of Chicago press, 2012. Halberstam, Judith, and Jack Halberstam. The queer art of failure. Duke University Press, 2011. Vatn, Arild. Institutions and the Environment. Edward Elgar Publishing, 2007.

In this episode of the Indiana Pioneer Agronomy podcast, hosts Brian Shrader and Ben Jacob discuss solar radiation and its impact on crop growth.

What is Solar Radiation and key function in the Solar System --- This episode is sponsored by · Anchor: The easiest way to make a podcast. https://anchor.fm/app

Heatwaves in cities are becoming increasingly common and increasingly intense.  The warming climate is a big factor, but it is the nature of our cities that really drives up temperatures.  Solar radiation stored throughout the day on asphalt and buildings is released slowly during the night, which generates significant heat stress. A study carried out […]

“If solar radiation management were done well—that is, the science is right, the engineering is right, and the policy and governance frameworks around all of the stuff work—then solar radiation management could be a really important, positive contribution to humanity’s responding to climate change,” says Simon Nicholson, associate professor at American University’s School of International Service and co-founder of the Forum for Climate Engineering Assessment in this week’s Friday Podcast. “But, there are all kinds of risks associated with this endeavor.” Solar radiation management (SRM) denotes a set of ideas about responding to climate change by reflecting solar energy back into space before that energy can be captured by greenhouse gases and cause temperatures to rise. Proposed SRM techniques include stratospheric aerosol injection (introducing reflective particles, like sulphur dioxide, into the stratosphere) and marine cloud brightening. SRM could enter the scene very quickly, bringing massive and far-reaching implications with them, says Nicholson. “We’re talking about potentially intervening in the climate system in a way that drastically reduces global average temperatures in a very short span of time, which could have massive positive implications, but could also, if mishandled, have massive negative implications.” Although scientists say it will likely be a couple of decades before SRM technologies are ready to deploy, avoiding the potential downsides of SRM will require anticipatory governance to shape SRM research and manage its deployment. “[I]t's much better to try and shape something like this on the front end than to respond to it when it's suddenly in the world,” says Nicholson. While a coordinated, well-designed international effort is not impossible, it is more likely that SRM initiatives will be more scattered throughout the world, says Nicholson. The Australian Government is already experimenting marine cloud brightening to cool the area around the Great Barrier Reef, which has been severely impacted by higher temperatures. There have also been efforts in the United States to begin outdoor experimentation on stratospheric aerosol injection. Without anticipatory planning that helps to shape the research on solar radiation management and its eventual deployment, people will respond to these experiments as they emerge, says Nicholson, resulting in a “co-creation of a scientific research agenda that's more expansive, and at the same time, governance apparatus around them." SRM has remained on the fringes of conversations about climate change, in part due to concerns that even conversations about its potential might distract politicians from taking action to properly mitigate climate change. Indeed, SRM is no silver bullet, says Nicholson. Solar radiation management only dampens the temperature signal. If greenhouse gases continue to be released into the atmosphere, as soon as you stop the solar radiation management, the warming will continue. “Solar radiation management would be just one small piece, alongside all of the other things that need to be done,” he says. Even so, SRM research is already underway, and excluding it from climate discussions will not change this, says Nicholson. “Whatever one thinks about solar radiation management as a good or bad idea, the governance challenge still remains.”

An important topic in geoengineering. Zhen Dai is on twitter @jenswimsthemoon This article explains some of the work she has been part of at Harvard: http://sacredsecretuniverse.com/wp-content/uploads/2019/03/Sun-Dimmer.pdf Comments and suggestions to reviewer2geo@gmail.com or find us on twitter @reviewer2geo or Andrew @geoengineering1 and Clare @clare_nomad_geo

What are solar storms? How are they caused? And how can we use data science to forecast them?In this episode of DataCafé we talk about the Sun and how it drives space weather, and the efforts to forecast solar radiation storms that can have a massive impact here on Earth. On a regular day, the Sun has a constant stream of charged particles, or plasma, coming off its surface into the solar system, known as the solar wind. But in times of high activity it can undergo much more explosive phenomena: two of these being solar flares and coronal mass ejections (CMEs). These eruptions on the Sun launch energetic particles into space in the form of plasma and magnetic field that can reach us here on Earth and cause radiation storms and/or geomagnetic storms. These storms can degrade satellites, affect telecommunications and power grids, and disrupt space exploration and aviation.  Although we can be glad the strongest events are rare, this means they are hard to predict because of the difficulties in observing, studying and classifying them. So the challenge then becomes, how can we forecast them?To answer this we speak to Dr. Hazel Bain, a research scientist specializing in the development of tools for operational space weather forecasting. She tells us about her efforts to bring together physics-based models with machine learning in order to improve solar storm forecasts and provide alerts to customers in industries like aviation, agriculture and space exploration. With special guest Dr. Hazel M Bain, Research Scientist at the Cooperative Institute for Research in Environmental Sciences (CIRES) at the University of Colorado, Boulder and NOAA's Space Weather Prediction Center (SWPC).Further readingOnline Presentation: Solar Radiation Storms by Dr. Hazel Bain (HAO colloquium via YouTube https://bit.ly/3k8WuBc)Article: NASA Space Weather (via NASA https://go.nasa.gov/2T3v5VG)Algorithm: AdaBoost (via scikit-learn https://bit.ly/35bkfSU)Press Release: New Space Weather Advisories Serve Aviation (via CIRES https://bit.ly/3dyqDHI)Paper: Shock Connectivity in the 2010 August and 2012 July Solar Energetic Particle Events Inferred from Observations and ENLIL Modeling (via IOP https://bit.ly/2IEtGTs)Paper: Diagnostics of Space Weather Drivers Enabled by Radio Observations (via arXiv https://arxiv.org/abs/1904.05817)Paper: Bridging EUV and White-Light Observations to Inspect the Initiation Phase of a “Two-Stage” Solar Eruptive Event (via Springer or arXiv https://arxiv.org/abs/1406.4919)Some links above may require payment or login. We are not endorsing them or receiving any payment for mentioning them. They are provided as is. Often free versions of papers are available and we would encourage you to investigate.Recording date: 2 October 2020Interview date: 12 June 2020 

