Podcasts about Pausanias

his is a teaser of the bonus episode, "Sparta's About Turn" found over on Patreon.The precarious Greek alliance against Persia hung by the thinnest of threads in 479 BCE. After watching Athens burn twice while Sparta refused to march beyond the safety of the Peloponnese, Athenian patience had run out. When their final delegation arrived in Sparta, they delivered what amounted to an ultimatum: stand with us against Persia, or we may have no choice but to negotiate on our own.Behind Sparta's reluctance lay a complex web of motivations – their preference for defensive warfare, religious observances, fears of helot rebellion, and the delicate politics of their Peloponnesian alliance. While Athens had twice rejected Persian offers that included autonomy and even dominance over other Greeks, Sparta remained fixated on the defense of the isthmus wall. What changed?Something remarkable happened within Spartan leadership. Whether driven by strategic necessity, emergence of leaders like Pausanias, or the stark realization that Athens might actually defect, Sparta suddenly mobilized on an unprecedented scale. Five thousand Spartiates marched forth, each accompanied by seven helots, joined by another five thousand perioeci. As they moved north, other Greek cities rallied to the cause, transforming a fractured resistance into the largest Greek army ever assembled.This pivotal moment represents more than just military history – it captures a rare instance when bitter rivals Athens and Sparta found common purpose. Their brief alliance, forged in crisis, would determine not just the outcome of the Persian invasion, but shape the cultural and political landscape of the ancient Mediterranean for centuries to come.Were you fascinated by this analysis of Greek politics and the fragile nature of their alliance? Subscribe now and support us on Patreon to access more bonus episodes that explore the crucial moments that shaped the ancient world!Support the show

====================================================SUSCRIBETEhttps://www.youtube.com/channel/UCNpffyr-7_zP1x1lS89ByaQ?sub_confirmation=1==================================================== DEVOCIÓN MATUTINA PARA JÓVENES 2025“HOY ES TENDENCIA”Narrado por: Daniel RamosDesde: Connecticut, USAUna cortesía de DR'Ministries y Canaan Seventh-Day Adventist Church===================|| www.drministries.org ||===================15 de AbrilUn dios desconocido«Al pasar y fijarme en sus lugares sagrados, encontré incluso un altar con esta inscripción: A UN DIOS DESCONOCIDO. Pues bien, eso que ustedes adoran como algo desconocido es lo que yo les anuncio». Hechos 17:23Cuando Pablo visitó la ciudad de Atenas vio un altar «a un dios desconocido». ¿A quién se le ocurrió erigir dicho altar? Luis Vives dice que Pausanias, en su libro Atenienses, menciona «los altares de dioses desconocidos». Según Pausanias, Epiménides el cretense fue quien levantó dichos altares, pues cuando la provincia de Ática fue azotada por una terrible plaga, los habitantes de la zona le preguntaron al oráculo de Delfos qué debían hacer para librarse de la plaga. El oráculo respondió que debían ofrecer sacrificios, pero sin nombrar al dios al que se los ofreciesen. Epiménides, que por aquel entonces se encontraba en Atenas, les mandó que soltasen por el campo las bestias destinadas para el sacrificio, y que los sacrificadores las siguiesen con esta indicación: dondequiera que se parasen los animales, allí debían ofrecer sacrificios al dios desconocido para aplacar su ira.Quizás para los atenienses era normal adorar «a un dios desconocido», pero en realidad no creo que dicha práctica sea muy beneficiosa. Por eso, a lo largo de la Biblia el Señor expresa su deseo de que su pueblo lo conozca. ¿Y qué decir de nosotros hoy en día? ¿Será posible que en pleno siglo XXI muchos cristianos estemos adorando a un Dios que no conocemos? Tal vez tú y yo no levantamos altares ni degollamos bueyes, pero sí corremos el riesgo de rendir nuestra adoración a Alguien que desconocemos.Preocupado por esta posibilidad, Dios dice mediante Oseas: «Quiero que demuestren amor, no que ofrezcan sacrificios. Más que ofrendas quemadas, quiero que me conozcan» (Oseas 6: 6, NTV) y Jesús señaló que la vida eterna consiste en conocer a Dios y conocerlo a él (ver Juan 17: 3). Tanto el contraste que Oseas traza entre los ritos vacíos y el conocimiento de Dios como la descripción que Jesús hizo de la vida eterna sugieren que conocer a Dios no es un asunto meramente intelectual ni de cultura general, sino una experiencia que tú y yo podemos vivir. ¿Y cómo podemos conocer a Dios por experiencia? Para ello hemos de pasar tiempo a solas con él y disfrutar de su presencia en nuestras vidas. Solo entonces Dios dejará de ser «desconocido» y podremos decir como Jetro: «Ahora estoy convencido de que el Señor es más grande que todos los dioses» (Éxodo 18:11). 

rWotD Episode 2817: Derdas I Welcome to Random Wiki of the Day, your journey through Wikipedia’s vast and varied content, one random article at a time.The random article for Sunday, 19 January 2025 is Derdas I.Derdas I (Ancient Greek: Δέρδας) was the ruler of the region of Elimiotis (Ἐλιμιώτις), also rendered as Elymia (Ἐλιμία) and Elimeia (Ἐλίμεια), in the mid 5th century BCE.Our information about him comes from a few passages in Thucydides, who said that in the lead up to the Peloponnesian War (431–404), the Athenians allied with one Philip, brother of the Macedonian king Perdiccas II, who sought to claim the throne for himself. The reason for this alliance was not explained in ancient sources, but Konstantinos Karathanasis has speculated that, in response to the recent Athenian settlement at Amphipolis (437) on Macedon's eastern frontier, Perdiccas began to restrict sales of timber to Athens, and that this was the spur that induced the Athenians to support Philip.Thucydides, in the above cited passage, reported that in this campaign Philip was aided by Derdas, who was not specifically identified, but was presumably a member of the Macedonian nobility and probably a relative. Why Derdas would support Philip in this internecine struggle is also not known.Derdas appears to have died shortly after this series of events began. After giving some background on the situation, Thucydides reported that Philip was now supported by the "brothers of Derdas". He later said that when the Athenians were marching on Potidaea (one of the early engagements of the war), they were joined by "six hundred Macedonian horsemen, the followers of Philip and Pausanias". A later scholiast commented that Pausanias was either a son or brother of Derdas.This recording reflects the Wikipedia text as of 00:02 UTC on Sunday, 19 January 2025.For the full current version of the article, see Derdas I on Wikipedia.This podcast uses content from Wikipedia under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike License.Visit our archives at wikioftheday.com and subscribe to stay updated on new episodes.Follow us on Mastodon at @wikioftheday@masto.ai.Also check out Curmudgeon's Corner, a current events podcast.Until next time, I'm neural Gregory.

The great conflict that we know today as the Greco-Persian Wars between a few independent city-states of ancient Greece and mighty Achaemenid Persian Empire is, in my opinion, one of the most fascinating and consequential in all of history.  More than just battles for territory and glory - they were clashes of culture, ideology, and power between East and West. The war saw legendary figures such as Leonides, The Great King Xerxes, Themistocles, Darius the Great, Miltiades, Mardonius, Artemisia, Kleomenes, and countless others in action.  Since most accounts of the conflict available to us come from Greek and Roman historians and writers of antiquity such as Herodotus, Plutarch, Diodorus Siculus, Aeschylus, the traveler Pausanias, Justin and others, our modern perspective is often shaped by their portrayal of a struggle between the freedom-loving Greeks and the tyrannical rulers of Achaemenid Persia—a narrative further popularized by films like 300.  However, as we will explore, the reality was far more complex.  Drawing on historical sources and the latest archaeological research, this series will explore everything from the causes of the conflict to its key figures, the various phases of the war, and its aftermath. This is the first of a series of 5 or 6 podcasts that will be released over the next few months.  Stay tuned for future episodes.  Contents:00:00  Rise of Cyrus the Great and the Persian Achaemenid Empire05:27 Ionians and Greeks in the Persian Empire14:29 A bit about Herodotus16:49 Trouble in Athens23:52 Earth and Water 28:04 Sparta (almost) Attacks!36:25 Aristagoras' Plan44:21 The Ionian Revolt49:10 The Battle of Lade50:09 Aftermath57:10 Thank You and PatronsSpecial thanks to Farya Faraji for the following musical compositions featured throughout the program: "Spantodhata's Warning""To Phrygia""In Pythagoras' Mind""The Apadana's Shadows""Immortals""Mater""In Sappho's Mind""Spring in Persepolis""Aíma""Apranik's Charge""March of Achaemenes""Hyrcanian Lullaby"Check out more of his work that spans across many countries, cultures and time periods: https://www.youtube.com/@faryafarajiYou can also find them on the albums:*Songs of Old Iran Vols. I & II**Voices of the Ancients Vols. I & II* Additional Music:Epidemic Sound"Genie's Bane""Interstate 895""One with the Tribe""Pepper Seeds""Keeping up with the Tarahumaras""Blood in Water""The Golden Spiral""The Sewers""Deer Hunt""Zero Remorse"Support the show

Meet the most beautiful woman in the world- who may have hatched from an egg. She's got suitors lining up to marry her which poses a problem for her stepfather Tyndareus. Maybe Odysseus will have a short term solution that will only cause problems later? Sources for this episode: Frazer, J. G. (1921), Apollodorus: The Library (Volume II). London: William Heinemann. Graves, R. (1981), Greek Myths: Illustrated Edition. London: Cassell Ltd. Pausanias (1886), Pausanias Description of Greece. In Six Volumes. Volume II: Books VII to X. Translated by A. R. Shilleto. London: George Bell and Sons. Plutarch (1938), Plutarch's Lives. Dryden's Edition, Revised, with an Introduction, by Arthur Hugh Clough. In Three Volumes (Volume I). Everyman's Library 407. London and New York: J. M. Dent & Sons Ltd. and E. P. Dutton & Co. Inc. Procopius (2016), The Secret History. Translated by G. A. Williamson. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd. Author unknown, Wikipedia (date unknown), Leda and the Swan (online) (Accessed 17/11/2024). Author unknown, Wikipedia (date unknown), Penelope (online) (Accessed 17/11/2024).

Faites un don et recevez un cadeau : http://don.storiavoce.com/ Afin de répondre au vandalisme des révolutionnaires, le fameux abbé Grégoire (1750-1831) développa la notion de "patrimoine". Son idée était de combattre les destructions et les déprédations des œuvres d'arts perpétrés durant la période la plus sombre de la Révolution. Il s'agissait non seulement lui de défendre le patrimoine existant mais aussi le patrimoine à venir. Une telle idée, en soit, n'était pas nouvelle. On la retrouve dans l'Antiquité grecque (Pausanias) et romaine (Auguste) mais aussi dans l'Antiquité tardive au VIe siècle, chez l'érudit Cassiodore : faisant face aux ruines de Rome, ce dernier cherche les moyens de "les protéger et d'établir un pacte entre passé et présent". Peu à peu, au delà même de la préservation des sources écrites du passé, s'impose l'idée d'une préservation des pierres. On ne parlait pas encore d'archéologie, mais les principes étaient établis. Notre invité : professeur émérite d'archéologie à l'Université de Paris I Panthéon-Sorbonne, Jean-Paul Demoule est aussi membre honoraire de l'Institut universitaire de France et ancien président de l'Inrap. Spécialiste du néolithique et du rôle social de l'archéologie, il est l'auteur de nombreux ouvrages sur le sujet. Il vient de publier avec Alain Schnapp Qui a peur de l'archéologie ? La France face à son passé (Belles Lettres, 346 p., 21,90 €). *** Facebook : https://www.facebook.com/HistoireEtCivilisationsMag Instagram : https://www.instagram.com/histoireetcivilisations/ Twitter : https://twitter.com/Storiavoce

A look at the ancient and mythological history of Olympics, featuring some songs written for the ancient games' victors. CW/TW: far too many Greek myths involve assault. Given it's fiction, and typically involves gods and/or monsters, I'm not as deferential as I would be were I referencing the real thing. Sources: Pindar, the Odes, translated by Andrew M. Miller; readings from the Ernest Myers translation; Pausanias' Description of Greece translated by WHS Jones. Attributions and licensing information for music used in the podcast can be found here: mythsbaby.com/sources-attributions.See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Professor Kozlowski discusses the opening and first two speeches of Plato's Symposium, examining not just the content of the speeches, but the context Plato offers to provide depth to the characters' understanding.

