Podcasts about litwa

Gościem Urszuli Pieczek jest dr Piotr Szatkowski z Instytutu Slawistyki PAN, badacz i popularyzator społeczności mazurskiej. Opowiada o odkrywaniu swojej mazurskiej tożsamości, badaniach terenowych nad językiem i kulturą mazurską. Dlaczego Niemcy i Polacy po II wojnie światowej sprzeczali się o Mazurów. Dlaczego ich język drażnił i Polaków, i Niemców? Jak dziś promować kulturę mazurską? I jakie jest mazurskie słówko na dziś? Współpraca w ramach projektu PULSE z Delfi.lt (Litwa). Więcej podcastów na: https://wyborcza.pl/podcast. Piszcie do nas w każdej sprawie na: listy@wyborcza.pl.

Celebrating the Audible release of Hermetica 1 with Dr M David Litwa. Recently Dr Litwa re-translated the texts of the Hermetica and organized them for the purpose of initiation into the Way of Hermes. Narrated on Audible by yours truly, this is our celebration and behind-the-scenes of that process. Get the book today in print and on audible: https://amzn.to/43byGnXSupport this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/magick-without-fears-frater-r-c-hermetic-podcast/exclusive-contentAdvertising Inquiries: https://redcircle.com/brandsPrivacy & Opt-Out: https://redcircle.com/privacy

W cyklu Mniejszości w większości Urszula Pieczek z "Wyborczej" rozmawia z Joanną Wilengowską, dziennikarką i pisarką, autorką książki "Król Warmii i Saturna", o tożsamości warmińskiej i warmińskiej gwarze. Współpraca w ramach projektu PULSE z Delfi.lt (Litwa). Więcej podcastów na: https://wyborcza.pl/podcast. Piszcie do nas w każdej sprawie na: listy@wyborcza.pl.

Audycja prawie w całości poświęcona marcowemu zgrupowaniu reprezentacji Polski w piłce nożnej. Zaglądamy też do Miami, gdzie gra Iga Świątek, oraz do Lahti, gdzie zagościł PŚ w skokach narciarskih.

Wycofanie amerykańskiego parasola doprowadziłoby do poważnego kryzysu; przewidywania Bałtów w tym aspekcie są zgodne - mówi ekspert Ośrodka Studiów Wschodnich.

W 203 wydaniu podcastu "Czytamy po rosyjsku" Bartosz Gołąbek i Magdalena Paciorek rozmawiają o ostatecznym odpięciu krajów nadbałtyckich od rosyjskiej infrastruktury elektrycznej, logistyce morskiej z Rosji w kierunku Królewca, zamknięciu Rosyjskiego Domu w Baku oraz o tzw. pornograficznym Oskarze dla twórczyni pochodzącej z Rosji.Źródła:⁠https://www.bbc.com/russian/articles/cgkjpxvznd3o⁠https://kgd.ru/news/society/item/112128-dorogo-i-serdito-chto-postavlyayut-paromami-v-kaliningradskuyu-oblast  https://verstka.media/russki_dom_baku_newshttps://www.spb.kp.ru/daily/27660/5045153/⁠  Skarbonka Spraw Wschodu: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://buycoffee.to/sprawywschoduPatronite⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠:⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ https://patronite.pl/sprawywschoduInstagram: https://www.instagram.com/sprawywschoduFacebook: https://www.facebook.com/SprawyWschodu/

W dzisiejszej audycji mówimy o odłączeniu się państw bałtyckich od rosyjskiej sieci elektroenergetycznej. Zdajemy także relację z prezentacji ogłoszonego przez premiera Donalda Tuska programu "Polska. Rok przełomu”. W 85 rocznicę wspominamy pierwszą masową deportację Polaków na Syberię. Naszym gościem jest Marcin Wojciechowski, były chargé d'affaires na Białorusi w latach 2020-2024, autor książki „Europejski wybór Białorusi. Stracona szansa?".

Czy Suworow będzie świętym cerkwi rosyjskiej. Litwa, Łotwa i Estonia odcinają się od posowieckiego systemu energetycznego,

Ready for the deeper secrets of Hermes Trismegistus? It's always an honor and a pleasure when David Litwa materializes at the Virtual Alexandria. He'll share his new work, Hermetica I: The Corpus Hermeticum, Asclepius, and Nag Hammadi Hermetica Ordered as a Path of Initiation. You'll find new translations and systems that grant new vistas into the Hermetic view on the nature of God, reality, and humanity. Prepare for expanded insights on such concepts as Gnosis, Nous, and Rebirth. In the Age of Hermes, this is where we hold the Archons; this is where we fight; this is where they die (borrowing from the film 300).More on David: https://mdavidlitwa.com/Get the book: https://amzn.to/4h21uFfhttps://mdavidlitwa.thrivecart.com/gnosis/Stream All Astro Gnosis Conferences for the price of one: https://thegodabovegod.com/replay-sophia/The Gnostic Tarot: https://www.makeplayingcards.com/sell/synkrasisHomepage: https://thegodabovegod.com/ Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/aeonbyteAB Prime: https://thegodabovegod.com/members/subscription-levels/ Virtual Alexandria Academy: https://thegodabovegod.com/virtual-alexandria-academy/Voice Over services: https://thegodabovegod.com/voice-talent/ Support with donation: https://buy.stripe.com/00g16Q8RK8D93mw288Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/aeon-byte-gnostic-radio/donationsAdvertising Inquiries: https://redcircle.com/brandsPrivacy & Opt-Out: https://redcircle.com/privacy

Ponadto: Słowackie „misie” z Moskwą. Porozumienie Iran – Rosja. Obronność Litwy. Odnalezione korony Jagiellonów

Donald Tusk ogłosił zgodę Ukrainy na ekshumacje. Wywiad Friedmana z Zełeńskim. Litwa porzuci zakaz min przeciwpiechotnych?

Powinniśmy bronić Ukrainy jak siebie, a tego nie robimy - mówi w najnowszym odcinku podcastu „Globalny Chrząszcz” Vytautas Landsbergis, były przywódca Litwy. Wspomina też kluczowe dla swojego kraju wydarzenia 13 stycznia 1991 Vytautas Landsbergis mówi w rozmowie z Jerzym Haszczyńskim o zagrożeniach ze strony Rosji i nadziejach na przetrwanie zjednoczonej Europy. „To pozostaje w pamięci na całe życie” – mówi Vytautas Landsbergis o 13 stycznia 1991 roku, kiedy Litwa zmagała się z sowiecką agresją. Pod wieżą telewizyjną w Wilnie Litwini stawiali opór, wierząc w możliwość zwycięstwa. Landsbergis podkreśla, że choć tamten wróg był brutalny, w końcu się cofnął. Dzisiejsza Rosja, jak zauważa, jest inna: „Ten wróg się nie cofa, dopóki nie zostanie pokonany”. Zwraca uwagę, że wojna na Ukrainie to tylko etap w wielkiej wojnie przeciwko Europie i Zachodowi. Vytautas Landsbergis opowiada, kiedy i dlaczego uczył się języka polskiego. Polski był mu potrzebny do lepszego poznania życia i twórczości wybitnego litewskiego kompozytora i malarza Mikalojusa Konstantinasa Čiurlionisa. „Jego utwory literackie pisane po polsku są przepiękne” – podkreśla prof. Landsbergis. Więcej na stronie: rp.pl Twitterze: twitter.com/rzeczpospolita Facebooku: facebook.com/dziennikrzeczpospolita Linkedin: linkedin.com/company/rzeczpospolita/ #wojnanaukrainie #podcast #rosja #litwa

Często pytają nas Państwo, jakie lektury polecają eksperci OSW. W tym odcinku - przy okazji zbliżających się świąt - odpowiadamy na to pytanie. Wybraliśmy kilka książek, które chcielibyśmy polecić. Ten materiał nie jest materiałem sponsorowanym.  00:00-00:59 - wstęp  01:00-04:03 -  „Moja Jugosławia” 04:04-07:23 - „Finlandia kontra Stalin” 07:24-09:58 - „Dżiny” 09:59-10:36 - „Litwa po litewsku” 10:37-13:20 - „Przygody i podróże Polaka po kresach ZSRR w latach 1917-27” 13:21-14:43 - „Wojna made in Russia” 14:44-15:56 - „Showman” 15:57-17:07 - „War” 17:08-18:33 - „Wieczne państwo” 18:34-20:14 - „Bitwa o Amerykę” 20:15-21:17 - zakończenie

Antoni Radczenko uhonorowany odznaczeniem. Aukcja na rzecz Ukrainy (dobre na prezent!). Komunikat 24 polskich i ukraińskich historyków.

W audycji mówimy, że Litwa ma nowy rząd. W litewskim parlamencie został zatwierdzony program nowego gabinetu. Miało też miejsce zaprzysiężenie nowych ministrów. Program rządu przewiduje wzmocnienie współpracy z Polską. Tekę ministra spraw wewnętrznych objął wileński Polak. Gościem programu jest  Joanna Mucha, sekretarz stanu w Ministerstwie Edukacji Narodowej, z którą rozmawiamy o nowej strategii wobec polskich szkół za granicą i promocji dwujęzyczności. Zapraszamy również na Radiowy Magazyn Kuriera Galicyjskiego.

Mecenasi programu: ChatLab ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠www.chatlab.pl ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ Ekovolits: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://ekovolits.pl ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ (00:00) Wstęp (1:11) Francuski parlament przegłosował wotum nieufności wobec rządu (2:40) Opozycja składa wniosek o impeachment prezydenta Korei Południowej po próbie wprowadzenia stanu wojennego (4:04) Niemiecka infrastruktura ma być celem rosyjskich ataków (5:31) Osiem państw sprzeciwia się przystąpieniu Ukrainy do Sojuszu Północnoatlantyckiego (6:56) Litwa ogranicza liczbę przyjmowanych imigrantów (8:19) Właściciel Facebooka i Instagrama nie odnotował większego natężenia dezinformacji w trakcie wyborów w Rumunii Informacje przygotował Maurycy Mietelski. Nadzór redakcyjny – Igor Janke. Czyta Michał Ziomek

Więcej tu: sasana.wikidot.com/sekrety-klasztoru-bodhinyanaStrona grupy Theravada Kraków na Facebooku: www.facebook.com/TheravadaKrakowSławek Pezda – ur. 29.10.1988, z zawodu i pasji saksofonista, improwizator, kompozytor, lider i założyciel zespołów The Flash! i Sławek Pezda Quartet. W tym życiu egzystuje na Ziemi już od 35 lat z czego gra od 25. Koncerty są dla niego swego rodzaju medytacją do której zaprasza również swoich słuchaczy. Jego imię oznacza „sławiący pokój”. Nazwisko nie wiadomo... Pisze takie dziwne autobiografie bo jest Buddystą.Nie jest nauczycielem medytacji, a jedynie współmedytującym, który chciałby podzielić się swoją wiedzą i doświadczeniem zdobytym podczas ostatnich 6 lat praktyki. Inspiruje się głównie naukami nauczycieli buddyjskich takich jak: Ajahn Brahm, Ajahn Brahmali, Bhante Sunyo, Ajahn Thanissaro, Ajahn Sona i oczywiście przede wszystkim Buddha. Na początku 2024 roku spędził 8 tygodni w Australii w buddyjskim klasztorze Bodhinyana gdzie praktykował pod okiem Ajahna Brahma. Oprócz tego brał udział w kilkunastu odosobnieniach medytacyjnych m.in. Kursy Vipassany w nauczaniu S.N. Goenki. Odosobnienie z Bhante Sunyo (uczniem Ajahna Brahma), Odosobnienia z Piotrem Jagodzińskim, Piotrem Iwanickim (z Ajahnem Thanissaro online), Piotrem Płanetą i inne. Oprócz tego ćwiczy jogę i pije świeżo wyciskane soki.