The sun is the giant star in the middle of our solar system that is responsible for all the solar radiation that powers life on Earth and plays a major role in the ocean. --- Support this podcast: https://anchor.fm/saltyscience/support

In this show, along with the latest Earth changes update, I talk about the types of radiation and their effects on humans, the latest about radioactive waste management, and I touch on 5G radiation.

Technology, space travel, a changing climate – What does the future hold for us? Neil deGrasse Tyson ponders humanity’s future alongside comic co-host Maeve Higgins and astrophysicist, author, and Astronomer Royal Sir Martin Rees. NOTE: StarTalk All-Access subscribers can watch or listen to this entire episode commercial-free here: https://www.startalkradio.net/all-access/the-future-of-us-with-sir-martin-rees/ Photo Credit: StarTalk Radio

Should we worry about solar storms? Probably! How MUCH should we worry? We talk with a guy who knows: Scott McIntosh, Director of the National Center for Atmospheric Research High Altitude Observatory.

Science is moving as fast as politics these days, and just as in the days of Galileo, science is being politicized and legislated.  When you have to legislate science, it ain't pure science, is it?  Nor is everyone's intentions necessarily always benevolent.  Tune in and join the discussion on the Mad Scientists Exposed show! We will discuss chemtrails, HAARP, vaccines, and many topics scientists do NOT want us to discuss. Tuesdays, 7:30-9pm Eastern / 4:30-6pm Pacific Visit FreedomizerRadio.com & MadScientists.Exposed

We are at war.  These are not your common garden predators.  These are the Bad Boys that prevent you from gardening the way people throughout history have gardened.  Tonight on Warfare Gardening we will look at  Climate Change & Solar Radiation. We will also shift to  the solutions to the issues that we now know plague our gardens as we wrap up this fascinating series on warfare gardening. 

We are at war.  These predators are not your typical garden predators.  These are the bad boys that prevent you from gardening like your parents or grand-parents did, or frankly anyone in history has ever experienced.  Meet the Goliath's of our time:  Geo-Engineering, Fukushima Radiation, Nanoparticles, Synethic Biology, GMO, HAARP, frequencies, spraying herbicides for Invasive Species, solar radiation and Climate Change.  You can be asuccesful gardener and eat healthy in spite of these formidable foes.  Join me as we present these giant predators, discuss their character and impact, and how to conquer them to enjoy our abundant gardens.  This will be a 2-3 part show as the material is dense.  Just before the show I will put up a PDF for you to follow along or use as a reference.

Trying to work out some unknown technical problems.  Please give me a minut     One of my passions is raising goats.  Goats have personality, are inexpensive to raise, produce allot in comparison with other animals. Are you interested in making your own dairy products?  Green weed control, making your own fiber clothing, and desire a companion almost as faithful as a dog? Tonight let's do a comprehensive examination on raising goats in these precarious days! Why Have a Goat Tools of the Trade Decisions to Make Popular Goat Breeds Life of a Goat Goat Health Shelter and Security Goat Chow Kids Milkers Meat Goats Fiber Goats Regulations Income Potential Resource:  http://www.kindergoatsoaps.com/got-goats/ Next week:  Warfare Gardening:  These are not your typical garden predators.  These are the bad boys that prevent you from gardening the way your parents or grand-parents, or frankly, anyone in history has ever experienced.  Meet the Goliath's of our day and what you can to to mitigiate the trials and be successful in gardening!  Geo-Engineering (Chem Trails), Fuskushima Radiation, Solar Radiation, Climate Change, GMO, HAARP (frequencies), Nanotechnology, Invasive Species herbicide spraying, novel plants with proteins unknown in nature.  