Welcome to this bonus instalment of episodes for January. The Marathon mini series has been apart of the members episodes over on Patreon. For the month of January I have decided to make this series of 5 episodes available to all to say thank you for all the support over the year. Get in and listen when you can as they will go back to Patreon only at the start of February. Discover the pivotal moments and shrewd manoeuvres that carved the path to victory for the Greeks at the Battle of Marathon. Our exploration is not just a retelling of a historic clash but a careful dissection of the choices and tensions that tipped the scales in an epic confrontation. We unravel the strategic hesitations among the Greek generals and the persuasive power of General Miltiades' words that propelled the Athenians into decisive action. Together, we'll traverse the craggy landscape of Marathon Bay, probing into the Persian camp's strategic placement and the impact of their absent cavalry on the battle's outcome—questioning not only the historical records but the very tactics that defined ancient warfare.As we scrutinize the layouts of the Greek and Persian forces, the reasoning behind the Athenians' risky placement with mountains at their backs becomes a central enigma. Engage with us in a critical analysis of the battle lines, drawing from the theories that have the Greeks anchoring their right flank by the shore, while the Persians positioned their left, setting the stage for a battle with no easy escape. We sift through alternative narratives and highlight how historical texts from Herodotus to Pausanias may have influenced our modern understanding of these ancient tactics. And as we prepare for our next episode, we'll confront the question: Were the Greeks masters of military innovation, or simply the beneficiaries of luck and timing in war? Join us as we dissect these fascinating dynamics of ancient combat.Support the show

We end 2023 with a look at Despoina, an obscure Arcadian goddess associated with this title which means "Mistress". Often connected to Kore/Persephone, Artemis and Hecate, this child of Demeter and Poseidon holds a powerful secret and a name that would only be revealed to initiates of her Mysteries. The only surviving image connected to Despoina is her veil, and the only account of her shrine in Arcadia comes from a description by the Roman writer Pausanias. Still, the little information that we have tells us a lot about this goddess and her cohorts.

En el episodio de hoy de "Mitos y Más", nos adentramos en las profundidades de la mitología griega para explorar las leyendas de Poseidón, el formidable dios de los mares. Descubre con nosotros las historias que van desde su nacimiento hasta su influencia en eventos épicos como la construcción de las murallas de Troya y sus tumultuosas relaciones divinas.Este episodio ha sido cuidadosamente elaborado con información extraída de fuentes clásicas y respetadas, incluyendo el "Himno Homérico a Poseidón", la "Ilíada" de Homero, las obras de Pausanias, Apollodoro, Hesiodo, Higio, Ovidio y Pindaro. Estas fuentes han permitido crear una narrativa rica y detallada, llevándote en un viaje por las fascinantes y a menudo complejas capas de la mitología griega.Para más historias fascinantes y un análisis profundo de los mitos, leyendas y folclore del mundo, visita nuestra página web www.mitosymas.com. Aquí encontrarás contenido adicional, recursos e información para profundizar aún más en estos relatos ancestrales.No olvides seguirnos también en nuestras redes sociales para estar al tanto de las últimas novedades, episodios y mucho más.Encuéntranos en Facebook, Instagram, Twitter y TikTok, donde compartimos regularmente actualizaciones, hechos interesantes y un vistazo detrás de escena de nuestro podcast.Facebook: Mitos y MásInstagram: @mitosymasTwitter: @mitosYmasTikTok: @mitosymas¡Gracias por escuchar y ser parte de nuestra comunidad apasionada por la mitología y las historias que han formado nuestro mundo!#MitosYMas #Poseidon #MitologiaGriega #PodcastDeMitología #HistoriasAntiguas #CulturaGriega #Mitología #Folclore #Leyendas