Jest czwartek, 14 października, a w najnowszym odcinku „Twój Biznes” Bartłomiej Kawałek podsumowuje kluczowe wydarzenia gospodarcze. Dzisiaj przyjrzymy się sytuacji na rynku pracy, rozwojowi polskiego eksportu zbrojeniowego oraz trendom na Giełdzie Papierów Wartościowych. Ponadto poznaliśmy zwycięzców XX edycji Rankingu Samorządów Rzeczpospolitej, gdzie najwyższe miejsca zajęły Dąbrowa Górnicza, Łeba i gmina Skalmierzyce. Najważniejsze informacje: Rośnie liczba ofert pracy – W październiku na polskich portalach rekrutacyjnych opublikowano o 12% więcej ofert niż rok temu. Poszukiwani są głównie specjaliści IT, inżynierowie oraz specjaliści z sektora logistyki. Eksport Piorunów – Polski przemysł zbrojeniowy przyciąga uwagę krajów europejskich. Norwegia, Litwa i Estonia planują zakup polskich wyrzutni Piorun, dzięki czemu Polska oraz jej partnerzy zyskają premię finansową z unijnego programu EDIRPA. Problemy i prymusi na GPW – Mimo trudnych warunków rynkowych niektóre spółki na GPW, takie jak Forte, Dino i Bank Millenium, notują solidne wzrosty, co chroni je przed spadkami widocznymi w indeksie WIG20. InPost wychodzi poza granice Polski – Nowa usługa pozwoli klientom wysyłać paczki między paczkomatami w Polsce a sześcioma krajami europejskimi, z konkurencyjnymi cenami dostawy. Zapraszamy do subskrypcji i śledzenia kolejnych odcinków na rp.pl, aby być na bieżąco z najnowszymi analizami i informacjami gospodarczymi!

Mecenasi programu: ChatLab ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠www.chatlab.pl ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ Ekovolits: ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠https://ekovolits.pl ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ (1:11) Prezydent Andrzej Duda twierdzi, że Polska priorytetowo traktuje politykę klimatyczną. Według przywódcy Azerbejdżanu, Zachód przejawia hipokryzję w sprawie paliw kopalnych (3:24) Zwolennicy twardej polityki wobec imigracji pierwszymi nominatami Donalda Trumpa (5:42) Litwa pomimo sankcji zwiększa wymianę handlową z Białorusią (7:06) W Hiszpanii rosną wydatki na obsługę imigrantów (8:36) Przywódca duchowy Kościoła anglikańskiego zrezygnował ze stanowiska w związku z tuszowaniem nadużyć Informacje przygotował Maurycy Mietelski. Nadzór redakcyjny – Igor Janke. Czyta Michał Ziomek

Rozmowa z prezesem Markiem Horbaniem. Wiadomości z Ukrainy. Sytuacja Akcji Wyborczej Polaków na Litwie.

Rasa Rimickaite w ubiegłym roku została uhonorowana przez Forum Współpracy i Dialogu Polska-Litwa nagrodą za wieloletnią działalność na rzecz współpracy kulturalnej, budowania pozytywnych relacji pomiędzy Polską i Litwą oraz pozytywnego wizerunku obu państw w opinii publicznej. Była również attaché ds. kultury w ambasadzie Republiki Litewskiej w Polsce. W Dwójce opowiedziała m.in. o tym, jak trafiła do Polski.

Dziś w programie o współpracy gospodarczej i militarnej Polski i Korei Południowej – prezydent Andrzej Duda składa wizytę w tym kraju; o wyborach parlamentarnych w Gruzji, które odbędą się 26 października, o 35 rocznicy śmierci Jerzego Kukuczki, wybitnego polskiego himalaisty, który był drugim człowiekiem na świecie, po włoskim himalaiście Reinholdzie Messnerze, który zdobył Koronę Himalajów i Karakorum - wszystkie 14 szczytów o wysokości powyżej ośmiu tysięcy metrów. Zaś gość programu - dr Paulina  Małochleb z Ośrodka Komunikacji Międzynarodowego Centrum Kultury w Krakowie – powie o książce „Litwa ojczyzna moja” Tomasa Venclowy. Zapraszamy do słuchania!      

Korespondent Radia Wnet w Ukrainie komentuje plan pokojowy przedstawiony przez prezydenta Ukrainy Włodymyra Zełeńskiego. Politolodzy ukraińscy nie widzą możliwości, żeby teraz ten plan pokojowy prezydenta Zelenckiego był zrealizowany. Albo żeby też my przystąpili do jakichkolwiek rokowań w zamian za to, że nie  uznamy okupowane przez Rosję terytoria za ich de facto, a po prostu, że zamknijmy oczy na to. Na to nie przystaje ani prezydent Zełeński, ani ukraiński naród - tłumaczy Dmytro Antoniuk.  Rozmówca Łukasza Jankowskiego podaje, że reakcja na propozycję prezydenta Ukrainy, jego planu pokojowego jest absolutnie niejednoznaczna w Europie i w świecie: Francja popiera plan prezydenta Zelenskiego, Litwa popiera, niektóre też kraje skandynawskie popierają go, a na przykład Stany Zjednoczone nie. Na zakończenie rozmowy Dmytro Antoniuk podsumowuję rosnącą obecność żołnierzy z Korei Północnej po stronie rosyjskiej. Zastanawia się nad znaczeniem tego zjawiska, które wskazuje na desperację Kremla oraz na to, jak bardzo Rosja może sięgać po zaciągi z innych krajów w sytuacji, gdy jej własne zasoby zaczynają się wyczerpywać.  

Litwa złożyła w Hadze wniosek przeciw Łukaszence. 11 nagroda w tym roku Adama Kadyrowa. Trudna sytuacja w Pokrowsku.

Dominik Wilczewski, autor książki "Litwa po litewsku" o kształtowaniu się litewskiej tożsamości

Karaimi to mniejszość etniczna i religijna, której korzenie sięgają Bliskiego Wschodu i Krymu. Ta społeczność przez setki lat była nieodłącznym elementem kulturowego tygla Europy Wschodniej, zamieszkując na obszarach dzisiejszej Rosji, Litwy, Białorusi, Ukrainy i Polski. Karaimi mieszkają dziś nie tylko w tych krajach, ale także w Izraelu, Stanach Zjednoczonych i Turcji. O religii, kulturze i tradycji karaimskiej Igor Rakowski-Kłos z "Gazety Wyborczej" rozmawia z Mariolą Abkowicz, przewodniczącą Zarządu Związku Karaimów Polskich, nauczycielką akademicką związaną z Instytutem Orientalistyki Uniwersytetu im. Adama Mickiewicza w Poznaniu. Zapraszamy do słuchania nowego cyklu podcastów "Mniejszości w większości" o mniejszościach etnicznych zamieszkujących Polskę. Nowe odcinki co dwa tygodnie. Współpraca w ramach projektu PULSE z Delfi.lt (Litwa). Więcej podcastów na: https://wyborcza.pl/podcast. Piszcie do nas w każdej sprawie na: listy@wyborcza.pl.

30 września przedstawiciele litewskiego Ministerstwa Sprawiedliwości złożyli do Międzynarodowego Trybunału Karnego w Hadze (MTK) wniosek Republiki Litewskiej (RL) o wszczęcie śledztwa w sprawie sytuacji na Białorusi zgodnie z art. 14 Rzymskiego Statutu MTK. O co oskarża Litwa reżim Łukaszenki? Jaki to może mieć wpływ na Białoruś? Czy to dobry kierunek działań wobec reżimu? Na te i inne pytania odpowiada Kamil Kłysiński, ekspert OSW. https://www.osw.waw.pl/pl/publikacje/analizy/2024-10-02/litwa-oskarza-rezim-lukaszenki-o-zbrodnie-przeciwko-ludzkosci-0

W tym odcinku rozmawiamy o tym, czy możemy oczekiwać zmian w sprawie ekshumacji ofiar rzezi wołyńskiej na Ukrainie oraz o tym, jak Litwa chce ścigać Alaksandra Łukaszenkę. Moimi gośćmi będą Łukasz Adamski z Centrum Mieroszewskiego oraz białoruski opozycjonista Paweł Łatuszka. Na antenie Trójki można było usłyszeć utwory: Odyn w Kanoe – Czowen Nurnberg – Himn Palina – Sałomki Można je znaleźć na playlistach Radio Wschód w Spotify: https://cutt.ly/BRLGvhP i na YouTube https://tinyurl.com/3995skds Po prostu Wschód w portalach społecznościowych: Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/poprostuwschod Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/po_prostu_wschod/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/PogorzelskiP⁠⁠⁠ Po prostu Wschód na stronach Polskiego Radia: https://podcasty.polskieradio.pl/podcast/367 https://trojka.polskieradio.pl/audycja/10612 Przygotowanie audycji jest całkowicie sfinansowane przez Polskie Radio, jeśli jednak chcą Państwo mnie i tak wesprzeć, można to zrobić tu: https://patronite.pl/PiotrPogorzelski buycoffee.to/ppw

W dzisiejszym odcinku podcastu przedstawiam książkę Tomasa Venclovy „Litwa, ojczyzna moja”. Książka ta wprowadza polskojęzycznych czytelników w litewską wersję historii, odmienną od polonocentrycznych narracji. Książka kończy się na roku 1991, a więc unika kontrowersji współczesnej polityki (nie tylko) litewskiej.Książka wydana przez MCK Kraków.przekład

Słuchasz regularnie? Rozważ zostanie Patronem: https://patronite.pl/radionaukoweMega odcinek? Może jednorazowe suppi? https://suppi.pl/radionaukowe***Awanturniczy Kmicic niechcący wplątany w zdradę stanu, podstępni książęta Radziwiłłowie, wysadzenie w powietrze szwedzkiej kolubryny grożącej Jasnej Górze, odkupienie win w wiernej służbie królowi Janowi Kazimierzowi Wazie, wreszcie zwycięska bitwa Stefana Czarnieckiego ze Szwedami, dawnych grzechów odpuszczenie, król Jędrkowi skronie ściska. Wszyscy pamiętamy te sceny z filmu „Potop”. A jak to wyglądało z perspektywy historycznej? O potopie szwedzkim, jego przyczynach, przebiegu i konsekwencjach rozmawiam z prof. Michałem Kopczyńskim z Wydziału Historii Uniwersytetu Warszawskiego i Muzeum Historii Polski.Termin jest nieprzypadkowy, bo za początek potopu uznaje się datę 21 lipca 1655 roku. Zanim jednak Szwedzi wkroczyli do Polski, wiele musiało się wydarzyć. Często wskazuje się na podłoże rodzinno-dynastyczne: polski król elekcyjny Zygmunt III Waza był też z urodzenia królem szwedzkim i na szwedzkiej koronie bardzo mu zależało. – Potop nie jest konfliktem dynastii Wazów, jest czymś znacznie szerszym – oponuje prof. Kopczyński.Szwedom zależy więc głównie na opanowaniu Pomorza, co pozwoliłoby im przejąć kontrolę nad całym handlem przechodzącym przez Bałtyk. Pieniądze są potrzebne, bo kraj tylko co wyszedł z wojny trzydziestoletniej i nie ma za co utrzymywać wojsk. Rzeczpospolita też nie ma się najlepiej. – To, co rozwaliło Rzeczpospolitą, to był konflikt wewnętrzny – wskazuje prof. Kopczyński. A konkretnie ciągnące się latami bunty kozackie. Kiedy polskie wojska angażują się na dwóch frontach (z Kozakami i z Moskwą), Szwedzi uznają, że racja stanu nakazuje im coś z tego uszczknąć, i wchodzą do Wielkopolski, następnie maszerują na Warszawę i dalej na południe. Polski król ucieka na Śląsk, spora część szlachty składa przysięgę na wierność Szwedom.Właśnie kwestia zdrady polskiej i litewskiej szlachty jest tu niezmiernie ciekawa. Symbolem jest znany z Sienkiewicza książę Janusz Radziwiłł, ale zdrajców było znacznie więcej. List o uznaniu władzy króla szwedzkiego podpisał nawet… przeor Augustyn Kordecki z Jasnej Góry. Kluczowe są tu jednak motywacje. Przeor grał na zwłokę, by Szwedzi nie zaatakowali klasztoru. Część szlachciców przechodziła na stronę szwedzką na krótko, by np. odzyskać utracone tabory, po czym z powrotem wracała do polskiego króla. Część, jak Radziwiłł, rzeczywiście szukała korzyści osobistych. Takich postaci było tak wiele, że po zakończeniu wojny pojawił się problem, kogo ukarać za zdradę. Kozłem ofiarnym zostali arianie – nie zdradzili bardziej niż inni, ale zbytnio różnili się wyznaniem.W odcinku usłyszycie też, kim najbardziej wstrząsnęło oblężenie Jasnej Góry, co rabowali Szwedzi, co się dzieje, kiedy wojsko zje chłopu woła, oraz czy Szwedzi spodziewali się, że atak na Polskę tak dobrze im pójdzie.