Physical Aspects of the Local Universe (455.1) 41:0.1 THE characteristic space phenomenon which sets off each local creation from all others is the presence of the Creative Spirit. All Nebadon is certainly pervaded by the space presence of the Divine Minister of Salvington, and such presence just as certainly terminates at the outer borders of our local universe. That which is pervaded by our local universe Mother Spirit is Nebadon; that which extends beyond her space presence is outside Nebadon, being the extra-Nebadon space regions of the superuniverse of Orvonton — other local universes. (455.2) 41:0.2 While the administrative organization of the grand universe discloses a clear-cut division between the governments of the central, super-, and local universes, and while these divisions are astronomically paralleled in the space separation of Havona and the seven superuniverses, no such clear lines of physical demarcation set off the local creations. Even the major and minor sectors of Orvonton are (to us) clearly distinguishable, but it is not so easy to identify the physical boundaries of the local universes. This is because these local creations are administratively organized in accordance with certain creative principles governing the segmentation of the total energy charge of a superuniverse, whereas their physical components, the spheres of space — suns, dark islands, planets, etc. — take origin primarily from nebulae, and these make their astronomical appearance in accordance with certain precreative (transcendental) plans of the Architects of the Master Universe. (455.3) 41:0.3 One or more — even many — such nebulae may be encompassed within the domain of a single local universe even as Nebadon was physically assembled out of the stellar and planetary progeny of Andronover and other nebulae. The spheres of Nebadon are of diverse nebular ancestry, but they all had a certain minimum commonness of space motion which was so adjusted by the intelligent efforts of the power directors as to produce our present aggregation of space bodies, which travel along together as a contiguous unit over the orbits of the superuniverse. (455.4) 41:0.4 Such is the constitution of the local star cloud of Nebadon, which today swings in an increasingly settled orbit about the Sagittarius center of that minor sector of Orvonton to which our local creation belongs. 1. The Nebadon Power Centers (455.5) 41:1.1 The spiral and other nebulae, the mother wheels of the spheres of space, are initiated by Paradise force organizers; and following nebular evolution of gravity response, they are superseded in superuniverse function by the power centers and physical controllers, who thereupon assume full responsibility for directing the physical evolution of the ensuing generations of stellar and planetary offspring. This physical supervision of the Nebadon preuniverse was, upon the arrival of our Creator Son, immediately co-ordinated with his plan for universe organization. Within the domain of this Paradise Son of God, the Supreme Power Centers and the Master Physical Controllers collaborated with the later appearing Morontia Power Supervisors and others to produce that vast complex of communication lines, energy circuits, and power lanes which firmly bind the manifold space bodies of Nebadon into one integrated administrative unit.* (456.1) 41:1.2 One hundred Supreme Power Centers of the fourth order are permanently assigned to our local universe. These beings receive the incoming lines of power from the third-order centers of Uversa and relay the down-stepped and modified circuits to the power centers of our constellations and systems. These power centers, in association, function to produce the living system of control and equalization which operates to maintain the balance and distribution of otherwise fluctuating and variable energies. Power centers are not, however, concerned with transient and local energy upheavals, such as sun spots and system electric disturbances; light and electricity are not the basic energies of space; they are secondary and subsidiary manifestations. (456.2) 41:1.3 The one hundred local universe centers are stationed on Salvington, where they function at the exact energy center of that sphere. Architectural spheres, such as Salvington, Edentia, and Jerusem, are lighted, heated, and energized by methods which make them quite independent of the suns of space. These spheres were constructed — made to order — by the power centers and physical controllers and were designed to exert a powerful influence over energy distribution. Basing their activities on such focal points of energy control, the power centers, by their living presences, directionize and channelize the physical energies of space. And these energy circuits are basic to all physical-material and morontia-spiritual phenomena. (456.3) 41:1.4 Ten Supreme Power Centers of the fifth order are assigned to each of Nebadon’s primary subdivisions, the one hundred constellations. In Norlatiadek, your constellation, they are not stationed on the headquarters sphere but are situated at the center of the enormous stellar system which constitutes the physical core of the constellation. On Edentia there are ten associated mechanical controllers and ten frandalanks who are in perfect and constant liaison with the near-by power centers. (456.4) 41:1.5 One Supreme Power Center of the sixth order is stationed at the exact gravity focus of each local system. In the system of Satania the assigned power center occupies a dark island of space located at the astronomic center of the system. Many of these dark islands are vast dynamos which mobilize and directionize certain space-energies, and these natural circumstances are effectively utilized by the Satania Power Center, whose living mass functions as a liaison with the higher centers, directing the streams of more materialized power to the Master Physical Controllers on the evolutionary planets of space. 