Listen to this episode on Spotify or Apple Podcasts Let's face it the New Testament probably calls Jesus God (or god) a couple of times and so do early Christian authors in the second century. However, no one offers much of an explanation for what they mean by the title. Did early Christians think Jesus was God because he represented Yahweh? Did they think he was God because he shared the same eternal being as the Father? Did they think he was a god because that's just what they would call any immortalized human who lived in heaven? In this presentation I focus on the question from the perspective of Greco-Roman theology. Drawing on the work of David Litwa, Andrew Perriman, Barry Blackburn, and tons of ancient sources I seek to show how Mediterranean converts to Christianity would have perceived Jesus based on their cultural and religious assumptions. This presentation is from the 3rd Unitarian Christian Alliance Conference on October 20, 2023 in Springfield, OH. Here is the original pdf of this paper. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c5Z3QbQ7dHc —— Links —— See more scholarly articles by Sean Finnegan Get the transcript of this episode Support Restitutio by donating here Join our Restitutio Facebook Group and follow Sean Finnegan on Twitter @RestitutioSF Leave a voice message via SpeakPipe with questions or comments and we may play them out on the air Intro music: Good Vibes by MBB Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0) Free Download / Stream: Music promoted by Audio Library. Who is Sean Finnegan?  Read his bio here Introduction When early Christian authors called Jesus “god” (or “God”) what did they mean?[1] Modern apologists routinely point to pre-Nicene quotations in order to prove that early Christians always believed in the deity of Christ, by which they mean that he is of the same substance (homoousios) as the Father. However, most historians agree that Christians before the fourth century simply didn't have the cognitive categories available yet to think of Christ in Nicene or Chalcedonian ways. If this consensus is correct, it behooves us to consider other options for defining what early Christian authors meant. The obvious place to go to get an answer to our initial question is the New Testament. However, as is well known, the handful of instances in which authors unambiguously applied god (θεός) to Christ are fraught with textual uncertainty, grammatical ambiguity, and hermeneutical elasticity.[2]  What's more, granting that these contested texts[3] all call Jesus “god” provides little insight into what they might mean by that phrase. Turning to the second century, the earliest handful of texts that say Jesus is god are likewise textually uncertain or terse.[4] We must wait until the second half of the second century and beyond to have more helpful material to examine. We know that in the meanwhile some Christians were saying Jesus was god. What did they mean? One promising approach is to analyze biblical texts that call others gods. We find helpful parallels with the word god (אֱלֹהִים) applied to Moses (Exod 7.1; 4.16), judges (Exod 21.6; 22.8-9), kings (Is 9.6; Ps 45.6), the divine council (Ps 82.1, 6), and angels (Ps 8.6). These are texts in which God imbues his agents with his authority to represent him in some way. This rare though significant way of calling a representative “god,” continues in the NT with Jesus' clever defense to his accusers in John 10.34-36. Lexicons[5] have long recognized this “Hebraistic” usage and recent study tools such as the New English Translation (NET)[6] and the Zondervan Illustrated Bible Background Commentary[7] also note this phenomenon. But, even if this agency perspective is the most natural reading of texts like Heb 1.8, later Christians, apart from one or two exceptions appear to be ignorant of this usage.[8] This interpretation was likely a casualty of the so-called parting of the ways whereby Christianity transitioned from a second-temple-Jewish movement to a Gentile-majority religion. As such, to grasp what early postapostolic Christians believed, we must turn our attention elsewhere. Michael Bird is right when he says, “Christian discourses about deity belong incontrovertibly in the Greco-Roman context because it provided the cultural encyclopedia that, in diverse ways, shaped the early church's Christological conceptuality and vocabulary.”[9] Learning Greco-Roman theology is not only important because that was the context in which early Christians wrote, but also because from the late first century onward, most of our Christian authors converted from that worldview. Rather than talking about the Hellenization of Christianity, we should begin by asking how Hellenists experienced Christianization. In other words, Greco-Roman beliefs about the gods were the default lens through which converts first saw Christ. In order to explore how Greco-Roman theology shaped what people believed about Jesus as god, we do well to begin by asking how they defined a god. Andrew Perriman offers a helpful starting point. “The gods,” he writes, “are mostly understood as corporeal beings, blessed with immortality, larger, more beautiful, and more powerful than their mortal analogues.”[10] Furthermore, there were lots of them! The sublunar realm was, in the words of Paula Fredriksen, “a god-congested place.”[11] What's more, “[S]harp lines and clearly demarcated boundaries between divinity and humanity were lacking."[12] Gods could appear as people and people could ascend to become gods. Comprehending what Greco-Roman people believed about gods coming down and humans going up will occupy the first part of this paper. Only once we've adjusted our thinking to their culture, will we walk through key moments in the life of Jesus of Nazareth to hear the story with ancient Mediterranean ears. Lastly, we'll consider the evidence from sources that think of Jesus in Greco-Roman categories. Bringing this all together we'll enumerate the primary ways to interpret the phrase “Jesus is god” available to Christians in the pre-Nicene period. Gods Coming Down and Humans Going Up The idea that a god would visit someone is not as unusual as it first sounds. We find plenty of examples of Yahweh himself or non-human representatives visiting people in the Hebrew Bible.[13] One psalmist even referred to angels or “heavenly beings” (ESV) as אֱלֹהִים (gods).[14] The Greco-Roman world too told stories about divine entities coming down to interact with people. Euripides tells about the time Zeus forced the god Apollo to become a human servant in the house of Admetus, performing menial labor as punishment for killing the Cyclopes (Alcestis 1). Baucis and Philemon offered hospitality to Jupiter and Mercury when they appeared in human form (Ovid, Metamorphoses 8.26-34). In Homer's Odyssey onlookers warn Antinous for flinging a stool against a stranger since “the gods do take on the look of strangers dropping in from abroad”[15] (17.534-9). Because they believed the boundary between the divine realm and the Earth was so permeable, Mediterranean people were always on guard for an encounter with a god in disguise. In addition to gods coming down, in special circumstances, humans could ascend and become gods too. Diodorus of Sicily demarcated two types of gods: those who are “eternal and imperishable, such as the sun and the moon” and “the other gods…terrestrial beings who attained to immortal honour”[16] (The Historical Library of Diodorus the Sicilian 6.1). By some accounts, even the Olympian gods, including Kronos and Uranus were once mortal men.[17] Among humans who could become divine, we find several distinguishable categories, including heroes, miracle workers, and rulers. We'll look at each briefly before considering how the story of Jesus would resonate with those holding a Greco-Roman worldview. Deified Heroes Cornutus the Stoic said, “[T]he ancients called heroes those who were so strong in body and soul that they seemed to be part of a divine race.” (Greek Theology 31)[18] At first this statement appears to be a mere simile, but he goes on to say of Heracles (Hercules), the Greek hero par excellence, “his services had earned him apotheosis” (ibid.). Apotheosis (or deification) is the process by which a human ascends into the divine realm. Beyond Heracles and his feats of strength, other exceptional individuals became deified for various reasons. Amphiarus was a seer who died in the battle at Thebes. After opening a chasm in the earth to swallow him in battle, “Zeus made him immortal”[19] (Apollodorus, Library of Greek Mythology 3.6). Pausanias says the custom of the inhabitants of Oropos was to drop coins into Amphiarus' spring “because this is where they say Amphiarus rose up as a god”[20] (Guide to Greece 1.34). Likewise, Strabo speaks about a shrine for Calchas, a deceased diviner from the Trojan war (Homer, Illiad 1.79-84), “where those consulting the oracle sacrifice a black ram to the dead and sleep in its hide”[21] (Strabo, Geography 6.3.9). Though the great majority of the dead were locked away in the lower world of Hades, leading a shadowy pitiful existence, the exceptional few could visit or speak from beyond the grave. Lastly, there was Zoroaster the Persian prophet who, according to Dio Chrysostom, was enveloped by fire while he meditated upon a mountain. He was unharmed and gave advice on how to properly make offerings to the gods (Dio Chrysostom, Discourses 36.40). The Psuedo-Clementine Homilies include a story about a lightning bolt striking and killing Zoroaster. After his devotees buried his body, they built a temple on the site, thinking that “his soul had been sent for by lightning” and they “worshipped him as a god”[22] (Homily 9.5.2). Thus, a hero could have extraordinary strength, foresight, or closeness to the gods resulting in apotheosis and ongoing worship and communication. Deified Miracle Workers Beyond heroes, Greco-Roman people loved to tell stories about deified miracle workers. Twice Orpheus rescued a ship from a storm by praying to the gods (Diodorus of Sicily 4.43.1f; 48.5f). After his death, surviving inscriptions indicate that he both received worship and was regarded as a god in several cities.[23] Epimenides “fell asleep in a cave for fifty-seven years”[24] (Diogenes Laertius, Lives of Eminent Philosophers 1.109). He also predicted a ten-year period of reprieve from Persian attack in Athens (Plato Laws 1.642D-E). Plato called him a divine man (θεῖος ἀνήρ) (ibid.) and Diogenes talked of Cretans sacrificing to him as a god (Diogenes, Lives 1.114). Iamblichus said Pythagoras was the son of Apollo and a mortal woman (Life of Pythagoras 2). Nonetheless, the soul of Pythagoras enjoyed multiple lives, having originally been “sent to mankind from the empire of Apollo”[25] (Life 2). Diogenes and Lucian enumerate the lives the pre-existent Pythagoras led, including Aethalides, Euphorbus, Hermotimus, and Pyrrhus (Diogenes, Life of Pythagoras 4; Lucian, The Cock 16-20). Hermes had granted Pythagoras the gift of “perpetual transmigration of his soul”[26] so he could remember his lives while living or dead (Diogenes, Life 4). Ancient sources are replete with Pythagorean miracle stories.[27] Porphyry mentions several, including taming a bear, persuading an ox to stop eating beans, and accurately predicting a catch of fish (Life of Pythagoras 23-25). Porphyry said Pythagoras accurately predicted earthquakes and “chased away a pestilence, suppressed violent winds and hail, [and] calmed storms on rivers and on seas” (Life 29).[28] Such miracles, argued the Pythagoreans made Pythagoras “a being superior to man, and not to a mere man” (Iamblichus, Life 28).[29] Iamblichus lays out the views of Pythagoras' followers, including that he was a god, a philanthropic daemon, the Pythian, the Hyperborean Apollo, a Paeon, a daemon inhabiting the moon, or an Olympian god (Life 6). Another pre-Socratic philosopher was Empedocles who studied under Pythagoras. To him sources attribute several miracles, including stopping a damaging wind, restoring the wind, bringing dry weather, causing it to rain, and even bringing someone back from Hades (Diogenes, Lives 8.59).[30] Diogenes records an incident in which Empedocles put a woman into a trance for thirty days before sending her away alive (8.61). He also includes a poem in which Empedocles says, “I am a deathless god, no longer mortal, I go among you honored by all, as is right”[31] (8.62). Asclepius was a son of the god Apollo and a human woman (Cornutus, Greek Theology 33). He was known for healing people from diseases and injuries (Pindar, Pythian 3.47-50). “[H]e invented any medicine he wished for the sick, and raised up the dead”[32] (Pausanias, Guide to Greece 2.26.4). However, as Diodorus relates, Hades complained to Zeus on account of Asclepius' diminishing his realm, which resulted in Zeus zapping Asclepius with a thunderbolt, killing him (4.71.2-3). Nevertheless, Asclepius later ascended into heaven to become a god (Hyginus, Fables 224; Cicero, Nature of the Gods 2.62).[33] Apollonius of Tyana was a famous first century miracle worker. According to Philostratus' account, the locals of Tyana regard Apollonius to be the son of Zeus (Life 1.6). Apollonius predicted many events, interpreted dreams, and knew private facts about people. He rebuked and ridiculed a demon, causing it to flee, shrieking as it went (Life 2.4).[34] He even once stopped a funeral procession and raised the deceased to life (Life 4.45). What's more he knew every human language (Life 1.19) and could understand what sparrows chirped to each other (Life 4.3). Once he instantaneously transported himself from Smyrna to Ephesus (Life 4.10). He claimed knowledge of his previous incarnation as the captain of an Egyptian ship (Life 3.23) and, in the end, Apollonius entered the temple of Athena and vanished, ascending from earth into heaven to the sound of a choir singing (Life 8.30). We have plenty of literary evidence that contemporaries and those who lived later regarded him as a divine man (Letters 48.3)[35] or godlike (ἰσόθεος) (Letters 44.1) or even just a god (θεός) (Life 5.24). Deified Rulers Our last category of deified humans to consider before seeing how this all relates to Jesus is rulers. Egyptians, as indicated from the hieroglyphs left in the pyramids, believed their deceased kings to enjoy afterlives as gods. They could become star gods or even hunt and consume other gods to absorb their powers.[36] The famous Macedonian conqueror, Alexander the Great, carried himself as a god towards the Persians though Plutarch opines, “[he] was not at all vain or deluded but rather used belief in his divinity to enslave others”[37] (Life of Alexander 28). This worship continued after his death, especially in Alexandria where Ptolemy built a tomb and established a priesthood to conduct religious honors to the deified ruler. Even the emperor Trajan offered a sacrifice to the spirit of Alexander (Cassius Dio, Roman History 68.30). Another interesting example is Antiochus I of Comagene who called himself “Antiochus the just [and] manifest god, friend of the Romans [and] friend of the Greeks.”[38] His tomb boasted four colossal figures seated on thrones: Zeus, Heracles, Apollo, and himself. The message was clear: Antiochus I wanted his subjects to recognize his place among the gods after death. Of course, the most relevant rulers for the Christian era were the Roman emperors. The first official Roman emperor Augustus deified his predecessor, Julius Caesar, celebrating his apotheosis with games (Suetonius, Life of Julius Caesar 88). Only five years after Augustus died, eastern inhabitants of the Roman Empire at Priene happily declared “the birthday of the god Augustus” (ἡ γενέθλιος ἡμέρα τοῦ θεοῦ)[39] to be the start of their provincial year. By the time of Tacitus, a century after Augustus died, the wealthy in Rome had statues of the first emperor in their gardens for worship (Annals 1.73). The Roman historian Appian explained that the Romans regularly deify emperors at death “provided he has not been a despot or a disgrace”[40] (The Civil Wars 2.148).  In other words, deification was the default setting for deceased emperors. Pliny the Younger lays it on pretty thick when he describes the process. He says Nero deified Claudius to expose him; Titus deified Vespasian and Domitian so he could be the son and brother of gods. However, Trajan deified Nerva because he genuinely believed him to be more than a human (Panegyric 11). In our little survey, we've seen three main categories of deified humans: heroes, miracle workers, and good rulers. These “conceptions of deity,” writes David Litwa, “were part of the “preunderstanding” of Hellenistic culture.”[41] He continues: If actual cases of deification were rare, traditions of deification were not. They were the stuff of heroic epic, lyric song, ancient mythology, cultic hymns, Hellenistic novels, and popular plays all over the first-century Mediterranean world. Such discourses were part of mainstream, urban culture to which most early Christians belonged. If Christians were socialized in predominantly Greco-Roman environments, it is no surprise that they employed and adapted common traits of deities and deified men to exalt their lord to divine status.[42] Now that we've attuned our thinking to Mediterranean sensibilities about gods coming down in the shape of humans and humans experiencing apotheosis to permanently dwell as gods in the divine realm, our ears are attuned to hear the story of Jesus with Greco-Roman ears. Hearing the Story of Jesus with Greco-Roman Ears How would second or third century inhabitants of the Roman empire have categorized Jesus? Taking my cue from Litwa's treatment in Iesus Deus, I'll briefly work through Jesus' conception, transfiguration, miracles, resurrection, and ascension. Miraculous Conception Although set within the context of Jewish messianism, Christ's miraculous birth would have resonated differently with Greco-Roman people. Stories of gods coming down and having intercourse with women are common in classical literature. That these stories made sense of why certain individuals were so exceptional is obvious. For example, Origen related a story about Apollo impregnating Amphictione who then gave birth to Plato (Against Celsus 1.37). Though Mary's conception did not come about through intercourse with a divine visitor, the fact that Jesus had no human father would call to mind divine sonship like Pythagoras or Asclepius. Celsus pointed out that the ancients “attributed a divine origin to Perseus, and Amphion, and Aeacus, and Minos” (Origen, Against Celsus 1.67). Philostratus records a story of the Egyptian god Proteus saying to Apollonius' mother that she would give birth to himself (Life of Apollonius of Tyana 1.4). Since people were primed to connect miraculous origins with divinity, typical hearers of the birth narratives of Matthew or Luke would likely think that this baby might be either be a descended god or a man destined to ascend to become a god. Miracles and Healing As we've seen, Jesus' miracles would not have sounded unbelievable or even unprecedent to Mediterranean people. Like Jesus, Orpheus and Empedocles calmed storms, rescuing ships. Though Jesus provided miraculous guidance on how to catch fish, Pythagoras foretold the number of fish in a great catch. After the fishermen painstakingly counted them all, they were astounded that when they threw them back in, they were still alive (Porphyry, Life 23-25). Jesus' ability to foretell the future, know people's thoughts, and cast out demons all find parallels in Apollonius of Tyana. As for resurrecting the dead, we have the stories of Empedocles, Asclepius, and Apollonius. The last of which even stopped a funeral procession to raise the dead, calling to mind Jesus' deeds in Luke 7.11-17. When Lycaonians witnessed Paul's healing of a man crippled from birth, they cried out, “The gods have come down to us in the likeness of men” (Acts 14.11). Another time when no harm befell Paul after a poisonous snake bit him on Malta, Gentile onlookers concluded “he was a god” (Acts 28.6). Barry Blackburn makes the following observation: [I]n view of the tendency, most clearly seen in the Epimenidean, Pythagorean, and Apollonian traditions, to correlate impressive miracle-working with divine status, one may justifiably conclude that the evangelical miracle traditions would have helped numerous gentile Christians to arrive at and maintain belief in Jesus' divine status.[43] Transfiguration Ancient Mediterranean inhabitants believed that the gods occasionally came down disguised as people. Only when gods revealed their inner brilliant natures could people know that they weren't mere humans. After his ship grounded on the sands of Krisa, Apollo leaped from the ship emitting flashes of fire “like a star in the middle of day…his radiance shot to heaven”[44] (Homeric Hymns, Hymn to Apollo 440). Likewise, Aphrodite appeared in shining garments, brighter than a fire and shimmering like the moon (Hymn to Aphrodite 85-89). When Demeter appeared to Metaneira, she initially looked like an old woman, but she transformed herself before her. “Casting old age away…a delightful perfume spread…a radiance shone out far from the goddess' immortal flesh…and the solid-made house was filled with a light like the lightning-flash”[45] (Hymn to Demeter 275-280). Homer wrote about Odysseus' transformation at the golden wand of Athena in which his clothes became clean, he became taller, and his skin looked younger. His son, Telemachus cried out, “Surely you are some god who rules the vaulting skies”[46] (Odyssey 16.206). Each time the observers conclude the transfigured person is a god. Resurrection & Ascension In defending the resurrection of Jesus, Theophilus of Antioch said, “[Y]ou believe that Hercules, who burned himself, lives; and that Aesculapius [Asclepius], who was struck with lightning, was raised”[47] (Autolycus 1.13). Although Hercules' physical body burnt, his transformed pneumatic body continued on as the poet Callimachus said, “under a Phrygian oak his limbs had been deified”[48] (Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis 159). Others thought Hercules ascended to heaven in his burnt body, which Asclepius subsequently healed (Lucian, Dialogue of the Gods 13). After his ascent, Diodorus relates how the people first sacrificed to him “as to a hero” then in Athens they began to honor him “with sacrifices like as to a god”[49] (The Historical Library 4.39). As for Asclepius, his ascension resulted in his deification as Cyprian said, “Aesculapius is struck by lightning, that he may rise into a god”[50] (On the Vanity of Idols 2). Romulus too “was torn to pieces by the hands of a hundred senators”[51] and after death ascended into heaven and received worship (Arnobius, Against the Heathen 1.41). Livy tells of how Romulus was “carried up on high by a whirlwind” and that immediately afterward “every man present hailed him as a god and son of a god”[52] (The Early History of Rome 1.16). As we can see from these three cases—Hercules, Asclepius, and Romulus—ascent into heaven was a common way of talking about deification. For Cicero, this was an obvious fact. People “who conferred outstanding benefits were translated to heaven through their fame and our gratitude”[53] (Nature 2.62). Consequently, Jesus' own resurrection and ascension would have triggered Gentiles to intuit his divinity. Commenting on the appearance of the immortalized Christ to the eleven in Galilee, Wendy Cotter said, “It is fair to say that the scene found in [Mat] 28:16-20 would be understood by a Greco-Roman audience, Jew or Gentile, as an apotheosis of Jesus.”[54] Although I beg to differ with Cotter's whole cloth inclusion of Jews here, it's hard to see how else non-Jews would have regarded the risen Christ. Litwa adds Rev 1.13-16 “[W]here he [Jesus] appears with all the accoutrements of the divine: a shining face, an overwhelming voice, luminescent clothing, and so on.”[55] In this brief survey we've seen that several key events in the story of Jesus told in the Gospels would have caused Greco-Roman hearers to intuit deity, including his divine conception, miracles, healing ministry, transfiguration, resurrection, and ascension. In their original context of second temple Judaism, these very same incidents would have resonated quite differently. His divine conception authenticated Jesus as the second Adam (Luke 3.38; Rom 5.14; 1 Cor 15.45) and God's Davidic son (2 Sam 7.14; Ps 2.7; Lk 1.32, 35). If Matthew or Luke wanted readers to understand that Jesus was divine based on his conception and birth, they failed to make such intentions explicit in the text. Rather, the birth narratives appear to have a much more modest aim—to persuade readers that Jesus had a credible claim to be Israel's messiah. His miracles show that “God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power…for God was with him” (Acts 10.38; cf. Jn 3.2; 10.32, 38). Rather than concluding Jesus to be a god, Jewish witnesses to his healing of a paralyzed man “glorified God, who had given such authority to men” (Mat 9.8). Over and over, especially in the Gospel of John, Jesus directs people's attention to his Father who was doing the works in and through him (Jn 5.19, 30; 8.28; 12.49; 14.10). Seeing Jesus raise someone from the dead suggested to his original Jewish audience that “a great prophet has arisen among us” (Lk 7.16). The transfiguration, in its original setting, is an eschatological vision not a divine epiphany. Placement in the synoptic Gospels just after Jesus' promise that some there would not die before seeing the kingdom come sets the hermeneutical frame. “The transfiguration,” says William Lane, “was a momentary, but real (and witnessed) manifestation of Jesus' sovereign power which pointed beyond itself to the Parousia, when he will come ‘with power and glory.'”[56] If eschatology is the foreground, the background for the transfiguration was Moses' ascent of Sinai when he also encountered God and became radiant.[57] Viewed from the lenses of Moses' ascent and the eschaton, the transfiguration of Jesus is about his identity as God's definitive chosen ruler, not about any kind of innate divinity. Lastly, the resurrection and ascension validated Jesus' messianic claims to be the ruler of the age to come (Acts 17.31; Rom 1.4). Rather than concluding Jesus was deity, early Jewish Christians concluded these events showed that “God has made him both Lord and Christ” (Acts 2.36). The interpretative backgrounds for Jesus' ascension were not stories about Heracles, Asclepius, or Romulus. No, the key oracle that framed the Israelite understanding was the messianic psalm in which Yahweh told David's Lord to “Sit at my right hand, until I make your enemies your footstool” (Psalm 110.1). The idea is of a temporary sojourn in heaven until exercising the authority of his scepter to rule over earth from Zion. Once again, the biblical texts remain completely silent about deification. But even if the original meanings of Jesus' birth, ministry, transfiguration, resurrection, and ascension have messianic overtones when interpreted within the Jewish milieu, these same stories began to communicate various ideas of deity to Gentile converts in the generations that followed. We find little snippets from historical sources beginning in the second century and growing with time. Evidence of Belief in Jesus' as a Greco-Roman Deity To begin with, we have two non-Christian instances where Romans regarded Jesus as a deity within typical Greco-Roman categories. The first comes to us from Tertullian and Eusebius who mention an intriguing story about Tiberius' request to the Roman senate to deify Christ. Convinced by “intelligence from Palestine of events which had clearly shown the truth of Christ's divinity”[58] Tiberius proposed the matter to the senate (Apology 5). Eusebius adds that Tiberius learned that “many believed him to be a god in rising from the dead”[59] (Church History 2.2). As expected, the senate rejected the proposal. I mention this story, not because I can establish its historicity, but because it portrays how Tiberius would have thought about Jesus if he had heard about his miracles and resurrection. Another important incident is from one of the governor Pliny the Younger's letters to the emperor Trajan. Having investigated some people accused of Christianity, he found “they had met regularly before dawn on a fixed day to chant verses alternately amongst themselves in honour of Christ as if to a god”[60] (Letter 96). To an outside imperial observer like Pliny, the Christians believed in a man who had performed miracles, defeated death, and now lived in heaven. Calling him a god was just the natural way of talking about such a person. Pliny would not have thought Jesus was superior to the deified Roman emperors much less Zeus or the Olympic gods. If he believed in Jesus at all, he would have regarded him as another Mediterranean prophet who escaped Hades to enjoy apotheosis. Another interesting text to consider is the Infancy Gospel of Thomas. This apocryphal text tells the story of Jesus' childhood between the ages of five and twelve. Jesus is impetuous, powerful, and brilliant. Unsure to conclude that Jesus was “either god or angel,”[61] his teacher remands him to Joseph's custody (7). Later, a crowd of onlookers ponders whether the child is a god or a heavenly messenger after he raises an infant from the dead (17). A year later Jesus raised a construction man who had fallen to his death back to life (18). Once again, the crowd asked if the child was from heaven. Although some historians are quick to assume the lofty conceptions of Justin and his successors about the logos were commonplace in the early Christianity, Litwa points out, “The spell of the Logos could only bewitch a very small circle of Christian elites… In IGT, we find a Jesus who is divine according to different canons, the canons of popular Mediterranean theology.”