Moim gościem jest dziennikarz “Przeglądu Bałtyckiego” i autor książki „Litwa po litewsku” Dominik Wilczewski, z którym rozmawiamy o tym, dlaczego Litwini nie lubią Rosjan, mogą mieć pewne podejrzenia, co do Polaków i o czym przypomina im agresja Rosji na Ukrainę. Na antenie Trójki można było usłyszeć utwory: Shishi – Burbulas ir Burbuliene Egomasina – Juros Banga Gabriele Vilkickyte – Patalai Free Finga – Chemija Sisters on wire - Melyna Melyna Można je znaleźć na playlistach Radio Wschód w Spotify: https://cutt.ly/BRLGvhP i na YouTube https://tinyurl.com/3995skds Po prostu Wschód w portalach społecznościowych: Kanał WhatsApp: https://whatsapp.com/channel/0029VaD6Ae17IUYMJUyd4Z1z Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/poprostuwschod Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/po_prostu_wschod/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/PogorzelskiP⁠⁠⁠ Po prostu Wschód na stronach Polskiego Radia: https://podcasty.polskieradio.pl/podcast/367 https://trojka.polskieradio.pl/audycja/10612 Przygotowanie audycji jest całkowicie sfinansowane przez Polskie Radio, jeśli jednak chcą Państwo mnie i tak wesprzeć, można to zrobić tu: https://patronite.pl/PiotrPogorzelski buycoffee.to/ppw

Relacje II Rzeczpospolitej z Litwą były napięte od początku. Zadecydował o tym przede wszystkim polsko-litewski konflikt z lat 1919-1920 o kształt granicy. Polskie wojsko zajęło ostatecznie Wilno, co dla Litwy było olbrzymim ciosem. Z drugiej strony, polska mniejszość, która pozostała na Litwie była represjonowana przez władze państwowe. Przedstawimy ważne postaci po polskiej i litewskiej stronie, które decydowały o biegu wydarzeń. Przypomnimy postać wojewody Bociańskiego, który odcisnął swoje piętno na województwie wileńskim. Spojrzymy na zmianę w relacjach, które nastąpiły po śmierci pochodzącego z okolic Wilna Józefa Piłsudskiego. Skąd wziął się ten konflikt? Dlaczego I wojna światowa była tak kluczowa dla rozwoju wydarzeń na Litwie? Dlaczego istotną w nim rolę odgrywało dziedzictwo I Rzeczpospolitej? Co z tym wspólnego miał zyskujący na znaczeniu nacjonalizm? O tym wszystkim w podcaście Muzeum Historii Polski. W dzisiejszym podcaście rozmawiają dr Michał Przeperski i jego gość, dr. Wojciech Stanisławski, historyk z Muzeum Historii Polski Zapraszamy do subskrypcji naszych profili! Podcast zrealizowano w ramach zadania: kontynuacja i rozbudowa multimedialnego projektu informacyjno-edukacyjnego - Portal Historyczny Dzieje.pl

Na wojnie ludzie stosują różne rodzaje broni, np. pistolety, karabiny, armaty, czołgi czy tzw. broń białą jak szable, miecze, bagnety. Żołnierze używają tej broni podczas wojny. Jest jednak broń, która zabija także po wojnie. Tą bronią są miny. Dlaczego tak się dzieje? Karabinu używa żołnierz. Gdy wojna się kończy żołnierze o tym wiedzą i przestają do siebie strzelać. Niestety podczas wojny żołnierze zakopali w ziemi miny i gdy wojna się kończy te miny nie wiedzą, że wojna się skończyła. Gdy ktoś nadepnie na minę ona wybuchnie i to niezależnie czy trwa wojna czy może się już skończyła. Ale czy można znaleźć wszystkie miny, które schowano podczas wojny?Dziś będziemy mówić o polskim inżynierze, który uratował tysiące żołnierzy, a także cywilów. Uratował ich przed śmiercią lub kalectwem. Będziemy mówić o Polaku, który wynalazł ręczny wykrywacz min. Kim z wykształcenia był Józef Kosacki?Kosacki w 1933 uzyskał dyplom inżyniera elektryka na politechnice warszawskiej. Po studiach odbył służbę wojskową w szkole podchorążych saperów. W 1934 przeszedł do rezerwy i do 1939 roku pracował w Państwowym Instytucie Telekomunikacyjnym. Co robił podczas we wrześniu 1939 roku?Podczas obrony Warszawy w 1939 roku prezydent tego miasta Stefan Starzyński przemawiał przez radio. Niemcy uszkodzili nadajnik, a Józef Kosacki go naprawił. Co się stało gdy Polacy przegrali wojnę w 1939?Jak wielu innych Polaków Kosacki przedostał się do Francji przez Węgry. Gdy Francja upadła pojechał do Wielkiej Brytanii, a konkretnie do Szkocji. Dlaczego Polscy żołnierze przeszli z Polski na Węgry?Polscy żołnierze nie uciekali. Dostali taki rozkaz, aby przejść południową granicę i później dalej walczyć z Niemcami. Tak samo Józef Kosacki. Zgodnie z rozkazem przeszedł na Węgry, ale później dołączył do armii najpierw we Francji, a potem w Anglii. Jak się nazywał przywódca, który wydał rozkaz aby polscy żołnierze wycofali się na Węgry?W Polsce najwyższym dowódcą wojskowym był marszałek Rydz-Śmigły. Niemcy zaatakowali Polskę 1 września 1939 roku. 17 września zaatakowali też Rosjanie. Wtedy marszałek wydał rozkaz aby polskie wojsko wycofało się na Węgry. Czy pamiętacie kto podczas II wojny światowej rządził w Niemczech, a kto w Anglii? Co chciał zrobić Hitler gdy już pokonał Polskę w 1939, a później Francję w 1940?Hitler chciał najechać na Brytanię, a Churchill oczywiście chciał obronić tą wyspę. Dlaczego Churchill kazał minować plaże w Brytanii? Jak można sprawdzić czy na polu przed tobą są miny?Krowa, która weszła na pole minowe mogła wykryć tylko pierwszą minę. Z kolei ludzie, którzy próbowali odkopać miny musieli to robić bardzo wolno i delikatnie. To było bardzo powolne i niebezpieczne. Właśnie dlatego stworzono wykrywacz min. Kiedy wynaleziono polski wykrywacz min?Józef Kosacki zbudował ten wykrywacz w 1941, a pierwszy raz był użyty na wojnie w 1942. II wojna światowa trwała od 1939 do 1945, a więc ten wykrywacz zaczęto używać gdzieś w połowie wojny. Ile ważył ten wykrywacz min?Ten wykrywacz min był zbudowany z dwóch cewek. Przez jedną cewkę płynął prąd, który wytwarzał fale magnetyczne. Gdy te fale spotkały na swojej drodze coś metalowego to odbijały się i wracały do wykrywacza. Te odbite fale wytwarzały prąd w drugiej cewce, która była podłączona do słuchawek. Tak więc gdy w ziemi było coś metalowego to saper słyszał dźwięk w słuchawkach. Jak długo używano tego wykrywacza?Od 1941 roku, aż do 1991 czyli jakieś 50 lat, a więc pół wieku. Ten polski wykrywacz min był bezpieczniejszy, ale jakie jeszcze miał zalety?Pole minowe można było przejść w ten sposób, że jechał czołg, który miał takie długie ramię z przodu. To ramię powodowało wybuch miny przed czołgiem. Był to dobry sposób, ale głośny. Wrogowie słyszeli wybuch miny i wiedzieli, że ktoś idzie. Ten polski wykrywacz min był cichutki. Można było po cichu wykryć miny i przejść tak, że wróg nie zauważy. Gdzie pierwszy raz użyto tych wykrywaczy min?W Afryce Brytyjczycy walczyli z Niemcami. Zakopali oni miny i myśleli, że nikt tamtędy nie przejdzie. Angielski generał kazał te pola minowe oczyścić przy pomocy polskiego wykrywacza min i właśnie przez tamte pola zaatakował Niemców, którzy nie spodziewali się ataku z tamtej strony.Teraz kilka wyjaśnień z geografii. Czy Anglia i Wielka Brytania to jest to samo? Co to są Wyspy Brytyjskie? Są dwie wyspy brytyjskie. Jedna z nich jest większa i nazywa się ona Wielka Brytania. Na tej wyspie leży kilka krajów takich jak Anglia, Szkocja i Walia. Te państwa są zjednoczone i dlatego czasami na całą wyspę mówi się Anglia. To tak jak kiedyś Polska i Litwa były zjednoczone, ale dalej pozostawały osobnymi krajami. W Wielkiej Brytanii są aż trzy zjednoczone kraje, ale dalej są osobnymi krajami. Józef Kosacki przybył na Wyspę Brytyjską i większość czasu spędził tam na północy czyli w Szkocji.3 kwietnia 1941 roku wydarzył się wypadek. Na plaży koło Arbroath w Szkocji rotmistrz Stanisław Górski i kapral Stanisław Stasiak z 14 pułku ułanów zginęli na polu minowym. Józef Kosacki gdy już przebywał w Szkocji usłyszał o wypadku dwóch polskich żołnierzy. Szli oni przez plażę i wybuchła mina, która miała wybuchnąć gdy wjedzie na nią niemiecki czołg. Mina wybuchła jednak gdy nadepnęli na nią dużo lżejsi żołnierze. Kosacki skonstruował więc wykrywacz min, który stosowano podczas II wojny światowej i wiele dziesięcioleci później. Tego wykrywacza używano przez 50 lat.Niestety dalej jest potrzeba wykrywania min. W momencie gdy to nagrywamy na Ukrainie już drugi rok trwa wojna. Rosjanie wykorzystują pola minowe, aby utrudnić Ukraińcom odbicie swojego terytorium. Kiedyś miny trzeba było zakopywać. Teraz są wyrzutnie min, które rozrzucają miny po terenie. Tak więc niestety pracy dla saperów, czyli tych którzy wykrywają miny dalej jest bardzo dużo. Gdy skończy się wojna na Ukrainie miny pozostaną i ktoś będzie musiał ich poszukać, a do użyją do tego wykrywaczy min.

An interview with Dr. David Litwa The strange story of Simon in the Bible illustrates the uncomfortable truth that Christianity seems to reinvent itself when it defines itself in opposition to its perceived enemies. In this biblical account, Simon (later called Simon Magus) appears to have been repenting properly from his mistake of offering to pay for the spiritual instructions, when Peter lashed out at him harshly. Litwa thinks the Acts of the Apostles was written many decades after the struggle between Simon of Samaria and Peter, and the author of Acts appears to have used a document known as “Simon and the Great Declaration,” for a source. This earlier Simonian document, written by Simon's followers, refers to him as Simon Christ, concurring with Simon's own declaration of his equality with Christ. Such a move would have put him in direct competition with Peter and in opposition to the objectives of the author of Acts to position Peter as the head of the Christian movement.