2. The Satania Physical Controllers (456.5) 41:2.1 While the Master Physical Controllers serve with the power centers throughout the grand universe, their functions in a local system, such as Satania, are more easy of comprehension. Satania is one of one hundred local systems which make up the administrative organization of the constellation of Norlatiadek, having as immediate neighbors the systems of Sandmatia, Assuntia, Porogia, Sortoria, Rantulia, and Glantonia. The Norlatiadek systems differ in many respects, but all are evolutionary and progressive, very much like Satania. (457.1) 41:2.2 Satania itself is composed of over seven thousand astronomical groups, or physical systems, few of which had an origin similar to that of your solar system. The astronomic center of Satania is an enormous dark island of space which, with its attendant spheres, is situated not far from the headquarters of the system government. (457.2) 41:2.3 Except for the presence of the assigned power center, the supervision of the entire physical-energy system of Satania is centered on Jerusem. A Master Physical Controller, stationed on this headquarters sphere, works in co-ordination with the system power center, serving as liaison chief of the power inspectors headquartered on Jerusem and functioning throughout the local system. (457.3) 41:2.4 The circuitizing and channelizing of energy is supervised by the five hundred thousand living and intelligent energy manipulators scattered throughout Satania. Through the action of such physical controllers the supervising power centers are in complete and perfect control of a majority of the basic energies of space, including the emanations of highly heated orbs and the dark energy-charged spheres. This group of living entities can mobilize, transform, transmute, manipulate, and transmit nearly all of the physical energies of organized space. (457.4) 41:2.5 Life has inherent capacity for the mobilization and transmutation of universal energy. You are familiar with the action of vegetable life in transforming the material energy of light into the varied manifestations of the vegetable kingdom. You also know something of the method whereby this vegetative energy can be converted into the phenomena of animal activities, but you know practically nothing of the technique of the power directors and the physical controllers, who are endowed with ability to mobilize, transform, directionize, and concentrate the manifold energies of space. (457.5) 41:2.6 These beings of the energy realms do not directly concern themselves with energy as a component factor of living creatures, not even with the domain of physiological chemistry. They are sometimes concerned with the physical preliminaries of life, with the elaboration of those energy systems which may serve as the physical vehicles for the living energies of elementary material organisms. In a way the physical controllers are related to the preliving manifestations of material energy as the adjutant mind-spirits are concerned with the prespiritual functions of material mind. (457.6) 41:2.7 These intelligent creatures of power control and energy direction must adjust their technique on each sphere in accordance with the physical constitution and architecture of that planet. They unfailingly utilize the calculations and deductions of their respective staffs of physicists and other technical advisers regarding the local influence of highly heated suns and other types of supercharged stars. Even the enormous cold and dark giants of space and the swarming clouds of star dust must be reckoned with; all of these material things are concerned in the practical problems of energy manipulation. (457.7) 41:2.8 The power-energy supervision of the evolutionary inhabited worlds is the responsibility of the Master Physical Controllers, but these beings are not responsible for all energy misbehavior on Urantia. There are a number of reasons for such disturbances, some of which are beyond the domain and control of the physical custodians. Urantia is in the lines of tremendous energies, a small planet in the circuit of enormous masses, and the local controllers sometimes employ enormous numbers of their order in an effort to equalize these lines of energy. They do fairly well with regard to the physical circuits of Satania but have trouble insulating against the powerful Norlatiadek currents. 3. Our Starry Associates (458.1) 41:3.1 There are upward of two thousand brilliant suns pouring forth light and energy in Satania, and your own sun is an average blazing orb. Of the thirty suns nearest yours, only three are brighter. The Universe Power Directors initiate the specialized currents of energy which play between the individual stars and their respective systems. These solar furnaces, together with the dark giants of space, serve the power centers and physical controllers as way stations for the effective concentrating and directionizing of the energy circuits of the material creations. (458.2) 41:3.2 The suns of Nebadon are not unlike those of other universes. The material composition of all suns, dark islands, planets, and satellites, even meteors, is quite identical. These suns have an average diameter of about one million miles, that of your own solar orb being slightly less. The largest star in the universe, the stellar cloud Antares, is four hundred and fifty times the diameter of your sun and is sixty million times its volume. But there is abundant space to accommodate all of these enormous suns. They have just as much comparative elbow room in space as one dozen oranges would have if they were circulating about throughout the interior of Urantia, and were the planet a hollow globe. (458.3) 41:3.3 When suns that are too large are thrown off a nebular mother wheel, they soon break up or form double stars. All suns are originally truly gaseous, though they may later transiently exist in a semiliquid state. When your sun attained this quasi-liquid state of supergas pressure, it was not sufficiently large to split equatorially, this being one type of double star formation. (458.4) 41:3.4 When less than one tenth the size of your sun, these fiery spheres rapidly contract, condense, and cool. When upwards of thirty times its size — rather thirty times the gross content of actual material — suns readily split into two separate bodies, either becoming the centers of new systems or else remaining in each other’s gravity grasp and revolving about a common center as one type of double star. (458.5) 41:3.5 The most recent of the major cosmic eruptions in Orvonton was the extraordinary double star explosion, the light of which reached Urantia in A.D. 1572. This conflagration was so intense that the explosion was clearly visible in broad daylight. (458.6) 41:3.6 Not all stars are solid, but many of the older ones are. Some of the reddish, faintly glimmering stars have acquired a density at the center of their enormous masses which would be expressed