[62] Another important though often overlooked scholarly group of Christians in the second century was led by a certain Theodotus of Byzantium.[63] Typically referred to by their heresiological label “Theodotians,” these dynamic monarchians lived in Rome and claimed that they held to the original Christology before it had been corrupted under Bishop Zephyrinus (Eusebius, Church History 5.28). Theodotus believed in the virgin birth, but not in his pre-existence or that he was god/God (Pseudo-Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 7.35.1-2; 10.23.1-2). He thought that Jesus was not able to perform any miracles until his baptism when he received the Christ/Spirit. Pseudo-Hippolytus goes on to say, “But they do not want him to have become a god when the Spirit descended. Others say that he became a god after he rose from the dead.”[64] This last tantalizing remark implies that the Theodotians could affirm Jesus as a god after his resurrection though they denied his pre-existence. Although strict unitarians, they could regard Jesus as a god in that he was an ascended immortalized being who lived in heaven—not equal to the Father, but far superior to all humans on earth. Justin Martyr presents another interesting case to consider. Thoroughly acquainted with Greco-Roman literature and especially the philosophy of Plato, Justin sees Christ as a god whom the Father begot before all other creatures. He calls him “son, or wisdom, or angel, or god, or lord, or word”[65] (Dialogue with Trypho 61).  For Justin Christ is “at the same time angel and god and lord and man”[66] (59). Jesus was “of old the Word, appearing at one time in the form of fire, at another under the guise of incorporeal beings, but now, at the will of God, after becoming man for mankind”[67] (First Apology 63). In fact, Justin is quite comfortable to compare Christ to deified heroes and emperors. He says, “[W]e propose nothing new or different from that which you say about the so-called sons of Jupiter [Zeus] by your respected writers… And what about the emperors who die among you, whom you think worthy to be deified?”[68] (21). He readily accepts the parallels with Mercury, Perseus, Asclepius, Bacchus, and Hercules, but argues that Jesus is superior to them (22).[69] Nevertheless, he considered Jesus to be in “a place second to the unchanging and eternal God”[70] (13). The Father is “the Most True God” whereas the Son is he “who came forth from Him”[71] (6). Even as lates as Origen, Greco-Roman concepts of deity persist. In responding to Celsus' claim that no god or son of God has ever come down, Origen responds by stating such a statement would overthrow the stories of Pythian Apollo, Asclepius, and the other gods who descended (Against Celsus 5.2). My point here is not to say Origen believed in all the old myths, but to show how Origen reached for these stories as analogies to explain the incarnation of the logos. When Celsus argued that he would rather believe in the deity of Asclepius, Dionysus, and Hercules than Christ, Origen responded with a moral rather than ontological argument (3.42). He asks how these gods have improved the characters of anyone. Origen admits Celsus' argument “which places the forenamed individuals upon an equality with Jesus” might have force, however in light of the disreputable behavior of these gods, “how could you any longer say, with any show of reason, that these men, on putting aside their mortal body, became gods rather than Jesus?”[72] (3.42). Origen's Christology is far too broad and complicated to cover here. Undoubtedly, his work on eternal generation laid the foundation on which fourth century Christians could build homoousion Christology. Nevertheless, he retained some of the earlier subordinationist impulses of his forebearers. In his book On Prayer, he rebukes praying to Jesus as a crude error, instead advocating prayer to God alone (10). In his Commentary on John he repeatedly asserts that the Father is greater than his logos (1.40; 2.6; 6.23). Thus, Origen is a theologian on the seam of the times. He's both a subordinationist and a believer in the Son's eternal and divine ontology. Now, I want to be careful here. I'm not saying that all early Christians believed Jesus was a deified man like Asclepius or a descended god like Apollo or a reincarnated soul like Pythagoras. More often than not, thinking Christians whose works survive until today tended to eschew the parallels, simultaneously elevating Christ as high as possible while demoting the gods to mere demons. Still, Litwa is inciteful when he writes: It seems likely that early Christians shared the widespread cultural assumption that a resurrected, immortalized being was worthy of worship and thus divine. …Nonetheless there is a difference…Jesus, it appears, was never honored as an independent deity. Rather, he was always worshiped as Yahweh's subordinate. Naturally Heracles and Asclepius were Zeus' subordinates, but they were also members of a larger divine family. Jesus does not enter a pantheon but assumes a distinctive status as God's chief agent and plenipotentiary. It is this status that, to Christian insiders, placed Jesus in a category far above the likes of Heracles, Romulus, and Asclepius who were in turn demoted to the rank of δαίμονες [daimons].[73] Conclusion I began by asking the question, "What did early Christians mean by saying Jesus is god?" We noted that the ancient idea of agency (Jesus is God/god because he represents Yahweh), though present in Hebrew and Christian scripture, didn't play much of a role in how Gentile Christians thought about Jesus. Or if it did, those texts did not survive. By the time we enter the postapostolic era, a majority of Christianity was Gentile and little communication occurred with the Jewish Christians that survived in the East. As such, we turned our attention to Greco-Roman theology to tune our ears to hear the story of Jesus the way they would have. We learned about their multifaceted array of divinities. We saw that gods can come down and take the form of humans and humans can go up and take the form of gods. We found evidence for this kind of thinking in both non-Christian and Christian sources in the second and third centuries. Now it is time to return to the question I began with: “When early Christian authors called Jesus “god” what did they mean?” We saw that the idea of a deified man was present in the non-Christian witnesses of Tiberius and Pliny but made scant appearance in our Christian literature except for the Theodotians. As for the idea that a god came down to become a man, we found evidence in The Infancy Gospel of Thomas, Justin, and Origen.[74] Of course, we find a spectrum within this view, from Justin's designation of Jesus as a second god to Origen's more philosophically nuanced understanding. Still, it's worth noting as R. P. C. Hanson observed that, “With the exception of Athanasius virtually every theologian, East and West, accepted some form of subordinationism at least up to the year 355.”[75] Whether any Christians before Alexander and Athanasius of Alexandria held to the sophisticated idea of consubstantiality depends on showing evidence of the belief that the Son was coequal, coeternal, and coessential with the Father prior to Nicea. (Readers interested in the case for this view should consult Michael Bird's Jesus among the Gods in which he attempted the extraordinary feat of finding proto-Nicene Christology in the first two centuries, a task typically associated with maverick apologists not peer-reviewed historians.) In conclusion, the answer to our driving question about the meaning of “Jesus as god” is that the answer depends on whom we ask. If we ask the Theodotians, Jesus is a god because that's just what one calls an immortalized man who lives in heaven.[76] If we ask those holding a docetic Christology, the answer is that a god came down in appearance as a man. If we ask a logos subordinationist, they'll tell us that Jesus existed as the god through whom the supreme God created the universe before he became a human being. If we ask Tertullian, Jesus is god because he derives his substance from the Father, though he has a lesser portion of divinity.[77] If we ask Athanasius, he'll wax eloquent about how Jesus is of the same substance as the Father equal in status and eternality. The bottom line is that there was not one answer to this question prior to the fourth century. Answers depend on whom we ask and when they lived. Still, we can't help but wonder about the more tantalizing question of development. Which Christology was first and which ones evolved under social, intellectual, and political pressures? In the quest to specify the various stages of development in the Christologies of the ante-Nicene period, this Greco-Roman perspective may just provide the missing link between the reserved and limited way that the NT applies theos to Jesus in the first century and the homoousian view that eventually garnered imperial support in the fourth century. How easy would it have been for fresh converts from the Greco-Roman world to unintentionally mishear the story of Jesus? How easy would it have been for them to fit Jesus into their own categories of descended gods and ascended humans? With the unmooring of Gentile Christianity from its Jewish heritage, is it any wonder that Christologies began to drift out to sea? Now I'm not suggesting that all Christians went through a steady development from a human Jesus to a pre-existent Christ, to an eternal God the Son, to the Chalcedonian hypostatic union. As I mentioned above, plenty of other options were around and every church had its conservatives in addition to its innovators. The story is messy and uneven with competing views spread across huge geographic distances. Furthermore, many Christians probably were content to leave such theological nuances fuzzy, rather than seeking doctrinal precision on Christ's relation to his God and Father. Whatever the case may be, we dare not ignore the influence of Greco-Roman theology in our accounts of Christological development in the Mediterranean world of the first three centuries.    Bibliography The Homeric Hymns. Translated by Michael Crudden. New York, NY: Oxford, 2008. Antioch, Theophilus of. To Autolycus. Translated by Marcus Dods. Vol. 2. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001. Aphrahat. The Demonstrations. Translated by Ellen Muehlberger. Vol. 3. The Cambridge Edition of Early Christian Writings. 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Translated by Aubrey De Sélincourt. London, UK: Penguin, 2002. Origen. Against Celsus. Translated by Frederick Crombie. Vol. 4. The Ante-Nicene Fathers. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003. Pausanias. Guide to Greece. Translated by Peter Levi. London, UK: Penguin, 1979. Perriman, Andrew. In the Form of a God. Studies in Early Christology, edited by David Capes Michael Bird, and Scott Harrower. Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2022. Philostratus. Letters of Apollonius. Vol. 458. Loeb Classical Library. Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2006. Plutarch. Life of Alexander. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert and Timothy E. Duff. The Age of Alexander. London, UK: Penguin, 2011. Porphyry. Life of Pythagoras. Translated by Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie. The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library. Edited by David Fideler. Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press, 1988. Pseudo-Clement. Recognitions. Translated by Thomas Smith. Vol. 8. Ante Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003. Pseudo-Hippolytus. Refutation of All Heresies. Translated by David Litwa. Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2016. Pseudo-Thomas. Infancy Gospel of Thomas. Translated by James Orr. Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1903. Psuedo-Clement. Homilies. Translated by Peter Peterson. Vol. 8. Ante-Nicene Fathers. Edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1897. Siculus, Diodorus. The Historical Library. Translated by Charles Henry Oldfather. Vol. 1. Edited by Giles Laurén: Sophron Editor, 2017. Strabo. The Geography. Translated by Duane W. Roller. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 2020. Tertullian. Against Praxeas. Translated by Holmes. Vol. 3. Ante Nice Fathers. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003. Tertullian. Apology. Translated by S. Thelwall. Vol. 3. Ante-Nicene Fathers, edited by Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson. Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003. Younger, Pliny the. The Letters of the Younger Pliny. Translated by Betty Radice. London: Penguin, 1969. End Notes [1] For the remainder of this paper, I will use the lower case “god” for all references to deity outside of Yahweh, the Father of Christ. I do this because all our ancient texts lack capitalization and our modern capitalization rules imply a theology that is anachronistic and unhelpful for the present inquiry. [2] Christopher Kaiser wrote, “Explicit references to Jesus as ‘God' in the New Testament are very few, and even those few are generally plagued with uncertainties of either text or interpretation.” Christopher B. Kaiser, The Doctrine of God: A Historical Survey (London: Marshall Morgan & Scott, 1982), 29. Other scholars such as Raymond Brown (Jesus: God and Man), Jason David BeDuhn (Truth in Translation), and Brian Wright (“Jesus as θεός: A Textual Examination” in Revisiting the Corruption of the New Testament) have expressed similar sentiments. [3] John 20.28; Hebrews 1.8; Titus 2.13; 2 Peter 1.1; Romans 9.5; and 1 John 5.20. [4] See Polycarp's Epistle to the Philippians 12.2 where a manuscript difference determines whether or not Polycarp called Jesus god or lord. Textual corruption is most acute in Igantius' corpus. Although it's been common to dismiss the long recension as an “Arian” corruption, claiming the middle recension to be as pure and uncontaminated as freshly fallen snow upon which a foot has never trodden, such an uncritical view is beginning to give way to more honest analysis. See Paul Gilliam III's Ignatius of Antioch and the Arian Controversy (Leiden: Brill, 2017) for a recent treatment of Christological corruption in the middle recension. [5] See the entries for  אֱלֹהִיםand θεός in the Hebrew Aramaic Lexicon of the Old Testament (HALOT), the Brown Driver Briggs Lexicon (BDB), Eerdmans Dictionary, Kohlenberger/Mounce Concise Hebrew-Aramaic Dictionary of the Old Testament, the Bauer Danker Arndt Gingrich Lexicon (BDAG), Friberg Greek Lexicon, and Thayer's Greek Lexicon. [6] See notes on Is 9.6 and Ps 45.6. [7] ZIBBC: “In what sense can the king be called “god”? By virtue of his divine appointment, the king in the ancient Near East stood before his subjects as a representative of the divine realm. …In fact, the term “gods“ (ʾelōhı̂m) is used of priests who functioned as judges in the Israelite temple judicial system (Ex. 21:6; 22:8-9; see comments on 58:1; 82:6-7).” John W. Hilber, “Psalms,” in The Minor Prophets, Job, Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, Song of Songs, vol. 5 of Zondervan Illustrated Bible Backgrounds Commentary: Old Testament. ed. John H. Walton (Grand Rapids: Zondervan, 2009), 358. [8] Around a.d. 340, Aphrahat of Persia advised his fellow Christians to reply to Jewish critics who questioned why “You call a human being ‘God'” (Demonstrations 17.1). He said, “For the honored name of the divinity is granted event ot rightoues human beings, when they are worthy of being called by it…[W]hen he chose Moses, his friend and his beloved…he called him “god.” …We call him God, just as he named Moses with his own name…The name of the divinity was granted for great honor in the world. To whom he wishes, God appoints it” (17.3, 4, 5). Aphrahat, The Demonstrations, trans., Ellen Muehlberger, vol. 3, The Cambridge Edition of Early Christian Writings (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 2022), 213-15. In the Clementine Recognitions we find a brief mention of the concept:  “Therefore the name God is applied in three ways: either because he to whom it is given is truly God, or because he is the servant of him who is truly; and for the honour of the sender, that his authority may be full, he that is sent is called by the name of him who sends, as is often done in respect of angels: for when they appear to a man, if he is a wise and intelligent man, he asks the name of him who appears to him, that he may acknowledge at once the honour of the sent, and the authority of the sender” (2.42). Pseudo-Clement, Recognitions, trans., Thomas Smith, vol. 8, Ante Nicene Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003). [9] Michael F. Bird, Jesus among the Gods (Waco, TX: Baylor, 2022), 13. [10] Andrew Perriman, In the Form of a God, Studies in Early Christology, ed. David Capes Michael Bird, and Scott Harrower (Eugene, OR: Cascade Books, 2022), 130. [11] Paula Fredriksen, "How High Can Early High Christology Be?," in Monotheism and Christology in Greco-Roman Antiquity, ed. Matthew V. Novenson, vol. 180 (Leiden: Brill, 2020), 296, 99. [12] ibid. [13] See Gen 18.1; Ex 3.2; 24.11; Is 6.1; Ezk 1.28. [14] Compare the Masoretic Text of Psalm 8.6 to the Septuagint and Hebrews 2.7. [15] Homer, The Odyssey, trans., Robert Fagles (New York, NY: Penguin, 1997), 370. [16] Diodorus Siculus, The Historical Library, trans., Charles Henry Oldfather, vol. 1 (Sophron Editor, 2017), 340. [17] Uranus met death at the brutal hands of his own son, Kronos who emasculated him and let bleed out, resulting in his deification (Eusebius, Preparation for the Gospel 1.10). Later on, after suffering a fatal disease, Kronos himself experienced deification, becoming the planet Saturn (ibid.). Zeus married Hera and they produced Osiris (Dionysus), Isis (Demeter), Typhon, Apollo, and Aphrodite (ibid. 2.1). [18] Lucius Annaeus Cornutus, Greek Theology, trans., George Boys-Stones, Greek Theology, Fragments, and Testimonia (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2018), 123. [19] Apollodorus, The Library of Greek Mythology, trans., Robin Hard (Oxford, UK: Oxford, 1998), 111. [20] Pausanias, Guide to Greece, trans., Peter Levi (London, UK: Penguin, 1979), 98. [21] Strabo, The Geography, trans., Duane W. Roller (Cambridge, UK: Cambridge, 2020), 281. [22] Psuedo-Clement, Homilies, trans., Peter Peterson, vol. 8, Ante-Nicene Fathers (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1897). Greek: “αὐτὸν δὲ ὡς θεὸν ἐθρήσκευσαν” from Jacques Paul Migne, Patrologia Graeca, taken from Accordance (PSCLEMH-T), OakTree Software, Inc., 2018, Version 1.1. [23] See Barry Blackburn, Theios Aner and the Markan Miracle Traditions (Tübingen, Germany: J. C. B. Mohr, 1991), 32. [24] Diogenes Laertius, Lives of the Eminent Philosophers, trans., Pamela Mensch (New York, NY: Oxford, 2020), 39. [25] Iamblichus, Life of Pythagoras, trans., Thomas Taylor, Iamblichus' Life of Pythagoras (Delhi, IN: Zinc Read, 2023), 2. [26] Diogenes Laertius, Life of Pythagoras, trans., Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie, The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press, 1988), 142. [27] See the list in Blackburn, 39. He corroborates miracle stories from Diogenus Laertius, Iamblichus, Apollonius, Nicomachus, and Philostratus. [28] Porphyry, Life of Pythagoras, trans., Kenneth Sylvan Guthrie, The Pythagorean Sourcebook and Library (Grand Rapids, MI: Phanes Press, 1988), 128-9. [29] Iamblichus,  68. [30] What I call “resurrection” refers to the phrase, “Thou shalt bring back from Hades a dead man's strength.” Diogenes Laertius 8.2.59, trans. R. D. Hicks. [31] Laertius, "Lives of the Eminent Philosophers," 306. Two stories of his deification survive: in one Empedocles disappears in the middle of the night after hearing an extremely loud voice calling his name. After this the people concluded that they should sacrifice to him since he had become a god (8.68). In the other account, Empedocles climbs Etna and leaps into the fiery volcanic crater “to strengthen the rumor that he had become a god” (8.69). [32] Pausanias,  192. Sextus Empiricus says Asclepius raised up people who had died at Thebes as well as raising up the dead body of Tyndaros (Against the Professors 1.261). [33] Cicero adds that the Arcadians worship Asclepius (Nature 3.57). [34] In another instance, he confronted and cast out a demon from a licentious young man (Life 4.20). [35] The phrase is “περὶ ἐμοῦ καὶ θεοῖς εἴρηται ὡς περὶ θείου ἀνδρὸς.” Philostratus, Letters of Apollonius, vol. 458, Loeb Classical Library (Cambridge, MA: Harvard, 2006). [36] See George Hart, The Routledge Dictionary of Egyptian Gods and Goddesses, 2nd ed. (Oxford, UK: Routledge, 2005), 3. [37] Plutarch, Life of Alexander, trans., Ian Scott-Kilvert and Timothy E. Duff, The Age of Alexander (London, UK: Penguin, 2011), 311. Arrian includes a story about Anaxarchus advocating paying divine honors to Alexander through prostration. The Macedonians refused but the Persian members of his entourage “rose from their seats and one by one grovelled on the floor before the King.” Arrian, The Campaigns of Alexander, trans., Aubrey De Sélincourt (London, UK: Penguin, 1971), 222. [38] Translation my own from “Ἀντίοχος ὁ Θεὸς Δίκαιος Ἐπιφανὴς Φιλορωμαῖος Φιλέλλην.” Inscription at Nemrut Dağ, accessible at https://www.tertullian.org/rpearse/mithras/display.php?page=cimrm32. See also https://zeugma.packhum.org/pdfs/v1ch09.pdf. [39] Greek taken from W. Dittenberger, Orientis Graecae Inscriptiones Selectae, vol. 2 (Hildesheim: Olms, 1960), 48-60. Of particular note is the definite article before θεός. They didn't celebrate the birthday of a god, but the birthday of the god. [40] Appian, The Civil Wars, trans., John Carter (London, UK: Penguin, 1996), 149. [41] M. David Litwa, Iesus Deus (Minneapolis: Fortress Press, 2014), 20. [42] ibid. [43] Blackburn, 92-3. [44] The Homeric Hymns, trans., Michael Crudden (New York, NY: Oxford, 2008), 38. [45] "The Homeric Hymns," 14. [46] Homer,  344. [47] Theophilus of Antioch, To Autolycus, trans., Marcus Dods, vol. 2, Ante-Nicene Fathers (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001). [48] Callimachus, Hymn to Artemis, trans., Susan A. Stephens, Callimachus: The Hymns (New York, NY: Oxford, 2015), 119. [49] Siculus,  234. [50] Cyprian, Treatise 6: On the Vanity of Idols, trans., Ernest Wallis, vol. 5, Ante-Nicene Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995). [51] Arnobius, Against the Heathen, trans., Hamilton Bryce and Hugh Campbell, vol. 6, Ante-Nicene Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 1995). [52] Livy, The Early History of Rome, trans., Aubrey De Sélincourt (London, UK: Penguin, 2002), 49. [53] Cicero, The Nature of the Gods, trans., Patrick Gerard Walsh (Oxford, UK: Oxford, 2008), 69. [54] Wendy Cotter, "Greco-Roman Apotheosis Traditions and the Resurrection Appearances in Matthew," in The Gospel of Matthew in Current Study, ed. David E. Aune (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 2001), 149. [55] Litwa, 170. [56] William L. Lane, The Gospel of Mark, Nicnt, ed. F. F. Bruce Ned B. Stonehouse, and Gordon D. Fee (Grand Rapids, MI: Eerdmans, 1974). [57] “Recent commentators have stressed that the best background for understanding the Markan transfiguration is the story of Moses' ascent up Mount Sinai (Exod. 24 and 34).” Litwa, 123. [58] Tertullian, Apology, trans. S. Thelwall, vol. 3, Ante-Nicene Fathers, ed. Alexander Roberts and James Donaldson (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003). [59] Eusebius, The Church History, trans. Paul L. Maier (Grand Rapids: Kregel, 2007), 54. [60] Pliny the Younger, The Letters of the Younger Pliny, trans., Betty Radice (London: Penguin, 1969), 294. [61] Pseudo-Thomas, Infancy Gospel of Thomas, trans., James Orr (Philadelphia: J. B. Lippincott Co., 1903), 25. [62] Litwa, 83. [63] For sources on Theodotus, see Pseduo-Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies 7.35.1-2; 10.23.1-2; Pseudo-Tertullian, Against All Heresies 8.2; Eusebius, Church History 5.28. [64] Pseudo-Hippolytus, Refutation of All Heresies, trans., David Litwa (Atlanta, GA: SBL, 2016), 571. [65] I took the liberty to decapitalize these appellatives. Justin Martyr, Dialogue with Trypho, trans. Thomas B. Falls (Washington, DC: Catholic University of America Press, 2003), 244. [66] Justin Martyr, 241. (Altered, see previous footnote.) [67] Justin Martyr, 102. [68] Justin Martyr, 56-7. [69] Arnobius makes a similar argument in Against the Heathen 1.38-39 “Is he not worthy to be called a god by us and felt to be a god on account of the favor or such great benefits? For if you have enrolled Liber among the gods because he discovered the use of wine, and Ceres the use of bread, Aesculapius the use of medicines, Minerva the use of oil, Triptolemus plowing, and Hercules because he conquered and restrained beasts, thieves, and the many-headed hydra…So then, ought we not to consider Christ a god, and to bestow upon him all the worship due to his divinity?” Translation from Litwa, 105. [70] Justin Martyr, 46. [71] Justin Martyr, 39. [72] Origen, Against Celsus, trans. Frederick Crombie, vol. 4, The Ante-Nicene Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003). [73] Litwa, 173. [74] I could easily multiply examples of this by looking at Irenaeus, Tertullian, Hippolytus, and many others. [75] The obvious exception to Hanson's statement were thinkers like Sabellius and Praxeas who believed that the Father himself came down as a human being. R. P. C. Hanson, Search for a Christian Doctrine of God (Grand Rapids, MI: Baker Academic, 2007), xix. [76] Interestingly, even some of the biblical unitarians of the period were comfortable with calling Jesus god, though they limited his divinity to his post-resurrection life. [77] Tertullian writes, “[T]he Father is not the same as the Son, since they differ one from the other in the mode of their being. For the Father is the entire substance, but the Son is a derivation and portion of the whole, as He Himself acknowledges: “My Father is greater than I.” In the Psalm His inferiority is described as being “a little lower than the angels.” Thus the Father is distinct from the Son, being greater than the Son” (Against Praxeas 9). Tertullian, Against Praxeas, trans., Holmes, vol. 3, Ante Nice Fathers (Peabody, MA: Hendrickson, 2003).