He’s been called a magician, a prophet, an anti-christ and THE Gnostic heretic. But who was the real Simon of […]

It's always an enlightening pleasure when Dr David Litwa graces the Virtual Alexandria. This cycle, he'll discuss his new book, The Naassenes: Exploring an Early Christian Identity. Who were these serpent Christians who syncretically placed Jesus alongside other saviors like Hermes, Attis, and Osiris? What were their arcane beliefs and rituals, and how do their theologies compare to other Gnostic sects? From ancient Egyptian mysteries to Hellenistic theurgy, get ready to understand a movement that represented the best that mysticism offered in Greco-Roman times.Get the book: https://amzn.to/3TEpGooInfo on David: https://mdavidlitwa.wordpress.com/Take his course: https://matthew-s-site-659e.thinkific.com/courses/your-first-courseThe Gnostic Tarot: https://www.makeplayingcards.com/sell/synkrasisHomepage: https://thegodabovegod.com/ Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/aeonbyteAB Prime: https://thegodabovegod.com/members/subscription-levels/ Virtual Alexandria Academy: https://thegodabovegod.com/virtual-alexandria-academy/Voice Over services: https://thegodabovegod.com/voice-talent/ Astro Gnosis (Meet the Archons): https://thegodabovegod.com/meet-archon-replay/Support this podcast at — https://redcircle.com/aeon-byte-gnostic-radio/donationsAdvertising Inquiries: https://redcircle.com/brandsPrivacy & Opt-Out: https://redcircle.com/privacy

This week I sat down to chat with Dr David Litwa, translator of Hermetica II, including the fragments of Stobaeus, the Oxford & Vienna Hermetica & fragments from Church Fathers & antique authors in reference to Hermes Trismegistus. We discuss the current scope of Hermetic Literature as well as theories regarding Hermetic Communities & their interactions with early Christian groups. We also examine the figure of Hermes himself, how he was received in various circles up to the Medieval Period & his many roles throughout Hermetic influenced traditions. We equally discuss modern scholarship of the Hermetica, including Christian Bull's hypothesis of disenfranchised Egyptian priests & Hermetic Lodges, Wouter Hanegraaff's theories of Hermetic Spirituality & Christian Wildberg's forthcoming new translation of the Corpus Hermeticum, following his amendments to the marginalia. David is a scholar of ancient Mediterranean religions with a focus on the New Testament and early Christianity. He currently works at Boston College and is the unit chair of the Bible, Myth, and Myth Theory Group at the Society of Biblical Literature, as well as a member of the Society of New Testament Studies (SNTS). You can connect with him on his patreon: https://www.patreon.com/mdavidlitwa David's YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@m.davidlitwa ___________________________________________________________________________ Pre Enrollment & sign up for the waitlist on the new Hermetica Course is live now: https://www.mystai.co.uk/way-of-hermes Follow Mystai in all your usual places:

Listen to this episode on Spotify or Apple Podcasts Let's face it the New Testament probably calls Jesus God (or god) a couple of times and so do early Christian authors in the second century. However, no one offers much of an explanation for what they mean by the title. Did early Christians think Jesus was God because he represented Yahweh? Did they think he was God because he shared the same eternal being as the Father? Did they think he was a god because that's just what they would call any immortalized human who lived in heaven? In this presentation I focus on the question from the perspective of Greco-Roman theology. Drawing on the work of David Litwa, Andrew Perriman, Barry Blackburn, and tons of ancient sources I seek to show how Mediterranean converts to Christianity would have perceived Jesus based on their cultural and religious assumptions. This presentation is from the 3rd Unitarian Christian Alliance Conference on October 20, 2023 in Springfield, OH. Here is the original pdf of this paper. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5Z3QbQ7dHc —— Links —— See more scholarly articles by Sean Finnegan Get the transcript of this episode Support Restitutio by donating here Join our Restitutio Facebook Group and follow Sean Finnegan on Twitter @RestitutioSF Leave a voice message via SpeakPipe with questions or comments and we may play them out on the air Intro music: Good Vibes by MBB Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0) Free Download / Stream: Music promoted by Audio Library. Who is Sean Finnegan?  Read his bio here Introduction When early Christian authors called Jesus “god” (or “God”) what did they mean?[1] Modern apologists routinely point to pre-Nicene quotations in order to prove that early Christians always believed in the deity of Christ, by which they mean that he is of the same substance (homoousios) as the Father. However, most historians agree that Christians before the fourth century simply didn't have the cognitive categories available yet to think of Christ in Nicene or Chalcedonian ways. If this consensus is correct, it behooves us to consider other options for defining what early Christian authors meant. The obvious place to go to get an answer to our initial question is the New Testament. However, as is well known, the handful of instances in which authors unambiguously applied god (θεός) to Christ are fraught with textual uncertainty, grammatical ambiguity, and hermeneutical elasticity.[2]  What's more, granting that these contested texts[3] all call Jesus “god” provides little insight into what they might mean by that phrase. Turning to the second century, the earliest handful of texts that say Jesus is god are likewise textually uncertain or terse.[4] We must wait until the second half of the second century and beyond to have more helpful material to examine. We know that in the meanwhile some Christians were saying Jesus was god. What did they mean? One promising approach is to analyze biblical texts that call others gods. We find helpful parallels with the word god (אֱלֹהִים) applied to Moses (Exod 7.1; 4.16), judges (Exod 21.6; 22.8-9), kings (Is 9.6; Ps 45.6), the divine council (Ps 82.1, 6), and angels (Ps 8.6). These are texts in which God imbues his agents with his authority to represent him in some way. This rare though significant way of calling a representative “god,” continues in the NT with Jesus' clever defense to his accusers in John 10.34-36. Lexicons[5] have long recognized this “Hebraistic” usage and recent study tools such as the New English Translation (NET)[6] and the Zondervan Illustrated Bible Background Commentary[7] also note this phenomenon. But, even if this agency perspective is the most natural reading of texts like Heb 1.8, later Christians, apart from one or two exceptions appear to be ignorant of this usage.[8] This interpretation was likely a casualty of the so-called parting of the ways whereby Christianity transitioned from a second-temple-Jewish movement to a Gentile-majority religion. As such, to grasp what early postapostolic Christians believed, we must turn our attention elsewhere. Michael Bird is right when he says, “Christian discourses about deity belong incontrovertibly in the Greco-Roman context because it provided the cultural encyclopedia that, in diverse ways, shaped the early church's Christological conceptuality and vocabulary.”[9] Learning Greco-Roman theology is not only important because that was the context in which early Christians wrote, but also because from the late first century onward, most of our Christian authors converted from that worldview. Rather than talking about the Hellenization of Christianity, we should begin by asking how Hellenists experienced Christianization. In other words, Greco-Roman beliefs about the gods were the default lens through which converts first saw Christ. In order to explore how Greco-Roman theology shaped what people believed about Jesus as god, we do well to begin by asking how they defined a god. Andrew Perriman offers a helpful starting point. “The gods,” he writes, “are mostly understood as corporeal beings, blessed with immortality, larger, more beautiful, and more powerful than their mortal analogues.”[10] Furthermore, there were lots of them! The sublunar realm was, in the words of Paula Fredriksen, “a god-congested place.”[11] What's more, “[S]harp lines and clearly demarcated boundaries between divinity and humanity were lacking."[12] Gods could appear as people and people could ascend to become gods. Comprehending what Greco-Roman people believed about gods coming down and humans going up will occupy the first part of this paper. Only once we've adjusted our thinking to their culture, will we walk through key moments in the life of Jesus of Nazareth to hear the story with ancient Mediterranean ears. Lastly, we'll consider the evidence from sources that think of Jesus in Greco-Roman categories. Bringing this all together we'll enumerate the primary ways to interpret the phrase “Jesus is god” available to Christians in the pre-Nicene period. Gods Coming Down and Humans Going Up The idea that a god would visit someone is not as unusual as it first sounds. We find plenty of examples of Yahweh himself or non-human representatives visiting people in the Hebrew Bible.[13] One psalmist even referred to angels or “heavenly beings” (ESV) as אֱלֹהִים (gods).[14] The Greco-Roman world too told stories about divine entities coming down to interact with people. Euripides tells about the time Zeus forced the god Apollo to become a human servant in the house of Admetus, performing menial labor as punishment for killing the Cyclopes (Alcestis 1). Baucis and Philemon offered hospitality to Jupiter and Mercury when they appeared in human form (Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.26-34). In Homer's Odyssey onlookers warn Antinous for flinging a stool against a stranger since “the gods do take on the look of strangers dropping in from abroad”[15] (17.534-9). Because they believed the boundary between the divine realm and the Earth was so permeable, Mediterranean people were always on guard for an encounter with a god in disguise. In addition to gods coming down, in special circumstances, humans could ascend and become gods too. Diodorus of Sicily demarcated two types of gods: those who are “eternal and imperishable, such as the sun and the moon” and “the other gods…terrestrial beings who attained to immortal honour”[16] (The Historical Library of Diodorus the Sicilian 6.1). By some accounts, even the Olympian gods, including Kronos and Uranus were once mortal men.[17] Among humans who could become divine, we find several distinguishable categories, including heroes, miracle workers, and rulers. We'll look at each briefly before considering how the story of Jesus would resonate with those holding a Greco-Roman worldview. Deified Heroes Cornutus the Stoic said, “[T]he ancients called heroes those who were so strong in body and soul that they seemed to be part of a divine race.” (Greek Theology 31)[18] At first this statement appears to be a mere simile, but he goes on to say of Heracles (Hercules), the Greek hero par excellence, “his services had earned him apotheosis” (ibid.). Apotheosis (or deification) is the process by which a human ascends into the divine realm. Beyond Heracles and his feats of strength, other exceptional individuals became deified for various reasons. Amphiarus was a seer who died in the battle at Thebes. After opening a chasm in the earth to swallow him in battle, “Zeus made him immortal”[19] (Apollodorus, Library of Greek Mythology 3.6). Pausanias says the custom of the inhabitants of Oropos was to drop coins into Amphiarus' spring “because this is where they say Amphiarus rose up as a god”[20] (Guide to Greece 1.34). Likewise, Strabo speaks about a shrine for Calchas, a deceased diviner from the Trojan war (Homer, Illiad 1.79-84), “where those consulting the oracle sacrifice a black ram to the dead and sleep in its hide”[21] (Strabo, Geography 6.3.9). Though the great majority of the dead were locked away in the lower world of Hades, leading a shadowy pitiful existence, the exceptional few could visit or speak from beyond the grave. Lastly, there was Zoroaster the Persian prophet who, according to Dio Chrysostom, was enveloped by fire while he meditated upon a mountain. He was unharmed and gave advice on how to properly make offerings to the gods (Dio Chrysostom, Discourses 36.40). The Psuedo-Clementine Homilies include a story about a lightning bolt striking and killing Zoroaster. After his devotees buried his body, they built a temple on the site, thinking that “his soul had been sent for by lightning” and they “worshipped him as a god”[22] (Homily 9.5.2). Thus, a hero could have extraordinary strength, foresight, or closeness to the gods resulting in apotheosis and ongoing worship and communication. Deified Miracle Workers Beyond heroes, Greco-Roman people loved to tell stories about deified miracle workers. Twice Orpheus rescued a ship from a storm by praying to the gods (Diodorus of Sicily 4.43.1f; 48.5f). After his death, surviving inscriptions indicate that he both received worship and was regarded as a god in several cities.[23] Epimenides “fell asleep in a cave for fifty-seven years”[24] (Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers 1.109). He also predicted a ten-year period of reprieve from Persian attack in Athens (Plato Laws 1.642D-E). Plato called him a divine man (θεῖος ἀνήρ) (ibid.) and Diogenes talked of Cretans sacrificing to him as a god (Diogenes, Lives 1.114). Iamblichus said Pythagoras was the son of Apollo and a mortal woman (Life of Pythagoras 2). Nonetheless, the soul of Pythagoras enjoyed multiple lives, having originally been “sent to mankind from the empire of Apollo”[25] (Life 2). Diogenes and Lucian enumerate the lives the pre-existent Pythagoras led, including Aethalides, Euphorbus, Hermotimus, and Pyrrhus (Diogenes, Life of Pythagoras 4; Lucian, The Cock 16-20). Hermes had granted Pythagoras the gift of “perpetual transmigration of his soul”[26] so he could remember his lives while living or dead (Diogenes, Life 4). Ancient sources are replete with Pythagorean miracle stories.[27] Porphyry mentions several, including taming a bear, persuading an ox to stop eating beans, and accurately predicting a catch of fish (Life of Pythagoras 23-25). Porphyry said Pythagoras accurately predicted earthquakes and “chased away a pestilence, suppressed violent winds and hail, [and] calmed storms on rivers and on seas” (Life 29).[28] Such miracles, argued the Pythagoreans made Pythagoras “a being superior to man, and not to a mere man” (Iamblichus, Life 28).[29] Iamblichus lays out the views of Pythagoras' followers, including that he was a god, a philanthropic daemon, the Pythian, the Hyperborean Apollo, a Paeon, a daemon inhabiting the moon, or an Olympian god (Life 6). Another pre-Socratic philosopher was Empedocles who studied under Pythagoras. To him sources attribute several miracles, including stopping a damaging wind, restoring the wind, bringing dry weather, causing it to rain, and even bringing someone back from Hades (Diogenes, Lives 8.59).[30] Diogenes records an incident in which Empedocles put a woman into a trance for thirty days before sending her away alive (8.61). He also includes a poem in which Empedocles says, “I am a deathless god, no longer mortal, I go among you honored by all, as is right”[31] (8.62). Asclepius was a son of the god Apollo and a human woman (Cornutus, Greek Theology 33). He was known for healing people from diseases and injuries (Pindar, Pythian 3.47-50). “[H]e invented any medicine he wished for the sick, and raised up the dead”[32] (Pausanias, Guide to Greece 2.26.4). However, as Diodorus relates, Hades complained to Zeus on account of Asclepius' diminishing his realm, which resulted in Zeus zapping Asclepius with a thunderbolt, killing him (4.71.2-3). Nevertheless, Asclepius later ascended into heaven to become a god (Hyginus, Fables 224; Cicero, Nature of the Gods 2.62).[33] Apollonius of Tyana was a famous first century miracle worker. According to Philostratus' account, the locals of Tyana regard Apollonius to be the son of Zeus (Life 1.6). Apollonius predicted many events, interpreted dreams, and knew private facts about people. He rebuked and ridiculed a demon, causing it to flee, shrieking as it went (Life 2.4).[34] He even once stopped a funeral procession and raised the deceased to life (Life 4.45). What's more he knew every human language (Life 1.19) and could understand what sparrows chirped to each other (Life 4.3). Once he instantaneously transported himself from Smyrna to Ephesus (Life 4.10). He claimed knowledge of his previous incarnation as the captain of an Egyptian ship (Life 3.23) and, in the end, Apollonius entered the temple of Athena and vanished, ascending from earth into heaven to the sound of a choir singing (Life 8.30). We have plenty of literary evidence that contemporaries and those who lived later regarded him as a divine man (Letters 48.3)[35] or godlike (ἰσόθεος) (Letters 44.1) or even just a god (θεός) (Life 5.24). Deified Rulers Our last category of deified humans to consider before seeing how this all relates to Jesus is rulers. Egyptians, as indicated from the hieroglyphs left in the pyramids, believed their deceased kings to enjoy afterlives as gods. They could become star gods or even hunt and consume other gods to absorb their powers.[36] The famous Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great, carried himself as a god towards the Persians though Plutarch opines, “[he] was not at all vain or deluded but rather used belief in his divinity to enslave others”[37] (Life of Alexander 28). This worship continued after his death, especially in Alexandria where Ptolemy built a tomb and established a priesthood to conduct religious honors to the deified ruler. Even the emperor Trajan offered a sacrifice to the spirit of Alexander (Cassius Dio, Roman History 68.30). Another interesting example is Antiochus I of Comagene who called himself “Antiochus the just [and] manifest god, friend of the Romans [and] friend of the Greeks.”[38] His tomb boasted four colossal figures seated on thrones: Zeus, Heracles, Apollo, and himself. The message was clear: Antiochus I wanted his subjects to recognize his place among the gods after death. Of course, the most relevant rulers for the Christian era were the Roman emperors. The first official Roman emperor Augustus deified his predecessor, Julius Caesar, celebrating his apotheosis with games (Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar 88). Only five years after Augustus died, eastern inhabitants of the Roman Empire at Priene happily declared “the birthday of the god Augustus” (ἡ γενέθλιος ἡμέρα τοῦ θεοῦ)[39] to be the start of their provincial year. By the time of Tacitus, a century after Augustus died, the wealthy in Rome had statues of the first emperor in their gardens for worship (Annals 1.73). The Roman historian Appian explained that the Romans regularly deify emperors at death “provided he has not been a despot or a disgrace”[40] (The Civil Wars 2.148).  In other words, deification was the default setting for deceased emperors. Pliny the Younger lays it on pretty thick when he describes the process. He says Nero deified Claudius to expose him; Titus deified Vespasian and Domitian so he could be the son and brother of gods. However, Trajan deified Nerva because he genuinely believed him to be more than a human (Panegyric 11). In our little survey, we've seen three main categories of deified humans: heroes, miracle workers, and good rulers. These “conceptions of deity,” writes David Litwa, “were part of the “preunderstanding” of Hellenistic culture.”[41] He continues: If actual cases of deification were rare, traditions of deification were not. They were the stuff of heroic epic, lyric song, ancient mythology, cultic hymns, Hellenistic novels, and popular plays all over the first-century Mediterranean world. Such discourses were part of mainstream, urban culture to which most early Christians belonged. If Christians were socialized in predominantly Greco-Roman environments, it is no surprise that they employed and adapted common traits of deities and deified men to exalt their lord to divine status.[42] Now that we've attuned our thinking to Mediterranean sensibilities about gods coming down in the shape of humans and humans experiencing apotheosis to permanently dwell as gods in the divine realm, our ears are attuned to hear the story of Jesus with Greco-Roman ears. Hearing the Story of Jesus with Greco-Roman Ears How would second or third century inhabitants of the Roman empire have categorized Jesus? Taking my cue from Litwa's treatment in Iesus Deus, I'll briefly work through Jesus' conception, transfiguration, miracles, resurrection, and ascension. Miraculous Conception Although set within the context of Jewish messianism, Christ's miraculous birth would have resonated differently with Greco-Roman people. Stories of gods coming down and having intercourse with women are common in classical literature. That these stories made sense of why certain individuals were so exceptional is obvious. For example, Origen related a story about Apollo impregnating Amphictione who then gave birth to Plato (Against Celsus 1.37). Though Mary's conception did not come about through intercourse with a divine visitor, the fact that Jesus had no human father would call to mind divine sonship like Pythagoras or Asclepius. Celsus pointed out that the ancients “attributed a divine origin to Perseus, and Amphion, and Aeacus, and Minos” (Origen, Against Celsus 1.67). Philostratus records a story of the Egyptian god Proteus saying to Apollonius' mother that she would give birth to himself (Life of Apollonius of Tyana 1.4). Since people were primed to connect miraculous origins with divinity, typical hearers of the birth narratives of Matthew or Luke would likely think that this baby might be either be a descended god or a man destined to ascend to become a god. Miracles and Healing As we've seen, Jesus' miracles would not have sounded unbelievable or even unprecedent to Mediterranean people. Like Jesus, Orpheus and Empedocles calmed storms, rescuing ships. Though Jesus provided miraculous guidance on how to catch fish, Pythagoras foretold the number of fish in a great catch. After the fishermen painstakingly counted them all, they were astounded that when they threw them back in, they were still alive (Porphyry, Life 23-25). Jesus' ability to foretell the future, know people's thoughts, and cast out demons all find parallels in Apollonius of Tyana. As for resurrecting the dead, we have the stories of Empedocles, Asclepius, and Apollonius. The last of which even stopped a funeral procession to raise the dead, calling to mind Jesus' deeds in Luke 7.11-17. When Lycaonians witnessed Paul's healing of a man crippled from birth, they cried out, “The gods have come down to us in the likeness of men” (Acts 14.11). Another time when no harm befell Paul after a poisonous snake bit him on Malta, Gentile onlookers concluded “he was a god” (Acts 28.6). Barry Blackburn makes the following observation: [I]n view of the tendency, most clearly seen in the Epimenidean, Pythagorean, and Apollonian traditions, to correlate impressive miracle-working with divine status, one may justifiably conclude that the evangelical miracle traditions would have helped numerous gentile Christians to arrive at and maintain belief in Jesus' divine status.