by saying that one cubic inch of such a star, if on Urantia, would weigh six thousand pounds. The enormous pressure, accompanied by loss of heat and circulating energy, has resulted in bringing the orbits of the basic material units closer and closer together until they now closely approach the status of electronic condensation. This process of cooling and contraction may continue to the limiting and critical explosion point of ultimatonic condensation. (459.1) 41:3.7 Most of the giant suns are relatively young; most of the dwarf stars are old, but not all. The collisional dwarfs may be very young and may glow with an intense white light, never having known an initial red stage of youthful shining. Both very young and very old suns usually shine with a reddish glow. The yellow tinge indicates moderate youth or approaching old age, but the brilliant white light signifies robust and extended adult life. (459.2) 41:3.8 While all adolescent suns do not pass through a pulsating stage, at least not visibly, when looking out into space you may observe many of these younger stars whose gigantic respiratory heaves require from two to seven days to complete a cycle. Your own sun still carries a diminishing legacy of the mighty upswellings of its younger days, but the period has lengthened from the former three and one-half day pulsations to the present eleven and one-half year sunspot cycles. (459.3) 41:3.9 Stellar variables have numerous origins. In some double stars the tides caused by rapidly changing distances as the two bodies swing around their orbits also occasion periodic fluctuations of light. These gravity variations produce regular and recurrent flares, just as the capture of meteors by the accretion of energy-material at the surface would result in a comparatively sudden flash of light which would speedily recede to normal brightness for that sun. Sometimes a sun will capture a stream of meteors in a line of lessened gravity opposition, and occasionally collisions cause stellar flare-ups, but the majority of such phenomena are wholly due to internal fluctuations. (459.4) 41:3.10 In one group of variable stars the period of light fluctuation is directly dependent on luminosity, and knowledge of this fact enables astronomers to utilize such suns as universe lighthouses or accurate measuring points for the further exploration of distant star clusters. By this technique it is possible to measure stellar distances most precisely up to more than one million light-years. Better methods of space measurement and improved telescopic technique will sometime more fully disclose the ten grand divisions of the superuniverse of Orvonton; you will at least recognize eight of these immense sectors as enormous and fairly symmetrical star clusters. 4. Sun Density (459.5) 41:4.1 The mass of your sun is slightly greater than the estimate of your physicists, who have reckoned it as about two octillion (2 x 1027) tons. It now exists about halfway between the most dense and the most diffuse stars, having about one and one-half times the density of water. But your sun is neither a liquid nor a solid — it is gaseous — and this is true notwithstanding the difficulty of explaining how gaseous matter can attain this and even much greater densities. (459.6) 41:4.2 Gaseous, liquid, and solid states are matters of atomic-molecular relationships, but density is a relationship of space and mass. Density varies directly with the quantity of mass in space and inversely with the amount of space in mass, the space between the central cores of matter and the particles which whirl around these centers as well as the space within such material particles. (459.7) 41:4.3 Cooling stars can be physically gaseous and tremendously dense at the same time. You are not familiar with the solar supergases, but these and other unusual forms of matter explain how even nonsolid suns can attain a density equal to iron — about the same as Urantia — and yet be in a highly heated gaseous state and continue to function as suns. The atoms in these dense supergases are exceptionally small; they contain few electrons. Such suns have also largely lost their free ultimatonic stores of energy. (460.1) 41:4.4 One of your near-by suns, which started life with about the same mass as yours, has now contracted almost to the size of Urantia, having become forty thousand times as dense as your sun. The weight of this hot-cold gaseous-solid is about one ton per cubic inch. And still this sun shines with a faint reddish glow, the senile glimmer of a dying monarch of light.* (460.2) 41:4.5 Most of the suns, however, are not so dense. One of your nearer neighbors has a density exactly equal to that of your atmosphere at sea level. If you were in the interior of this sun, you would be unable to discern anything. And temperature permitting, you could penetrate the majority of the suns which twinkle in the night sky and notice no more matter than you perceive in the air of your earthly living rooms. (460.3) 41:4.6 The massive sun of Veluntia, one of the largest in Orvonton, has a density only one one-thousandth that of Urantia’s atmosphere. Were it in composition similar to your atmosphere and not superheated, it would be such a vacuum that human beings would speedily suffocate if they were in or on it. (460.4) 41:4.7 Another of the Orvonton giants now has a surface temperature a trifle under three thousand degrees. Its diameter is over three hundred million miles — ample room to accommodate your sun and the present orbit of the earth. And yet, for all this enormous size, over forty million times that of your sun, its mass is only about thirty times greater. These enormous suns have an extending fringe that reaches almost from one to the other. 