The story of Lycaon (also spelled Lykaion, Lykaon) has been told by many dating back to Ancient Greece, where it was attested in works like Pausanias' Description of Greece, Apollodorus' Library, and Hyginus' Astronomica, and across centuries and civilizations through works like Ovid's masterpiece Metamorphoses. Lycaon's attempt to deceive the gods leads to a terrifying transformation, which many have described as the oldest depiction of a werewolf, wolf-man, or lycanthrope. The story of Lycaon, his test of the god Zeus, and his transformation as punishment is not just a great scary story; it provides insight into Ancient Greek customs of morality such hubris and as hospitality (Xenia.) Like the best of gothic and modern horror, the story of Lycaon explores the fine line between man and monster. All revenue for the month following the release of this video will be donated to SAFE Project US, supporting recovery for those struggling with addiction. Mythos & Logos are two ancient words that can be roughly translated as “Story & Meaning.” Support the channel by subscribing, liking, and commenting to join the conversation! Support the channel financially through your generous Patreon donation: patreon.com/mythosandlogos Cline, Austin. "Method of Sacrifice in Ancient Greece." Learn Religions. https://www.learnreligions.com/method... Paphitis, Nicholas. "Ancient Teenage Skeleton Unearthed on Mountain Top Could Confirm Darkest Greek Legend." Ekathimerini. https://www.ekathimerini.com/culture/... SAFE Project US: https://www.safeproject.us Mount Lykaion Excavation & Survey Project: https://www.lykaionexcavation.org The purpose of this channel is to share the important stories at the foundation of human cultures throughout history. These include mythology, legends, folktales, religious stories, and parables from the dawn of history to the modern day. This channel provides interpretations and insight into these stories, to find and apply their meaning to contemporary life. All stories covered are treated academically. This channel makes no claims regarding the historical, scientific, or religious truth of these tales. Rather, its goal is to find the meanings understood by their authors and apply them to the modern world. Thumbnail image generated via use of artificial intelligence. Ambiment - The Ambient by Kevin MacLeod is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution license.