[43] Transfiguration Ancient Mediterranean inhabitants believed that the gods occasionally came down disguised as people. Only when gods revealed their inner brilliant natures could people know that they weren't mere humans. After his ship grounded on the sands of Krisa, Apollo leaped from the ship emitting flashes of fire “like a star in the middle of day…his radiance shot to heaven”[44] (Homeric Hymns, Hymn to Apollo 440). Likewise, Aphrodite appeared in shining garments, brighter than a fire and shimmering like the moon (Hymn to Aphrodite 85-89). When Demeter appeared to Metaneira, she initially looked like an old woman, but she transformed herself before her. “Casting old age away…a delightful perfume spread…a radiance shone out far from the goddess' immortal flesh…and the solid-made house was filled with a light like the lightning-flash”[45] (Hymn to Demeter 275-280). Homer wrote about Odysseus' transformation at the golden wand of Athena in which his clothes became clean, he became taller, and his skin looked younger. His son, Telemachus cried out, “Surely you are some god who rules the vaulting skies”[46] (Odyssey 16.206). Each time the observers conclude the transfigured person is a god. Resurrection & Ascension In defending the resurrection of Jesus, Theophilus of Antioch said, “[Y]ou believe that Hercules, who burned himself, lives; and that Aesculapius [Asclepius], who was struck with lightning, was raised”[47] (Autolycus 1.13). Although Hercules' physical body burnt, his transformed pneumatic body continued on as the poet Callimachus said, “under a Phrygian oak his limbs had been deified”[48] (Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis 159). Others thought Hercules ascended to heaven in his burnt body, which Asclepius subsequently healed (Lucian, Dialogue of the Gods 13). After his ascent, Diodorus relates how the people first sacrificed to him “as to a hero” then in Athens they began to honor him “with sacrifices like as to a god”[49] (The Historical Library 4.39). As for Asclepius, his ascension resulted in his deification as Cyprian said, “Aesculapius is struck by lightning, that he may rise into a god”[50] (On the Vanity of Idols 2). Romulus too “was torn to pieces by the hands of a hundred senators”[51] and after death ascended into heaven and received worship (Arnobius, Against the Heathen 1.41). Livy tells of how Romulus was “carried up on high by a whirlwind” and that immediately afterward “every man present hailed him as a god and son of a god”[52] (The Early History of Rome 1.16). As we can see from these three cases—Hercules, Asclepius, and Romulus—ascent into heaven was a common way of talking about deification. For Cicero, this was an obvious fact. People “who conferred outstanding benefits were translated to heaven through their fame and our gratitude”[53] (Nature 2.62). Consequently, Jesus' own resurrection and ascension would have triggered Gentiles to intuit his divinity. Commenting on the appearance of the immortalized Christ to the eleven in Galilee, Wendy Cotter said, “It is fair to say that the scene found in [Mat] 28:16-20 would be understood by a Greco-Roman audience, Jew or Gentile, as an apotheosis of Jesus.”[54] Although I beg to differ with Cotter's whole cloth inclusion of Jews here, it's hard to see how else non-Jews would have regarded the risen Christ. Litwa adds Rev 1.13-16 “[W]here he [Jesus] appears with all the accoutrements of the divine: a shining face, an overwhelming voice, luminescent clothing, and so on.”[55] In this brief survey we've seen that several key events in the story of Jesus told in the Gospels would have caused Greco-Roman hearers to intuit deity, including his divine conception, miracles, healing ministry, transfiguration, resurrection, and ascension. In their original context of second temple Judaism, these very same incidents would have resonated quite differently. His divine conception authenticated Jesus as the second Adam (Luke 3.38; Rom 5.14; 1 Cor 15.45) and God's Davidic son (2 Sam 7.14; Ps 2.7; Lk 1.32, 35). If Matthew or Luke wanted readers to understand that Jesus was divine based on his conception and birth, they failed to make such intentions explicit in the text. Rather, the birth narratives appear to have a much more modest aim—to persuade readers that Jesus had a credible claim to be Israel's messiah. His miracles show that “God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power…for God was with him” (Acts 10.38; cf. Jn 3.2; 10.32, 38). Rather than concluding Jesus to be a god, Jewish witnesses to his healing of a paralyzed man “glorified God, who had given such authority to men” (Mat 9.8). Over and over, especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus directs people's attention to his Father who was doing the works in and through him (Jn 5.19, 30; 8.28; 12.49; 14.10). Seeing Jesus raise someone from the dead suggested to his original Jewish audience that “a great prophet has arisen among us” (Lk 7.16). The transfiguration, in its original setting, is an eschatological vision not a divine epiphany. Placement in the synoptic Gospels just after Jesus' promise that some there would not die before seeing the kingdom come sets the hermeneutical frame. “The transfiguration,” says William Lane, “was a momentary, but real (and witnessed) manifestation of Jesus' sovereign power which pointed beyond itself to the Parousia, when he will come ‘with power and glory.'”[56] If eschatology is the foreground, the background for the transfiguration was Moses' ascent of Sinai when he also encountered God and became radiant.[57] Viewed from the lenses of Moses' ascent and the eschaton, the transfiguration of Jesus is about his identity as God's definitive chosen ruler, not about any kind of innate divinity. Lastly, the resurrection and ascension validated Jesus' messianic claims to be the ruler of the age to come (Acts 17.31; Rom 1.4). Rather than concluding Jesus was deity, early Jewish Christians concluded these events showed that “God has made him both Lord and Christ” (Acts 2.36). The interpretative backgrounds for Jesus' ascension were not stories about Heracles, Asclepius, or Romulus. No, the key oracle that framed the Israelite understanding was the messianic psalm in which Yahweh told David's Lord to “Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool” (Psalm 110.1). The idea is of a temporary sojourn in heaven until exercising the authority of his scepter to rule over earth from Zion. Once again, the biblical texts remain completely silent about deification. But even if the original meanings of Jesus' birth, ministry, transfiguration, resurrection, and ascension have messianic overtones when interpreted within the Jewish milieu, these same stories began to communicate various ideas of deity to Gentile converts in the generations that followed. We find little snippets from historical sources beginning in the second century and growing with time. Evidence of Belief in Jesus' as a Greco-Roman Deity To begin with, we have two non-Christian instances where Romans regarded Jesus as a deity within typical Greco-Roman categories. The first comes to us from Tertullian and Eusebius who mention an intriguing story about Tiberius' request to the Roman senate to deify Christ. Convinced by “intelligence from Palestine of events which had clearly shown the truth of Christ's divinity”[58] Tiberius proposed the matter to the senate (Apology 5). Eusebius adds that Tiberius learned that “many believed him to be a god in rising from the dead”[59] (Church History 2.2). As expected, the senate rejected the proposal. I mention this story, not because I can establish its historicity, but because it portrays how Tiberius would have thought about Jesus if he had heard about his miracles and resurrection. Another important incident is from one of the governor Pliny the Younger's letters to the emperor Trajan. Having investigated some people accused of Christianity, he found “they had met regularly before dawn on a fixed day to chant verses alternately amongst themselves in honour of Christ as if to a god”[60] (Letter 96). To an outside imperial observer like Pliny, the Christians believed in a man who had performed miracles, defeated death, and now lived in heaven. Calling him a god was just the natural way of talking about such a person. Pliny would not have thought Jesus was superior to the deified Roman emperors much less Zeus or the Olympic gods. If he believed in Jesus at all, he would have regarded him as another Mediterranean prophet who escaped Hades to enjoy apotheosis. Another interesting text to consider is the Infancy Gospel of Thomas. This apocryphal text tells the story of Jesus' childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Jesus is impetuous, powerful, and brilliant. Unsure to conclude that Jesus was “either god or angel,”[61] his teacher remands him to Joseph's custody (7). Later, a crowd of onlookers ponders whether the child is a god or a heavenly messenger after he raises an infant from the dead (17). A year later Jesus raised a construction man who had fallen to his death back to life (18). Once again, the crowd asked if the child was from heaven. Although some historians are quick to assume the lofty conceptions of Justin and his successors about the logos were commonplace in the early Christianity, Litwa points out, “The spell of the Logos could only bewitch a very small circle of Christian elites… In IGT, we find a Jesus who is divine according to different canons, the canons of popular Mediterranean theology.”[62] Another important though often overlooked scholarly group of Christians in the second century was led by a certain Theodotus of Byzantium.[63] Typically referred to by their heresiological label “Theodotians,” these dynamic monarchians lived in Rome and claimed that they held to the original Christology before it had been corrupted under Bishop Zephyrinus (Eusebius, Church History 5.28). Theodotus believed in the virgin birth, but not in his pre-existence or that he was god/God (Pseudo-Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 7.35.1-2; 10.23.1-2). He thought that Jesus was not able to perform any miracles until his baptism when he received the Christ/Spirit. Pseudo-Hippolytus goes on to say, “But they do not want him to have become a god when the Spirit descended. Others say that he became a god after he rose from the dead.”[64] This last tantalizing remark implies that the Theodotians could affirm Jesus as a god after his resurrection though they denied his pre-existence. Although strict unitarians, they could regard Jesus as a god in that he was an ascended immortalized being who lived in heaven—not equal to the Father, but far superior to all humans on earth. Justin Martyr presents another interesting case to consider. Thoroughly acquainted with Greco-Roman literature and especially the philosophy of Plato, Justin sees Christ as a god whom the Father begot before all other creatures. He calls him “son, or wisdom, or angel, or god, or lord, or word”[65] (Dialogue with Trypho 61).  For Justin Christ is “at the same time angel and god and lord and man”[66] (59). Jesus was “of old the Word, appearing at one time in the form of fire, at another under the guise of incorporeal beings, but now, at the will of God, after becoming man for mankind”[67] (First Apology 63). In fact, Justin is quite comfortable to compare Christ to deified heroes and emperors. He says, “[W]e propose nothing new or different from that which you say about the so-called sons of Jupiter [Zeus] by your respected writers… And what about the emperors who die among you, whom you think worthy to be deified?”[68] (21). He readily accepts the parallels with Mercury, Perseus, Asclepius, Bacchus, and Hercules, but argues that Jesus is superior to them (22).[69] Nevertheless, he considered Jesus to be in “a place second to the unchanging and eternal God”[70] (13). The Father is “the Most True God” whereas the Son is he “who came forth from Him”[71] (6). Even as lates as Origen, Greco-Roman concepts of deity persist. In responding to Celsus' claim that no god or son of God has ever come down, Origen responds by stating such a statement would overthrow the stories of Pythian Apollo, Asclepius, and the other gods who descended (Against Celsus 5.2). My point here is not to say Origen believed in all the old myths, but to show how Origen reached for these stories as analogies to explain the incarnation of the logos. When Celsus argued that he would rather believe in the deity of Asclepius, Dionysus, and Hercules than Christ, Origen responded with a moral rather than ontological argument (3.42). He asks how these gods have improved the characters of anyone. Origen admits Celsus' argument “which places the forenamed individuals upon an equality with Jesus” might have force, however in light of the disreputable behavior of these gods, “how could you any longer say, with any show of reason, that these men, on putting aside their mortal body, became gods rather than Jesus?”[72] (3.42). Origen's Christology is far too broad and complicated to cover here. Undoubtedly, his work on eternal generation laid the foundation on which fourth century Christians could build homoousion Christology. Nevertheless, he retained some of the earlier subordinationist impulses of his forebearers. In his book On Prayer, he rebukes praying to Jesus as a crude error, instead advocating prayer to God alone (10). In his Commentary on John he repeatedly asserts that the Father is greater than his logos (1.40; 2.6; 6.23). Thus, Origen is a theologian on the seam of the times. He's both a subordinationist and a believer in the Son's eternal and divine ontology. Now, I want to be careful here. I'm not saying that all early Christians believed Jesus was a deified man like Asclepius or a descended god like Apollo or a reincarnated soul like Pythagoras. More often than not, thinking Christians whose works survive until today tended to eschew the parallels, simultaneously elevating Christ as high as possible while demoting the gods to mere demons. Still, Litwa is inciteful when he writes: It seems likely that early Christians shared the widespread cultural assumption that a resurrected, immortalized being was worthy of worship and thus divine. …Nonetheless there is a difference…Jesus, it appears, was never honored as an independent deity. Rather, he was always worshiped as Yahweh's subordinate. Naturally Heracles and Asclepius were Zeus' subordinates, but they were also members of a larger divine family. Jesus does not enter a pantheon but assumes a distinctive status as God's chief agent and plenipotentiary. It is this status that, to Christian insiders, placed Jesus in a category far above the likes of Heracles, Romulus, and Asclepius who were in turn demoted to the rank of δαίμονες [daimons].[73] Conclusion I began by asking the question, "What did early Christians mean by saying Jesus is god?" We noted that the ancient idea of agency (Jesus is God/god because he represents Yahweh), though present in Hebrew and Christian scripture, didn't play much of a role in how Gentile Christians thought about Jesus. Or if it did, those texts did not survive. By the time we enter the postapostolic era, a majority of Christianity was Gentile and little communication occurred with the Jewish Christians that survived in the East. As such, we turned our attention to Greco-Roman theology to tune our ears to hear the story of Jesus the way they would have. We learned about their multifaceted array of divinities. We saw that gods can come down and take the form of humans and humans can go up and take the form of gods. We found evidence for this kind of thinking in both non-Christian and Christian sources in the second and third centuries. Now it is time to return to the question I began with: “When early Christian authors called Jesus “god” what did they mean?” We saw that the idea of a deified man was present in the non-Christian witnesses of Tiberius and Pliny but made scant appearance in our Christian literature except for the Theodotians. As for the idea that a god came down to become a man, we found evidence in The Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Justin, and Origen.[74] Of course, we find a spectrum within this view, from Justin's designation of Jesus as a second god to Origen's more philosophically nuanced understanding. Still, it's worth noting as R. P. C. Hanson observed that, “With the exception of Athanasius virtually every theologian, East and West, accepted some form of subordinationism at least up to the year 355.”[75] Whether any Christians before Alexander and Athanasius of Alexandria held to the sophisticated idea of consubstantiality depends on showing evidence of the belief that the Son was coequal, coeternal, and coessential with the Father prior to Nicea. (Readers interested in the case for this view should consult Michael Bird's Jesus among the Gods in which he attempted the extraordinary feat of finding proto-Nicene Christology in the first two centuries, a task typically associated with maverick apologists not peer-reviewed historians.) In conclusion, the answer to our driving question about the meaning of “Jesus as god” is that the answer depends on whom we ask. If we ask the Theodotians, Jesus is a god because that's just what one calls an immortalized man who lives in heaven.[76] If we ask those holding a docetic Christology, the answer is that a god came down in appearance as a man. If we ask a logos subordinationist, they'll tell us that Jesus existed as the god through whom the supreme God created the universe before he became a human being. If we ask Tertullian, Jesus is god because he derives his substance from the Father, though he has a lesser portion of divinity.[77] If we ask Athanasius, he'll wax eloquent about how Jesus is of the same substance as the Father equal in status and eternality. The bottom line is that there was not one answer to this question prior to the fourth century. Answers depend on whom we ask and when they lived. Still, we can't help but wonder about the more tantalizing question of development. Which Christology was first and which ones evolved under social, intellectual, and political pressures? In the quest to specify the various stages of development in the Christologies of the ante-Nicene period, this Greco-Roman perspective may just provide the missing link between the reserved and limited way that the NT applies theos to Jesus in the first century and the homoousian view that eventually garnered imperial support in the fourth century. How easy would it have been for fresh converts from the Greco-Roman world to unintentionally mishear the story of Jesus? How easy would it have been for them to fit Jesus into their own categories of descended gods and ascended humans? With the unmooring of Gentile Christianity from its Jewish heritage, is it any wonder that Christologies began to drift out to sea? Now I'm not suggesting that all Christians went through a steady development from a human Jesus to a pre-existent Christ, to an eternal God the Son, to the Chalcedonian hypostatic union. As I mentioned above, plenty of other options were around and every church had its conservatives in addition to its innovators. The story is messy and uneven with competing views spread across huge geographic distances. Furthermore, many Christians probably were content to leave such theological nuances fuzzy, rather than seeking doctrinal precision on Christ's relation to his God and Father. Whatever the case may be, we dare not ignore the influence of Greco-Roman theology in our accounts of Christological development in the Mediterranean world of the first three centuries.    