5. Solar Radiation (460.5) 41:5.1 That the suns of space are not very dense is proved by the steady streams of escaping light-energies. Too great a density would retain light by opacity until the light-energy pressure reached the explosion point. There is a tremendous light or gas pressure within a sun to cause it to shoot forth such a stream of energy as to penetrate space for millions upon millions of miles to energize, light, and heat the distant planets. Fifteen feet of surface of the density of Urantia would effectually prevent the escape of all X rays and light-energies from a sun until the rising internal pressure of accumulating energies resulting from atomic dismemberment overcame gravity with a tremendous outward explosion. (460.6) 41:5.2 Light, in the presence of the propulsive gases, is highly explosive when confined at high temperatures by opaque retaining walls. Light is real. As you value energy and power on your world, sunlight would be economical at a million dollars a pound. (460.7) 41:5.3 The interior of your sun is a vast X-ray generator. The suns are supported from within by the incessant bombardment of these mighty emanations. (460.8) 41:5.4 It requires more than one-half million years for an X-ray-stimulated electron to work its way from the very center of an average sun up to the solar surface, whence it starts out on its space adventure, maybe to warm an inhabited planet, to be captured by a meteor, to participate in the birth of an atom, to be attracted by a highly charged dark island of space, or to find its space flight terminated by a final plunge into the surface of a sun similar to the one of its origin. (461.1) 41:5.5 The X rays of a sun’s interior charge the highly heated and agitated electrons with sufficient energy to carry them out through space, past the hosts of detaining influences of intervening matter and, in spite of divergent gravity attractions, on to the distant spheres of the remote systems. The great energy of velocity required to escape the gravity clutch of a sun is sufficient to insure that the sunbeam will travel on with unabated velocity until it encounters considerable masses of matter; whereupon it is quickly transformed into heat with the liberation of other energies. (461.2) 41:5.6 Energy, whether as light or in other forms, in its flight through space moves straight forward. The actual particles of material existence traverse space like a fusillade. They go in a straight and unbroken line or procession except as they are acted on by superior forces, and except as they ever obey the linear-gravity pull inherent in material mass and the circular-gravity presence of the Isle of Paradise. (461.3) 41:5.7 Solar energy may seem to be propelled in waves, but that is due to the action of coexistent and diverse influences. A given form of organized energy does not proceed in waves but in direct lines. The presence of a second or a third form of force-energy may cause the stream under observation to appear to travel in wavy formation, just as, in a blinding rainstorm accompanied by a heavy wind, the water sometimes appears to fall in sheets or to descend in waves. The raindrops are coming down in a direct line of unbroken procession, but the action of the wind is such as to give the visible appearance of sheets of water and waves of raindrops. (461.4) 41:5.8 The action of certain secondary and other undiscovered energies present in the space regions of your local universe is such that solar-light emanations appear to execute certain wavy phenomena as well as to be chopped up into infinitesimal portions of definite length and weight. And, practically considered, that is exactly what happens. You can hardly hope to arrive at a better understanding of the behavior of light until such a time as you acquire a clearer concept of the interaction and interrelationship of the various space-forces and solar energies operating in the space regions of Nebadon. Your present confusion is also due to your incomplete grasp of this problem as it involves the interassociated activities of the personal and nonpersonal control of the master universe — the presences, the performances, and the co-ordination of the Conjoint Actor and the Unqualified Absolute. 6. Calcium — The Wanderer of Space (461.5) 41:6.1 In deciphering spectral phenomena, it should be remembered that space is not empty; that light, in traversing space, is sometimes slightly modified by the various forms of energy and matter which circulate in all organized space. Some of the lines indicating unknown matter which appear in the spectra of your sun are due to modifications of well-known elements which are floating throughout space in shattered form, the atomic casualties of the fierce encounters of the solar elemental battles. Space is pervaded by these wandering derelicts, especially sodium and calcium. (461.6) 41:6.2 Calcium is, in fact, the chief element of the matter-permeation of space throughout Orvonton. Our whole superuniverse is sprinkled with minutely pulverized stone. Stone is literally the basic building matter for the planets and spheres of space. The cosmic cloud, the great space blanket, consists for the most part of the modified atoms of calcium. The stone atom is one of the most prevalent and persistent of the elements. It not only endures solar ionization — splitting — but persists in an associative identity even after it has been battered by the destructive X rays and shattered by the high solar temperatures. Calcium possesses an individuality and a longevity excelling all of the more common forms of matter. (462.1) 41:6.3 As your physicists have suspected, these mutilated remnants of solar calcium literally ride the light beams for varied distances, and thus their widespread dissemination throughout space is tremendously facilitated. The sodium atom, under certain modifications, is also capable of light and energy locomotion. The calcium feat is all the more remarkable since this element has almost twice the mass of sodium. Local space-permeation by calcium is due to the fact that it escapes from the solar photosphere, in modified form, by literally riding the outgoing sunbeams. Of all the solar elements, calcium, notwithstanding its comparative bulk — containing as it does twenty revolving electrons — is the most successful in escaping from the solar interior to the realms of space. This explains why there is a calcium layer, a gaseous stone surface, on the sun six thousand miles thick; and this despite the fact that nineteen lighter elements, and numerous heavier ones, are underneath. (462.2) 41:6.4 Calcium is an active and versatile element at solar temperatures. The stone atom has two agile and loosely attached electrons in the two outer electronic circuits, which are very close together. Early in the atomic struggle it loses its outer electron; whereupon it engages in a masterful act of juggling the nineteenth electron back and forth between the nineteenth and twentieth circuits of electronic revolution. By tossing this nineteenth electron back and forth between its own orbit and that of its lost companion more than twenty-five thousand times a second, a mutilated stone atom is able