https://www.patreon.com/GnosticInformant Please Consider joining my Patreon to help finding scholars to bring on. Any amount helps me. Thank you existing Patrons. 2nd Channel: https://www.youtube.com/@LateNiteGnosis Follow me on Twitter: https://twitter.com/NealSendlak1 Discord: https://discord.com/invite/uWBZkxd4UX The origins and ethnic identity of the Pelasgians are uncertain. Some ancient sources believe they were an indigenous people of Greece, while others suggest they might have migrated from different regions, including the Black Sea Regions, Anatolia or the Balkans. Their precise ethnicity and language remain unresolved, though a combination of Proto-Indo European and Native Mediterannean is the most likely. The earliest references to the Pelasgians can be found in ancient Greek literature, particularly in the works of Homer, Herodotus, and Thucydides. In the Iliad, there were Pelasgians on both sides of the Trojan War. WHen Homer explains who the Ancient Trojans were, Pelasgians are mentioned between the Hellespontine cities and Thrace. Homer calls their town or district "Larisa" and characterises it as fertile, and its inhabitants as celebrated for their spearsmanship. He records their chiefs as Hippothous and Pylaeus, sons of Lethus, son of Teutamides. The Iliad also refers to the camp at Greece, specifically at "Argos Pelasgikon", which is most likely to be the plain of Thessaly, and to "Pelasgic Zeus", living in and ruling over Dodona. According to Homer, Pelasgians were camping out on the shore together with the following tribes: "Towards the sea lie the Carians and the Paeonians, with curved bows, and the Leleges and Caucones, and the goodly Pelasgi." In the Odyssey, they appear among the inhabitants of Crete. Which would possibly equate them with the Minoans themselves, who invented Purple Dye and migrated east towards coastal Levant and conquered Egypt. Odysseus, affecting to be Cretan himself, instances Pelasgians among the tribes in the ninety cities of Crete, "language mixing with language side by side".Last on his list, Homer distinguishes them from other ethnicities on the island: "Cretans proper", Achaeans, Cydonians, Dorians, and "noble Pelasgians". A fragment from Hesiod, calls Dodona, identified by reference to "the oak", the "seat of Pelasgians", thus explaining why Homer, in referring to Zeus as he ruled over Dodona, did not style him "Dodonic" but Pelasgic Zeus. He mentions also that Pelasgus was the father of King Lycaon of Arcadia. Asius of Samos claimed that Pelasgus as the first man, born of the earth.This account features centrally in the construction of an enduring autochthonous Arcadian identity into the Classical period. In a fragment by Pausanias, he cites Asius who describes the foundational hero of the Greek ethnic groups as "godlike Pelasgus [whom the] black earth gave up". Sophocles, in one of his famous plays, presents Inachus, as the elder in the lands of Argos, the Heran hills and among the Tyrsenoi Pelasgoi, an unusual hyphenated noun construction, "Tyrsenians-Pelasgians". Interpretation is open, even though translators typically make a decision, but Tyrsenians may well be the ethnonym Tyrrhenoi. A possible connection to the city of Tyre, a possible location where many Minoan Migrants moved to. All of this comes into context when we examine the writings of Pherecydes of Syros, the famous Pre-Socratic, who claims to have in his posession, the Pelasgian Creation myth, who he says was given to him by Phoenican Scholars. The sequence of Pherecydes' creation myth is as follows. First, there are the eternal gods Zas (Zeus), Chthoniê (Gaia) and Chronos (Kronos). Then Chronos creates elements in niches in the earth with his seed, from which other gods arise. This is followed by the three-day wedding of Zas and Chthonie. #gnosticinformant #4k #documentary --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/gnosticinformant/message