Bibliography The Homeric Hymns. Translated by Michael Crudden. New York, NY: Oxford, 2008. Antioch, Theophilus of. To Autolycus. Translated by Marcus Dods. Vol. 2. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001. Aphrahat. The Demonstrations. Translated by Ellen Muehlberger. Vol. 3. The Cambridge Edition of Early Christian Writings. Edited by Mark DelCogliano. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 2022. Apollodorus. The Library of Greek Mythology. Translated by Robin Hard. Oxford, UK: Oxford, 1998. Appian. The Civil Wars. Translated by John Carter. London, UK: Penguin, 1996. Arnobius. Against the Heathen. Translated by Hamilton Bryce and Hugh Campbell. Vol. 6. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995. Arrian. The Campaigns of Alexander. Translated by Aubrey De Sélincourt. London, UK: Penguin, 1971. Bird, Michael F. Jesus among the Gods. Waco, TX: Baylor, 2022. Blackburn, Barry. Theios Aner and the Markan Miracle Traditions. Tübingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr, 1991. Callimachus. Hymn to Artemis. Translated by Susan A. Stephens. Callimachus: The Hymns. New York, NY: Oxford, 2015. Cicero. The Nature of the Gods. Translated by Patrick Gerard Walsh. Oxford, UK: Oxford, 2008. Cornutus, Lucius Annaeus. Greek Theology. Translated by George Boys-Stones. Greek Theology, Fragments, and Testimonia. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2018. Cotter, Wendy. "Greco-Roman Apotheosis Traditions and the Resurrection Appearances in Matthew." In The Gospel of Matthew in Current Study. Edited by David E. Aune. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001. Cyprian. Treatise 6: On the Vanity of Idols. Translated by Ernest Wallis. Vol. 5. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995. Dittenberger, W. Orientis Graecae Inscriptiones Selectae. Vol. 2. Hildesheim: Olms, 1960. Eusebius. The Church History. Translated by Paul L. Maier. Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2007. Fredriksen, Paula. "How High Can Early High Christology Be?" In Monotheism and Christology in Greco-Roman Antiquity. Edited by Matthew V. Novenson. Vol. 180.vol. Supplements to Novum Testamentum. Leiden: Brill, 2020. Hanson, R. P. C. Search for a Christian Doctrine of God. Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007. Hart, George. The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses. 2nd ed. Oxford, UK: Routledge, 2005. Homer. The Odyssey. Translated by Robert Fagles. New York, NY: Penguin, 1997. Iamblichus. Life of Pythagoras. Translated by Thomas Taylor. Iamblichus' Life of Pythagoras. Delhi, IN: Zinc Read, 2023. Justin Martyr. Dialogue with Trypho. Translated by Thomas B. Falls. Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2003. Laertius, Diogenes. Life of Pythagoras. Translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie. The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library. Edited by David R. Fideler. Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press, 1988. Laertius, Diogenes. Lives of the Eminent Philosophers. Translated by Pamela Mensch. Edited by James Miller. New York, NY: Oxford, 2020. Lane, William L. The Gospel of Mark. Nicnt, edited by F. F. Bruce Ned B. Stonehouse, and Gordon D. Fee. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1974. Litwa, M. David. Iesus Deus. Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2014. Livy. The Early History of Rome. Translated by Aubrey De Sélincourt. London, UK: Penguin, 2002. Origen. Against Celsus. Translated by Frederick Crombie. Vol. 4. The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003. Pausanias. Guide to Greece. Translated by Peter Levi. London, UK: Penguin, 1979. Perriman, Andrew. In the Form of a God. Studies in Early Christology, edited by David Capes Michael Bird, and Scott Harrower. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2022. Philostratus. Letters of Apollonius. Vol. 458. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2006. Plutarch. Life of Alexander. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert and Timothy E. Duff. The Age of Alexander. London, UK: Penguin, 2011. Porphyry. Life of Pythagoras. Translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie. The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library. Edited by David Fideler. Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press, 1988. Pseudo-Clement. Recognitions. Translated by Thomas Smith. Vol. 8. Ante Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003. Pseudo-Hippolytus. Refutation of All Heresies. Translated by David Litwa. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2016. Pseudo-Thomas. Infancy Gospel of Thomas. Translated by James Orr. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1903. Psuedo-Clement. Homilies. Translated by Peter Peterson. Vol. 8. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1897. Siculus, Diodorus. The Historical Library. Translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Vol. 1. Edited by Giles Laurén: Sophron Editor, 2017. Strabo. The Geography. Translated by Duane W. Roller. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 2020. Tertullian. Against Praxeas. Translated by Holmes. Vol. 3. Ante Nice Fathers. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003. Tertullian. Apology. Translated by S. Thelwall. Vol. 3. Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003. Younger, Pliny the. The Letters of the Younger Pliny. Translated by Betty Radice. London: Penguin, 1969. End Notes [1] For the remainder of this paper, I will use the lower case “god” for all references to deity outside of Yahweh, the Father of Christ. I do this because all our ancient texts lack capitalization and our modern capitalization rules imply a theology that is anachronistic and unhelpful for the present inquiry. [2] Christopher Kaiser wrote, “Explicit references to Jesus as ‘God' in the New Testament are very few, and even those few are generally plagued with uncertainties of either text or interpretation.” Christopher B. Kaiser, The Doctrine of God: A Historical Survey (London: Marshall Morgan & Scott, 1982), 29. Other scholars such as Raymond Brown (Jesus: God and Man), Jason David BeDuhn (Truth in Translation), and Brian Wright (“Jesus as θεός: A Textual Examination” in Revisiting the Corruption of the New Testament) have expressed similar sentiments. [3] John 20.28; Hebrews 1.8; Titus 2.13; 2 Peter 1.1; Romans 9.5; and 1 John 5.20. [4] See Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians 12.2 where a manuscript difference determines whether or not Polycarp called Jesus god or lord. Textual corruption is most acute in Igantius' corpus. Although it's been common to dismiss the long recension as an “Arian” corruption, claiming the middle recension to be as pure and uncontaminated as freshly fallen snow upon which a foot has never trodden, such an uncritical view is beginning to give way to more honest analysis. See Paul Gilliam III's Ignatius of Antioch and the Arian Controversy (Leiden: Brill, 2017) for a recent treatment of Christological corruption in the middle recension. [5] See the entries for  אֱלֹהִיםand θεός in the Hebrew Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (HALOT), the Brown Driver Briggs Lexicon (BDB), Eerdmans Dictionary, Kohlenberger/Mounce Concise Hebrew-Aramaic Dictionary of the Old Testament, the Bauer Danker Arndt Gingrich Lexicon (BDAG), Friberg Greek Lexicon, and Thayer's Greek Lexicon. [6] See notes on Is 9.6 and Ps 45.6. [7] ZIBBC: “In what sense can the king be called “god”? By virtue of his divine appointment, the king in the ancient Near East stood before his subjects as a representative of the divine realm. …In fact, the term “gods“ (ʾelōhı̂m) is used of priests who functioned as judges in the Israelite temple judicial system (Ex. 21:6; 22:8-9; see comments on 58:1; 82:6-7).” John W. Hilber, “Psalms,” in The Minor Prophets, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, vol. 5 of Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Old Testament. ed. John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 358. [8] Around a.d. 340, Aphrahat of Persia advised his fellow Christians to reply to Jewish critics who questioned why “You call a human being ‘God'” (Demonstrations 17.1). He said, “For the honored name of the divinity is granted event ot rightoues human beings, when they are worthy of being called by it…[W]hen he chose Moses, his friend and his beloved…he called him “god.” …We call him God, just as he named Moses with his own name…The name of the divinity was granted for great honor in the world. To whom he wishes, God appoints it” (17.3, 4, 5). Aphrahat, The Demonstrations, trans., Ellen Muehlberger, vol. 3, The Cambridge Edition of Early Christian Writings (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 2022), 213-15. In the Clementine Recognitions we find a brief mention of the concept:  “Therefore the name God is applied in three ways: either because he to whom it is given is truly God, or because he is the servant of him who is truly; and for the honour of the sender, that his authority may be full, he that is sent is called by the name of him who sends, as is often done in respect of angels: for when they appear to a man, if he is a wise and intelligent man, he asks the name of him who appears to him, that he may acknowledge at once the honour of the sent, and the authority of the sender” (2.42). Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions, trans., Thomas Smith, vol. 8, Ante Nicene Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003). [9] Michael F. Bird, Jesus among the Gods (Waco, TX: Baylor, 2022), 13. [10] Andrew Perriman, In the Form of a God, Studies in Early Christology, ed. David Capes Michael Bird, and Scott Harrower (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2022), 130. [11] Paula Fredriksen, "How High Can Early High Christology Be?," in Monotheism and Christology in Greco-Roman Antiquity, ed. Matthew V. Novenson, vol. 180 (Leiden: Brill, 2020), 296, 99. [12] ibid. [13] See Gen 18.1; Ex 3.2; 24.11; Is 6.1; Ezk 1.28. [14] Compare the Masoretic Text of Psalm 8.6 to the Septuagint and Hebrews 2.7. [15] Homer, The Odyssey, trans., Robert Fagles (New York, NY: Penguin, 1997), 370. [16] Diodorus Siculus, The Historical Library, trans., Charles Henry Oldfather, vol. 1 (Sophron Editor, 2017), 340. [17] Uranus met death at the brutal hands of his own son, Kronos who emasculated him and let bleed out, resulting in his deification (Eusebius, Preparation for the Gospel 1.10). Later on, after suffering a fatal disease, Kronos himself experienced deification, becoming the planet Saturn (ibid.). Zeus married Hera and they produced Osiris (Dionysus), Isis (Demeter), Typhon, Apollo, and Aphrodite (ibid. 2.1). [18] Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, Greek Theology, trans., George Boys-Stones, Greek Theology, Fragments, and Testimonia (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2018), 123. [19] Apollodorus, The Library of Greek Mythology, trans., Robin Hard (Oxford, UK: Oxford, 1998), 111. [20] Pausanias, Guide to Greece, trans., Peter Levi (London, UK: Penguin, 1979), 98. [21] Strabo, The Geography, trans., Duane W. Roller (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 2020), 281. [22] Psuedo-Clement, Homilies, trans., Peter Peterson, vol. 8, Ante-Nicene Fathers (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1897). Greek: “αὐτὸν δὲ ὡς θεὸν ἐθρήσκευσαν” from Jacques Paul Migne, Patrologia Graeca, taken from Accordance (PSCLEMH-T), OakTree Software, Inc., 2018, Version 1.1. [23] See Barry Blackburn, Theios Aner and the Markan Miracle Traditions (Tübingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr, 1991), 32. [24] Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, trans., Pamela Mensch (New York, NY: Oxford, 2020), 39. [25] Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras, trans., Thomas Taylor, Iamblichus' Life of Pythagoras (Delhi, IN: Zinc Read, 2023), 2. [26] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Pythagoras, trans., Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie, The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press, 1988), 142. [27] See the list in Blackburn, 39. He corroborates miracle stories from Diogenus Laertius, Iamblichus, Apollonius, Nicomachus, and Philostratus. [28] Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras, trans., Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie, The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press, 1988), 128-9. [29] Iamblichus,  68. [30] What I call “resurrection” refers to the phrase, “Thou shalt bring back from Hades a dead man's strength.” Diogenes Laertius 8.2.59, trans. R. D. Hicks. [31] Laertius, "Lives of the Eminent Philosophers," 306. Two stories of his deification survive: in one Empedocles disappears in the middle of the night after hearing an extremely loud voice calling his name. After this the people concluded that they should sacrifice to him since he had become a god (8.68). In the other account, Empedocles climbs Etna and leaps into the fiery volcanic crater “to strengthen the rumor that he had become a god” (8.69). [32] Pausanias,  192. Sextus Empiricus says Asclepius raised up people who had died at Thebes as well as raising up the dead body of Tyndaros (Against the Professors 1.261). [33] Cicero adds that the Arcadians worship Asclepius (Nature 3.57). [34] In another instance, he confronted and cast out a demon from a licentious young man (Life 4.20). [35] The phrase is “περὶ ἐμοῦ καὶ θεοῖς εἴρηται ὡς περὶ θείου ἀνδρὸς.” Philostratus, Letters of Apollonius, vol. 458, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2006). [36] See George Hart, The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK: Routledge, 2005), 3. [37] Plutarch, Life of Alexander, trans., Ian Scott-Kilvert and Timothy E. Duff, The Age of Alexander (London, UK: Penguin, 2011), 311. Arrian includes a story about Anaxarchus advocating paying divine honors to Alexander through prostration. The Macedonians refused but the Persian members of his entourage “rose from their seats and one by one grovelled on the floor before the King.” Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, trans., Aubrey De Sélincourt (London, UK: Penguin, 1971), 222. [38] Translation my own from “Ἀντίοχος ὁ Θεὸς Δίκαιος Ἐπιφανὴς Φιλορωμαῖος Φιλέλλην.” Inscription at Nemrut Dağ, accessible at https://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/mithras/display.php?page=cimrm32. See also https://zeugma.packhum.org/pdfs/v1ch09.pdf. [39] Greek taken from W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graecae Inscriptiones Selectae, vol. 2 (Hildesheim: Olms, 1960), 48-60. Of particular note is the definite article before θεός. They didn't celebrate the birthday of a god, but the birthday of the god. [40] Appian, The Civil Wars, trans., John Carter (London, UK: Penguin, 1996), 149. [41] M. David Litwa, Iesus Deus (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2014), 20. [42] ibid. [43] Blackburn, 92-3. [44] The Homeric Hymns, trans., Michael Crudden (New York, NY: Oxford, 2008), 38. [45] "The Homeric Hymns," 14. [46] Homer,  344. [47] Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus, trans., Marcus Dods, vol. 2, Ante-Nicene Fathers (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001). [48] Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis, trans., Susan A. Stephens, Callimachus: The Hymns (New York, NY: Oxford, 2015), 119. [49] Siculus,  234. [50] Cyprian, Treatise 6: On the Vanity of Idols, trans., Ernest Wallis, vol. 5, Ante-Nicene Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995). [51] Arnobius, Against the Heathen, trans., Hamilton Bryce and Hugh Campbell, vol. 6, Ante-Nicene Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995). [52] Livy, The Early History of Rome, trans., Aubrey De Sélincourt (London, UK: Penguin, 2002), 49. [53] Cicero, The Nature of the Gods, trans., Patrick Gerard Walsh (Oxford, UK: Oxford, 2008), 69. [54] Wendy Cotter, "Greco-Roman Apotheosis Traditions and the Resurrection Appearances in Matthew," in The Gospel of Matthew in Current Study, ed. David E. Aune (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001), 149. [55] Litwa, 170. [56] William L. Lane, The Gospel of Mark, Nicnt, ed. F. F. Bruce Ned B. Stonehouse, and Gordon D. Fee (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1974). [57] “Recent commentators have stressed that the best background for understanding the Markan transfiguration is the story of Moses' ascent up Mount Sinai (Exod. 24 and 34).” Litwa, 123. [58] Tertullian, Apology, trans. S. Thelwall, vol. 3, Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003). [59] Eusebius, The Church History, trans. Paul L. Maier (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2007), 54. [60] Pliny the Younger, The Letters of the Younger Pliny, trans., Betty Radice (London: Penguin, 1969), 294. [61] Pseudo-Thomas, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, trans., James Orr (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1903), 25. [62] Litwa, 83. [63] For sources on Theodotus, see Pseduo-Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 7.35.1-2; 10.23.1-2; Pseudo-Tertullian, Against All Heresies 8.2; Eusebius, Church History 5.28. [64] Pseudo-Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies, trans., David Litwa (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2016), 571. [65] I took the liberty to decapitalize these appellatives. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, trans. Thomas B. Falls (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2003), 244. [66] Justin Martyr, 241. (Altered, see previous footnote.) [67] Justin Martyr, 102. [68] Justin Martyr, 56-7. [69] Arnobius makes a similar argument in Against the Heathen 1.38-39 “Is he not worthy to be called a god by us and felt to be a god on account of the favor or such great benefits? For if you have enrolled Liber among the gods because he discovered the use of wine, and Ceres the use of bread, Aesculapius the use of medicines, Minerva the use of oil, Triptolemus plowing, and Hercules because he conquered and restrained beasts, thieves, and the many-headed hydra…So then, ought we not to consider Christ a god, and to bestow upon him all the worship due to his divinity?” Translation from Litwa, 105. [70] Justin Martyr, 46. [71] Justin Martyr, 39. [72] Origen, Against Celsus, trans. Frederick Crombie, vol. 4, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003). [73] Litwa, 173. [74] I could easily multiply examples of this by looking at Irenaeus, Tertullian, Hippolytus, and many others. [75] The obvious exception to Hanson's statement were thinkers like Sabellius and Praxeas who believed that the Father himself came down as a human being. R. P. C. Hanson, Search for a Christian Doctrine of God (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), xix. [76] Interestingly, even some of the biblical unitarians of the period were comfortable with calling Jesus god, though they limited his divinity to his post-resurrection life. [77] Tertullian writes, “[T]he Father is not the same as the Son, since they differ one from the other in the mode of their being. For the Father is the entire substance, but the Son is a derivation and portion of the whole, as He Himself acknowledges: “My Father is greater than I.” In the Psalm His inferiority is described as being “a little lower than the angels.” Thus the Father is distinct from the Son, being greater than the Son” (Against Praxeas 9). Tertullian, Against Praxeas, trans., Holmes, vol. 3, Ante Nice Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003).