partially to defy gravity and thus successfully to ride the emerging streams of light and energy, the sunbeams, to liberty and adventure. This calcium atom moves outward by alternate jerks of forward propulsion, grasping and letting go the sunbeam about twenty-five thousand times each second. And this is why stone is the chief component of the worlds of space. Calcium is the most expert solar-prison escaper. (462.3) 41:6.5 The agility of this acrobatic calcium electron is indicated by the fact that, when tossed by the temperature-X-ray solar forces to the circle of the higher orbit, it only remains in that orbit for about one one-millionth of a second; but before the electric-gravity power of the atomic nucleus pulls it back into its old orbit, it is able to complete one million revolutions about the atomic center. (462.4) 41:6.6 Your sun has parted with an enormous quantity of its calcium, having lost tremendous amounts during the times of its convulsive eruptions in connection with the formation of the solar system. Much of the solar calcium is now in the outer crust of the sun. (462.5) 41:6.7 It should be remembered that spectral analyses show only sun-surface compositions. For example: Solar spectra exhibit many iron lines, but iron is not the chief element in the sun. This phenomenon is almost wholly due to the present temperature of the sun’s surface, a little less than 6,000 degrees, this temperature being very favorable to the registry of the iron spectrum. 7. Sources of Solar Energy (463.1) 41:7.1 The internal temperature of many of the suns, even your own, is much higher than is commonly believed. In the interior of a sun practically no whole atoms exist; they are all more or less shattered by the intensive X-ray bombardment which is indigenous to such high temperatures. Regardless of what material elements may appear in the outer layers of a sun, those in the interior are rendered very similar by the dissociative action of the disruptive X rays. X ray is the great leveler of atomic existence. (463.2) 41:7.2 The surface temperature of your sun is almost 6,000 degrees, but it rapidly increases as the interior is penetrated until it attains the unbelievable height of about 35,000,000 degrees in the central regions. (All of these temperatures refer to your Fahrenheit scale.) (463.3) 41:7.3 All of these phenomena are indicative of enormous energy expenditure, and the sources of solar energy, named in the order of their importance, are: (463.4) 41:7.4 1. Annihilation of atoms and, eventually, of electrons. (463.5) 41:7.5 2. Transmutation of elements, including the radioactive group of energies thus liberated. (463.6) 41:7.6 3. The accumulation and transmission of certain universal space-energies. (463.7) 41:7.7 4. Space matter and meteors which are incessantly diving into the blazing suns. (463.8) 41:7.8 5. Solar contraction; the cooling and consequent contraction of a sun yields energy and heat sometimes greater than that supplied by space matter. (463.9) 41:7.9 6. Gravity action at high temperatures transforms certain circuitized power into radiative energies. (463.10) 41:7.10 7. Recaptive light and other matter which are drawn back into the sun after having left it, together with other energies having extrasolar origin. (463.11) 41:7.11 There exists a regulating blanket of hot gases (sometimes millions of degrees in temperature) which envelops the suns, and which acts to stabilize heat loss and otherwise prevent hazardous fluctuations of heat dissipation. During the active life of a sun the internal temperature of 35,000,000 degrees remains about the same quite regardless of the progressive fall of the external temperature. (463.12) 41:7.12 You might try to visualize 35,000,000 degrees of heat, in association with certain gravity pressures, as the electronic boiling point. Under such pressure and at such temperature all atoms are degraded and broken up into their electronic and other ancestral components; even the electrons and other associations of ultimatons may be broken up, but the suns are not able to degrade the ultimatons. (463.13) 41:7.13 These solar temperatures operate to enormously speed up the ultimatons and the electrons, at least such of the latter as continue to maintain their existence under these conditions. You will realize what high temperature means by way of the acceleration of ultimatonic and electronic activities when you pause to consider that one drop of ordinary water contains over one billion trillions of atoms. This is the energy of more than one hundred horsepower exerted continuously for two years. The total heat now given out by the solar system sun each second is sufficient to boil all the water in all the oceans on Urantia in just one second of time. (464.1) 41:7.14 Only those suns which function in the direct channels of the main streams of universe energy can shine on forever. Such solar furnaces blaze on indefinitely, being able to replenish their material losses by the intake of space-force and analogous circulating energy. But stars far removed from these chief channels of recharging are destined to undergo energy depletion — gradually cool off and eventually burn out. (464.2) 41:7.15 Such dead or dying suns can be rejuvenated by collisional impact or can be recharged by certain nonluminous energy islands of space or through gravity-robbery of near-by smaller suns or systems. The majority of dead suns will experience revivification by these or other evolutionary techniques. Those which are not thus eventually recharged are destined to undergo disruption by mass explosion when the gravity condensation attains the critical level of ultimatonic condensation of energy pressure. Such disappearing suns thus become energy of the rarest form, admirably adapted to energize other more favorably situated suns. 8. Solar-Energy Reactions (464.3) 41:8.1 In those suns which are encircuited in the space-energy channels, solar energy is liberated by various complex nuclear-reaction chains, the most common of which is the hydrogen-carbon-helium reaction. In this metamorphosis, carbon acts as an energy catalyst since it is in no way actually changed by this process of converting hydrogen into helium. Under certain conditions of high temperature the hydrogen penetrates the carbon nuclei. Since the carbon cannot hold more than four such protons, when this saturation state is attained, it begins to emit protons as fast as new ones arrive. In this reaction the ingoing