Figure assez méconnue de l'Antiquité, Pausanias est un illustre général spartiate à qui la fortune promet des grandeurs. Mais là n'était pas son destin. Au travers des textes de Plutarque et Thucydide, voyons comment sa vile nature a précipité sa chute.

Liv speaks with PhD researcher Jerome Ruddick about material culture in Arcadia, Crete, and Tyre during the Hellenistic Period (plus, lots of Big P Pausanias). Help keep LTAMB going by subscribing to Liv's Patreon for bonus content! CW/TW: far too many Greek myths involve assault. Given it's fiction, and typically involves gods and/or monsters, I'm not as deferential as I would be were I referencing the real thing. Attributions and licensing information for music used in the podcast can be found here: mythsbaby.com/sources-attributions.See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Euthymus the boxer comes across a weird ritual of human sacrifice at the coastal town of Temesa - why do the locals sacrifice a maiden to a monster every year? Based on Pausanias, Description of Greece, 6.6.7-11, this story is followed by a discussion of Greek history and folklore including human sacrifice in ancient Greece, the ancient Olympic Games, and the Delphic Oracle. Content warning: brief references to sexual assault.

La mitología griega cuenta que el rey de los cielos hizo volar a dos águilas desde extremos opuestos de la tierra; las aves se encontraron sobre un paisaje severo y agreste en el Parnaso. Allí, el implacable Kronos devolvió la piedra que la madre de todos los dioses, Rea, le había dado cuando quiso devorar a su hijo Zeus. La roca, que tenía forma de cúpula alta, se la conoce como ónfalos (όμφαλος) que en griego significa ombligo. En ese lugar se levantó el oráculo más influyente de la antigüedad, el de Delfos, que se convirtió -según Pausanias- en el centro cósmico del mundo donde la comunicación entre los hombres, los muertos y los dioses era posible. El texto más antiguo que se conoce sobre el lugar es el Himno homérico a Apolo, cuya fecha de composición y autoría han sido causas de muchas polémicas. Hoy hay acuerdos que reconocen que el texto está formado por dos himnos. El primero refiere las errancias de Leto, la de hermosa cabellera que, preñada, evadía a la celosa Hera para parir a las dos luces del cielo, Apolo y Artemisa; la fecha aproximada de esta composición sería el 660 a. C. En el segundo se cuentan las hazañas del dios Apolo para instaurar su templo oracular en la rocosa población de Delfos; se dice que fue compuesto en el 585 a. C. Se podría asumir como provisional teoría consensual que la forma final del famoso himno data de algún momento del siglo VI antes de la era actual, pero nada es totalmente seguro. Se canta en ese himno que el recinto sagrado fue fundado por navegantes cretense que el propio dios Apolo encaminó hasta el lugar, tras exterminar con sus saetas al enorme dragón o gigantesca serpiente, Pitón, descendiente de la antigua diosa Gea, que custodiaba la fuente junto a la cual el dios había decidido levantar el oratorio. Otras fuentes, menos poéticas, cuentan que la ciudad de Delfos se asentó en las laderas suroestes del monte Parnaso a finales de la Edad de Bronce (entre 1500-1100 a. C.) En lo que sí concuerdan casi todas las fuentes, aunque no haya ningún dato arqueológico que lo verifique, es que desde finales del siglo VIII antes de la era común, las consultas délficas comenzaron a hacerse la íntima referencia religiosa de los acontecimientos ocurridos en la antigüedad griega. Según narran las leyendas, los oráculos del brillante y peligroso dios Apolo, el que hiere de lejos, se consideraban revelaciones sagradas que ayudaban a dilucidar sobre los cambios religiosos, sociales, comerciales y políticos que dieron a la cultura helena un sentido humano que se expandió más allá de los confines mediterráneos. En los siglos antiguos, muchos fueron los que se acercaron a esta pequeña ciudad rocosa para escuchar las palabras apolíneas anunciadas por sus pitonisas. Los oráculos de Delfos fueron escuchados por políticos y guerreros, que apremiaban apoyos divinos para guiar a sus pueblos. El Templo de Apolo fue visitado, con variable frecuencia, hasta finales del siglo IV de nuestra era, cuando el emperador romano Teodosio, abolió el paganismo y promulgó al cristianismo como la religión oficial del Imperio. --------------------------------------------- Escrito y narrado por Humberto Ortiz

The Athenian army fight and win a famous victory at Marathon, but Tolmis finds himself living the battle over again and again in an endless loop... This story is inspired by Pausanias, 1.32.3-5 and based partly on Herodotus, 6.112-117. It's followed by a discussion of the Battle of Marathon, battlefield ghosts, and the history of the site itself.

Before they get into The Heroes of Olympus, Phoebe and Emily read The Singer of Apollo and The Staff of Hermes by Rick Riordan. Discussion topics include: the original travel writers, the empathy link, how to snap, the Sumerians, Disneyland Paris, and following your dreams.Have something you'd like us to discuss on the show? Email monsterdonutpodcast@gmail.com or get in touch on Twitter, Instagram, or TikTok! @PJOPod on all platforms.More information on the show can be found at https://monsterdonut.wixsite.com/podcast.THEME SONG:"The Mask of Sorokin," music and arrangement by Dan CordeGuitars - Dan CordeBass - Quinten MetkeDrums - Todd CummingsRecorded, mixed, & mastered by Todd CummingsOUTRO MUSIC:"Shadow Run," music and arrangement by Dan CordeGuitars - Dan CordeBass - Quinten MetkeDrums - Todd CummingsRecorded, mixed, & mastered by Todd Cummings Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

On this episode Dan and Kevin cover: an inside joke, an email from Max, being forgetful, info on our merch and Patreon, fast food, Romans, PB&J, ancient China, Cornish Pasties, a step by step look, local attractions, refeeding syndrome, Linda Hazzard, and much, much more!Please like, subscribe, and follow where ever you listen.PatreonMerchBuy Us A CoffeeYouTubeInstagramTwitterTiktokThe Sassholes Insta!!https://academic.oup.com/jicj/article/17/4/699/5721410https://www.britannica.com/biography/Birger-Magnussonhttp://www.1066.co.nz/Mosaic%20DVD/whoswho/sweden/Birger%20King%20of%20Sweden.htmhttps://www.cityprepping.com/2020/06/30/the-stages-of-starvation-and-the-extreme-things-people-will-do-to-survive/https://www.npr.org/sections/goatsandsoda/2016/01/20/463710330/what-happens-to-the-body-and-mind-when-starvation-sets-inhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope_John_XIVhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bimbisarahttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/King_Wuling_of_Zhaohttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pausanias_the_Regenthttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boyi_and_Shuqihttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiberiushttps://www.tampabay.com/archive/1992/08/29/steps-to-starvation/https://apps.dtic.mil/sti/pdfs/ADA420650.pdfhttps://www.justiceinfo.net/en/103213-starvation-war-crime-never-punished-ukraine-elsewhere.html#:~:text=Starvation%20is%20one%20of%20the,cutting%20off%20besieged%20enemy%20populations.https://www.stylecraze.com/articles/serious-side-effects-of-starving/https://education.nationalgeographic.org/resource/hunger-and-war/https://www.wiley.com/en-us/Mass+Starvation:+The+History+and+Future+of+Famine-p-9781509524662https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Trehenban#cite_note-2https://www.iiea.com/blog/the-rome-statute-and-hunger-as-a-weapon-of-war-the-journey-towards-ending-impunity-for-starvation-tacticshttps://www.fox19.com/2022/05/26/mother-her-boyfriend-charged-starvation-torture-8-year-old-twins-resulting-ones-death/https://www.cleveland.com/court-justice/2022/10/euclid-couple-who-tortured-abused-starved-boy-get-decades-in-prison.htmlhttps://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Linda_HazzardMusic from Uppbeat (free for Creators!):https://uppbeat.io/t/all-good-folks/curiosityLicense code: 7QU9IW0B2IJBFZJYMusic from Uppbeat (free for Creators!):https://uppbeat.io/t/christian-larssen/suburban-honeymoonLicense code: 1OKNVEXYPW8QAYSHAdvertising Inquiries: https://redcircle.com/brandsPrivacy & Opt-Out: https://redcircle.com/privacy

An ancient oracle told by a Pythian priestess says, “But when the time shall come that the female conquers in battle, driving away the male, and wins great glory in Argos, then many wives of the Argives shall tear both cheeks in their mourning.” This oracle was later alluded to by historian Herodotus (c. 484 – c. 425 BC) and geographer Pausanias (c. 110 AD – c. 180 AD). The female whom this oracle refers to was Telesilla, a woman renowned for her leadership of Argos through its political and military crisis and subsequent re-building. Telesilla was also a poet. She was evidently renowned enough that Antipater of Thessalonica, the author of over a hundred epigrams in the Greek Anthology, saw it fit to include her in his canon of nine female poets. Read more in History made Beautiful blog.

Liv is joined by Maria Pretzler, a professor of Classics who specializes in mythology and the writings of Pausanias. They talk about the culture of the Peloponnese, what we learn from the late travel writer Pausanias, the mythology of ancient Sparta. Follow Maria on Twitter and read more here. Help keep LTAMB going by subscribing to Liv's Patreon for bonus content!CW/TW: far too many Greek myths involve assault. Given it's fiction, and typically involves gods and/or monsters, I'm not as deferential as I would be were I referencing the real thing.Attributions and licensing information for music used in the podcast can be found here: mythsbaby.com/sources-attributions. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

In this introduction to the new series on ancient Sparta and the Spartan Mirage, Liv gives a rundown on the history of Archaic and Classical Sparta, truths and misconceptions. Help keep LTAMB going by subscribing to Liv's Patreon for bonus content!CW/TW: far too many Greek myths involve assault. Given it's fiction, and typically involves gods and/or monsters, I'm not as deferential as I would be were I referencing the real thing.Sources: The History of Herodotus, translated by G. C. Macaulay as found on Project Gutenberg; “Sparta: Reconstructing History from Secrecy, Lies and Myth.” by Anton Powell from A Companion to Sparta; Pausanias' Description of Greece translated by WHS Jones; Plutarch's Life of Lykourgos, translated by Bernadotte Perrin; upcoming conversation episodes also contributed to sourcing. Check out BadAncient.com for misconceptions on the ancient world.Attributions and licensing information for music used in the podcast can be found here: mythsbaby.com/sources-attributions. Hosted on Acast. See acast.com/privacy for more information.