136. Czytamy po rosyjsku W tym wydaniu Bartosz Gołąbek przegląda Kommiersanta, a w nim: Litwa odbiera litewskie obywatelstwo łyżwiarce Margaricie Drobiazko, generał Surowikin robi sobie zdjęcia w algierskim meczecie, a we Władywostoku chcą zlikwidować pomnik Aleksandra Sołżenicyna. Rosja we wrześniu 2023. Źródła: https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6222225https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6222694https://www.kommersant.ru/doc/6223442 Nasza skarbonka https://buycoffee.to/sprawywschoduPatronite https://patronite.pl/sprawywschoduInstagram https://www.instagram.com/sprawywschodu/Facebook https://www.facebook.com/SprawyWschodu/ --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/bartosz-golabek/message

Dr. M. David Litwa explores what Hermetic Spirituality can be in the present day by looking at its historic principles.

Pod patronatem Joe Bidena w Camp David spotykają się prezydent Korei Południowej i premier Japonii. Czy zagrożenie ze strony Chin i Korei Północnej to wystarczający powód, by zmienić nastawienie do siebie państw, których historia stosunków obarczona jest tragediami i wrogością? Czy Amerykanie planują stworzenie antychińskiego trójkąta w rejonie Pacyfiku? I co na to Chiny? Litwa zamyka przejścia graniczne z Białorusią, a Łotwa zwiększa obecność wojska na granicy. Jak państwa bałtyckie podchodzą do zagrożenia ze strony Łukaszenki i Putina? Prawybory prezydenckie w Argentynie wygrywa miłośnik Trumpa. Czy w Ameryce Łacińskiej nadszedł czas polityków spoza głównego nurtu? W niedzielę finał kobiecych mistrzostw świata w piłce nożnej. Jak kobietom udało się przekonać mężczyzn, zwłaszcza włodarzy  światowej piłki, by traktować je poważnie? A także: dlaczego porażka w nauce nie musi oznaczać klęski? I: resortowe dzieci rządzą światem.   Rozkład jazdy: (1:52) Oskar Pietrewicz o spotkaniu w Camp David (23:50) Dominik Wilczewski o zamknięciu granicy litewsko-białoruskiej (43:36) Świat z boku - Grzegorz Dobiecki o resortowych dzieciach (49:40) Podziękowania (55:08) Michał Banasiak o kobiecych mistrzostwach świata w piłce nożnej (1:12:28) Joanna Gocłowska Bolek o prawyborach w Argentynie (1:31:11) Tomasz Rożek o porażkach w nauce (1:50:10) Do usłyszenia

Były i radykalne hasła: że nazwa "Litwa" powinna zniknąć, a zastąpić ją trzeba Nową Polską. Byłaby więc Małopolska, Wielkopolska i Nowa Polska – opowiada w Radiu Naukowym prof. Henryk Gmiterek.Rozmawiamy o okolicznościach podpisania Aktu Unii Lubelskiej do czego doszło 1 lipca 1569 roku. Nagrywamy oczywiście w Lublinie, a prof. Gmiterek jest historykiem, emerytowanym profesorem UMCS. To była perspektywa strony koronnej, Litwini rzecz jasna, widzieli sprawę inaczej. - Po stronie polskiej dominowały tendencje, że kolejny akt powinien być wyegzekwowaniem dotychczasowych umów, Litwini myśleli o budowaniu nowych zasad - podkreśla prof. Gmiterek. Różnic było oczywiście więcej, o poziom odrębności instytucji, granice wewnętrzne i wiele innych.Niemniej, doszło do podpisania, co sprawiło, że nie siłą, nie podbojem, ale drogą negocjacji powstał potężny organizm państwowy.W podcaście rozmawiamy o napięciach między stronnictwami politycznymi, o nagłym wyjeździe posłów litewskich, o postawie króla i wielu innych.Nie mogło zabraknąć tego tematu przy okazji wizyty w Lublinie!

Learn Polish in a fun way with short Episodes. On this episode we talk about  Kierunki na mapie - Map Directions.   Donations https://www.podpage.com/learn-polish-podcast/support/   Store https://www.podpage.com/learn-polish-podcast/store/   Our Websites https://www.podpage.com/learn-polish-podcast/   https://learnpolish.podbean.com/     Find all Graphics to freely Download https://www.facebook.com/learnpolishpodcast     Start Your Own Podcast + Social Media & Donations https://bio.link/podcaster     All other Social Media & Donations https://linktr.ee/learnpolish   Spotify https://open.spotify.com/show/0ZOzgwHvZzEfQ8iRBfbIAp   Apple https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/learn-polish-podcast/id1462326275   To listen to all Episodes + The Speaking Podcast + The Meditation Podcast + Business Opportunities please visit http://roycoughlan.com/ ===================================== 1st Episodes https://learnpolish.podbean.com/page/35/ ===================================== Now also on   Bitchute https://www.bitchute.com/channel/pxb8OvSYf4w9/   Youtube https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC9SeBSyrxEMtEUlQNjG3vTA   To get Skype lessons from Kamila or her team please visits http://polonuslodz.com/  -------------------------------------------------- In this Episode we discuss:   Kierunki na mapie - Map Directions   Geografia – Geography   Kierunki świata - The directions of the world   Północ – North   Południe – South   Wschód – East   Zachód – West   Morze bałtyckie jest na północy - The Baltic Sea is in the north   Gdańsk jest na północy Polski - Gdansk is in the north of Poland   Polskie góry są na południu - Polish mountains are in the south   Włochy są na południu Europy - Italy is in the south of Europe   Ukraina jest na wschodzie Europy - Ukraine is in east of Europe   Lublin jest na wschodzie Polski - Lublin is in the east of Poland   Niemcy są na zachodzie - Germany is in the west   Chiny są na wschodzie - China is in the east   Irlandia jest na zachodzie - Ireland is in the west   Słowacja jest na południu - Slovakia is in the south   Dania jest na północy - Denmark is in the north   Litwa jest na północnym wschodzie - Lithuania is in the northeast   Rzeszów jest na południowym wschodzie - Rzeszów is in the southeast   Hiszpania jest na południowym zachodzie - Spain is in the southwest   Szczecin jest na północnym zachodzie - Szczecin is in the northwest     Graphics to Freely download at https://www.facebook.com/learnpolishpodcast --------------------------------------------------------------- If you would like Skype lessons from kamila or her team please visit http://polonuslodz.com/   All Polish Episodes / Speaking Podcast / Meditation Podcast / Awakening Podcast/ Polish Property & business Offers - http://roycoughlan.com/   Donations https://www.podpage.com/learn-polish-podcast/support/   Store https://www.podpage.com/learn-polish-podcast/store/   All Social Media + Donations https://linktr.ee/learnpolish   Start your own Podcast    https://bio.link/podcaster   Please Share with your friends / Subscribe / Comment and give a 5* Review  - Thank You (Dziekuje Bardzo :) )   #learnpolish #polishpodcast #learnpolishpodcast #speakpolish