  Chemtrails and solar radiation managment! You may have not noticed those strange clouds in the sky. You might have seen long thin clouds and thought that they might be from jet planes or normal contrails. Those are chemtrails used by the governments from around the world for trying to manage the sunlight that is hitting the earth to slow global warming. We will cover both sides of this global engineering project and why it is being kept secret. You need to have this information to survive!!

The Ocean Acidification Symposium was presented by the Centre for Chemical and Physical Oceanography, in November of 2012. The day-long symposium featured brief presentations from a wide range of researchers, of which this is one: Professor Phil Boyd discusses large scale geo-engineering projects that may mitigate climate change. There are two basic forms of mitigation plans - Solar Radiation management, or carbon dioxide removal. Professor Boyd explores ways to assess the usefulness of different approaches.

Transcript -- James Lovelock continues to look at the idea of Daisy world and its links to nature and systems.

James Lovelock continues to look at the idea of Daisy world and its links to nature and systems.

James Lovelock continues to look at the idea of Daisy world and its links to nature and systems.

Transcript -- James Lovelock continues to look at the idea of Daisy world and its links to nature and systems.

Separating Solar and Anthropogenic (Greenhouse Gas-Related) Climate Impacts During the past three decades a suite of space-based instruments has monitored the Sun’s brightness as well as the Earth’s surface and atmospheric temperatures. These datasets enable the separation of climate’s responses to solar activity from other sources of climate variability (anthropogenic greenhouse gases, El Niño Southern Oscillation, volcanic aerosols). The empirical evidence indicates that the solar irradiance 11-year cycle increase of 0.1% produces a global surface temperature increase of about 0.1 K with larger increases at higher altitudes. Historical solar brightness changes are estimated by modeling the contemporary irradiance changes in terms of their solar magnetic sources (dark sunspots and bright faculae) in conjunction with simulated long-term evolution of solar magnetism. In this way, the solar irradiance increase since the seventeenth century Maunder Minimum is estimated to be slightly larger than the increase in recent solar activity cycles, and smaller than early estimates that were based on variations in Sun-like stars and cosmogenic isotopes. Ongoing studies are beginning to decipher the empirical Sun- climate connections as a combination of responses to direct solar heating of the surface and lower atmosphere, and indirect heating via solar UV irradiance impacts on the ozone layer and middle atmosphere, with subsequent communication to the surface and climate. The associated physical pathways appear to involve the modulation of existing dynamical and circulation atmosphere-ocean couplings, including the El Nino Southern Oscillation (El Nino/La Nina cycles) and the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation. The Sun's Role in Past, Current and Future Climate Change Correlations of instrumental or reconstructed climate time series with indices of solar activity are often being used to suggest that the climate system is tightly coupled to the sun. Yet correlations have to be used with caution because they are not necessarily synonymous with cause-and-effect relationships. Therefore, it is critical to understand the physical mechanisms that are responsible for the signals. Independent tests can then be applied to validate or reject a hypothesized link. Spatial structures that are related to the processes that translate the solar influence into a climatic response can serve as such a test. A particularly powerful example is obtained by looking at the vertical extent of the solar signal in the atmosphere. Biographies Dr. Judith Lean is Senior Scientist for Sun-Earth System Research in the Space Science Division of the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, DC. She has served on a variety of NASA, NSF, NOAA and NRC advisory committees, including as Chair of the National Research Council (NRC) Working Group on Solar Influences on Global Change and, most recently, the NRC Committee on a Strategy to Mitigate the Impact of Sensor De-scopes and De-manifests on the NPOESS and GOES-R Spacecraft. A member of the AGU, IAGA, AAS/SPD and AMS, she was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union in 2002 and a member of US National Academy of Sciences in 2003. Dr. Caspar Ammann is a research scientist, in the Climate and Global Dynamics Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado. He has a M.S. degree in Geography and Geology from the University of Bern, Switzerland and a Ph.D. in Geosciences from the University of Massachusetts. His primary research is focused on the climate of past centuries and millennia, and how the current changes compare to this natural background. He has reconstructed past climates as well as volcanic forcing from proxy (e.g., ice cores, corals etc..) records and then simulated climate variability and response to forcings in state-of-the-art coupled Atmosphere-Ocean-General Circulation Models.

Separating Solar and Anthropogenic (Greenhouse Gas-Related) Climate Impacts During the past three decades a suite of space-based instruments has monitored the Sun’s brightness as well as the Earth’s surface and atmospheric temperatures. These datasets enable the separation of climate’s responses to solar activity from other sources of climate variability (anthropogenic greenhouse gases, El Niño Southern Oscillation, volcanic aerosols). The empirical evidence indicates that the solar irradiance 11-year cycle increase of 0.1% produces a global surface temperature increase of about 0.1 K with larger increases at higher altitudes. Historical solar brightness changes are estimated by modeling the contemporary irradiance changes in terms of their solar magnetic sources (dark sunspots and bright faculae) in conjunction with simulated long-term evolution of solar magnetism. In this way, the solar irradiance increase since the seventeenth century Maunder Minimum is estimated to be slightly larger than the increase in recent solar activity cycles, and smaller than early estimates that were based on variations in Sun-like stars and cosmogenic isotopes. Ongoing studies are beginning to decipher the empirical Sun- climate connections as a combination of responses to direct solar heating of the surface and lower atmosphere, and indirect heating via solar UV irradiance impacts on the ozone layer and middle atmosphere, with subsequent communication to the surface and climate. The associated physical pathways appear to involve the modulation of existing dynamical and circulation atmosphere-ocean couplings, including the El Nino Southern Oscillation (El Nino/La Nina cycles) and the Quasi-Biennial Oscillation. The Sun's Role in Past, Current and Future Climate Change Correlations of instrumental or reconstructed climate time series with indices of solar activity are often being used to suggest that the climate system is tightly coupled to the sun. Yet correlations have to be used with caution because they are not necessarily synonymous with cause-and-effect relationships. Therefore, it is critical to understand the physical mechanisms that are responsible for the signals. Independent tests can then be applied to validate or reject a hypothesized link. Spatial structures that are related to the processes that translate the solar influence into a climatic response can serve as such a test. A particularly powerful example is obtained by looking at the vertical extent of the solar signal in the atmosphere. Biographies Dr. Judith Lean is Senior Scientist for Sun-Earth System Research in the Space Science Division of the Naval Research Laboratory in Washington, DC. She has served on a variety of NASA, NSF, NOAA and NRC advisory committees, including as Chair of the National Research Council (NRC) Working Group on Solar Influences on Global Change and, most recently, the NRC Committee on a Strategy to Mitigate the Impact of Sensor De-scopes and De-manifests on the NPOESS and GOES-R Spacecraft. A member of the AGU, IAGA, AAS/SPD and AMS, she was inducted as a Fellow of the American Geophysical Union in 2002 and a member of US National Academy of Sciences in 2003. Dr. Caspar Ammann is a research scientist, in the Climate and Global Dynamics Division of the National Center for Atmospheric Research in Boulder, Colorado. He has a M.S. degree in Geography and Geology from the University of Bern, Switzerland and a Ph.D. in Geosciences from the University of Massachusetts. His primary research is focused on the climate of past centuries and millennia, and how the current changes compare to this natural background. He has reconstructed past climates as well as volcanic forcing from proxy (e.g., ice cores, corals etc..) records and then simulated climate variability and response to forcings in state-of-the-art coupled Atmosphere-Ocean-General Circulation Models.