Pausanias, el regente espartano, estaba muy orgulloso de la gran victoria que había obtenido sobre los persas en Platea, así como de la gloria y el botín conseguidos. Estaba tan orgulloso de todo ello que no tardó en ponerse insoportable e incluso quiso gobernar en toda Grecia.Aunque al principio había fingido despreciar el lujo que había visto en la tienda de Mardonio, algo más tarde empezó a vestirse como un persa y a copiar sus maneras, y pedía gran reverencia de sus súbditos. Esto disgustó en gran manera a los humildes griegos, y se dio cuenta de que no estarían dispuestos a ayudarle a hacerse monarca.

Heracles has had enough time in the spotlight! This week we're covering the messed up mythology of his often-forgotten TWIN brother: Iphicles! ▼ Podcast Links! ▼ » Apple: https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast... » Spotify: https://open.spotify.com/show/0zC1NxC... » Google Podcasts: https://www.google.com/podcasts?feed=... » Amazon Music: https://music.amazon.com/podcasts/e2a... » Stitcher: https://www.stitcher.com/podcast/jon-... » iHeartRadio: https://iheart.com/podcast/99117988/ ► Messed Up Origins™ Socials! » https://twitter.com/MessedUpOrigins » https://www.instagram.com/messedupori... ► SOLOFAM MERCH: » https://bit.ly/SoloFamMerch ► Support the series on Patreon! » https://www.patreon.com/JonSolo ► Want more? » ALL Messed Up Origins: https://bit.ly/MessedUpOrigins » ALL Mythology Explained: https://bit.ly/MythologyExplained » Featured Folklore (the animated series!): https://bit.ly/featuredfolklore » Disney Explained: https://bit.ly/DisneyExplained » Norse Mythology: http://bit.ly/NorseMythologyExplained » Folklore Explained: https://bit.ly/FablesExplained » Astrology: http://bit.ly/AstrologyExplained » Messed Up Murders: https://bit.ly/MurderPlaylist ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ ► Social Media: » Twitter: https://twitter.com/JonSolo » Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/JonSolo » Facebook Fan Page: https://facebook.com/TheRealJonSolo » Official Subreddit: https://www.reddit.com/r/jonsolo ► Join the Official Channel Discord: » https://www.patreon.com/JonSolo ► Send Fan Mail to: » SoloFamMail@gmail.com ► Business: » biz@MessedUpOrigins.com (Business Inquiries ONLY) ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ ▼ Credits ▼ » Researched by: Meredith Walker https://twitter.com/meredith_ancret & Jon Solo » Written, Filmed, & Edited by: Jon Solo ▼ Resources ▼ » my favorites: https://messeduporigins.com/books » Apollodorus's Biblioteca/Library: https://www.theoi.com/Text/Apollodoru... » Pausanias: https://www.theoi.com/Text/Pausanias8...

Lysander's importance to history begins when he is appointed as admiral of the Spartan fleet in 407 BC.   At this point Athens's navy has experienced a resurgence with the return of Alcibiades.Lysander takes command of the Spartan fleet at Ephesus and resolves to do what it takes to make it a match for the Athenian navy. A tall order - is Lysander up for the challenge?Enjoy the episodeSupport the show

In this episode we look at the origins of Narcissus, the original narcissist... Or is he? ► SOLOFAM MERCH: » https://bit.ly/SoloFamMerch ► Support the series on Patreon! » https://www.patreon.com/JonSolo ► Want more? » ALL Messed Up Origins: https://bit.ly/MessedUpOrgins » ALL Mythology Explained: https://bit.ly/MythologyExplained » Norse Mythology: http://bit.ly/NorseMythologyExplained » Disney Explained: https://bit.ly/DisneyExplained » Fables Explained: https://bit.ly/FablesExplained » Astrology: http://bit.ly/AstrologyExplained » Messed Up Murders: https://bit.ly/MurderPlaylist ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ ► Social Media: » Twitter: https://twitter.com/JonSolo » Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/JonSolo » Facebook Fan Page: https://facebook.com/TheRealJonSolo » Official Subreddit: https://www.reddit.com/r/jonsolo ► Join the Official Channel Discord: » https://www.patreon.com/JonSolo ► Send Fan Mail to: » SoloFamMail@gmail.com ► Business: » biz@messeduporigins.com (Business Inquiries ONLY) ▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬▬ ▼ Resources ▼ » my favorites: https://messeduporigins.com/books » Narcissus Myth Overview: https://www.greekmyths-greekmythology... » Narcissus Myth (Ovid - Full Text): https://www.theoi.com/Text/OvidMetamo... » Conon's Poetic Version: http://www.papyrology.ox.ac.uk/POxy/p... » Pausanias: http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/t... » History of Narcissism: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History...

Derek Olson of Megalithic Marvels takes you on an audible journey back in time in search of the legendary Cyclops. Was Cyclops a literal one-eyed ancient hybrid giant or a symbol of the lost knowledge the megalithic builders once possessed in ages past? Greek writers like Pausanias mention that the megalithic walls of Europe were erected by a one-eyed giant race who worked in the god's forges under Mount Etna near Sicily. This legend is still preserved today with a term archaeologists use to describe this architecture: cyclopean, from the word cyclops. Cyclopean construction consists of massive polygonal blocks that interlock together without mortar, designed to be earth quake proof. In Greek mythology, the Cyclopes were the giant one eyed sons of the gods & considered the master masons of the golden age. Homer's “Odyssey” features the cyclops Polyphemus who is described as “godlike & towering over all the Cyclops' clans in power”. Polyphemus was the offspring of Poseidon & a woman named Thoosa, thus making him a demi-god. This mirrors the Gen 6:4 account of the Watchers breeding with earth women to produce the giant Nephilim. SHOW NOTES Egypt Tour Part 1 Follow Megalithic Marvels on the following platforms: Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/megalithicm... Blog - https://megalithicmarvels.com/ Youtube https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCpiP... Facebook page - https://www.facebook.com/megalithicma... TikTok - https://www.tiktok.com/@megalithicmarvels Facebook group - https://www.facebook.com/groups/10186... Twitter - https://twitter.com/MegMarvels

Derek Olson of Megalithic Marvels takes you on an audible journey back in time in search of the legendary Cyclops. Was Cyclops a literal one-eyed ancient hybrid giant or a symbol of the lost knowledge the megalithic builders once possessed in ages past? Greek writers like Pausanias mention that the megalithic walls of Europe were erected by a one-eyed giant race who worked in the god's forges under Mount Etna near Sicily. This legend is still preserved today with a term archaeologists use to describe this architecture: cyclopean, from the word cyclops. Cyclopean construction consists of massive polygonal blocks that interlock together without mortar, designed to be earth quake proof. In Greek mythology, the Cyclopes were the giant one eyed sons of the gods & considered the master masons of the golden age. Homer's “Odyssey” features the cyclops Polyphemus who is described as “godlike & towering over all the Cyclops' clans in power”. Polyphemus was the offspring of Poseidon & a woman named Thoosa, thus making him a demi-god. This mirrors the Gen 6:4 account of the Watchers breeding with earth women to produce the giant Nephilim. SHOW NOTES Video: "Cover-Up" Previous Podcast Episode "Giant's of Lovelock Cave & Mt Shasta Mysteries" Follow Megalithic Marvels on the following platforms: Instagram - https://www.instagram.com/megalithicm... Blog - https://megalithicmarvels.com/ Youtube https://www.youtube.com/channel/UCpiP... Facebook page - https://www.facebook.com/megalithicma... TikTok - https://www.tiktok.com/@megalithicmarvels Facebook group - https://www.facebook.com/groups/10186... Twitter - https://twitter.com/MegMarvels

A conversation with Jonathan Hall (University of Chicago) about how the archaeological past of the city of Argos was reclaimed in the long nineteenth century. What institutions and political debates took shape around the heritage of the past? What role did the ancient travel writer Pausanias play in defining what the past was? What was the interplay between local, national, international, and imperial interests? The conversation is based on Jonathan's book Reclaiming the Past: Argos and its Archaeological Heritage in the Modern Era (Cornell University Press 2021).

A group of strangers tell stories about the mysterious White Island (now called Snake Island, Ukraine) where the spirit of Achilles lives eternally, but they can't quite agree on the details... This story is based on Pausanias, Description of Greece, 3.19.11-13, Arrian, Periplus of the Euxine Sea, 32-34, and Philostratus, On Heroes, 54.1-56.4. Followed by a discussion including Trojan War stories, ancient Greek hero cult, and conflicting folklore tales. This episode is dedicated to the Ukrainian defence forces. Content warning: war and warfare, including reference to the current conflict in Ukraine.

Rubrique:histoire Auteur: jules-verne Lecture: Daniel LuttringerDurée: 28min Fichier: 19 Mo Résumé du livre audio: Pausanias (174). — Fa-Hian (399). — Cosmas Indicopleustes (5…). — Arculphe (700). — Willibald (725). — Soleyman (851). Cet enregistrement est mis à disposition sous un contrat Creative Commons.

Birth of the Delian League:Leagues in Greece were not a new concept, with many being in existence in one form or another. So, far the major leagues that we have followed have been the Peloponnesian league and the Hellenic league, with both of these still in operation by 477BC. These were primarily defensive in nature and were formed around city states that had shared interests or a common foe. Though, what would happen once interests were conflicted or a threat had been extinguished?In 478/477 Athens would find herself in this position now that Persian had been ejected from Greek lands and campaigning had moved into the eastern Aegean. For Sparta and the Peloponnesians, campaigning could begin to wind down with the threat now far away from their lands. Though Athens and the new eastern Greek members of the league saw the threat still present to their interests in Anatolia. This time interests were far more divided than they were in the disagreements before Salamis and Plataea.We are told the various Ionian and other eastern Greeks would unite together in the face of the harsh treatment by Pausanias and the Spartan commanders. They would approach Athens with support to take control of the leadership, eventually leaving Sparta no alternative with all of the other Peloponnesians having returned home. Though, how involved was Athens in ensuring this support would be fostered towards them and their bid on the leadership?What would eventuate though, with the new circumstances and realities would look very different to the framework and objectives of the Hellenic league. What Athens and the eastern Greeks now recognised, was that they have created something new, with differing goals and objectives. This new group of city states would end up holding their first congress on Delos, establishing the mechanisms and objectives of the league. Today we call this league the Delian league and it would be the beginning of future events that would unfold in the Aegean that would be so influential to the area of the Classical Age in Greece.  This episodes podcast recommendation: Warlords of History Podcast Support the show

The Persian invasion of 480 BC had now been defeated with the victory over Xerxes land forces on the Greek Boeotian plains outside Plataea. While his navy was destroyed in Persian controlled lands below mount Mycale on the Anatolian coast. The Greeks would continue operations into 479 under Athenian command for the first time, sailing into the Hellespont where Persian influence in the area would be extinguished.In the meantime, the Athenians had been returning to Athens now that the Persians had been vanquished. Though, their city lay in ruins and would need to be rebuilt for a second time in a year. The building programs would be overseen by Themistocles, now back in political favour. The defensive walls he planned would attract the attention of the Spartans who would engage in talks to have them removed. Though, Themistocles with his usual cunning would see they would be complete before anything could be done.The beginning of 478 BC would see yet another campaigning season begin over in the eastern Aegean. This time Sparta would be back in command, though this time Pausanias, who over saw the victory at Plataea would be leading the navy. Sparta seems to have recognised their misstep in abandoning the leadership the year before and now looked to regain their authority.Though, the regent Pausanias would fall from favour and so to would the Spartan King Leotychides. Pausanias, now over in Anatolia would appear to invert the qualities found to describe him in Herodotus. He would become cruel, arrogant, corrupt and even traitors by some accounts, and would eventually end up on trial in Sparta, where he would be starved to death. Leotychides would also face corruption charges after campaigning in Thessaly where he would end up going into exile. So, within 10 years the commanders who had led the forces that saw the Persian defeat had fallen from grace and were seen as nothing more than criminals.Casting Through Ancient Greece WebsiteFollow on TwitterFollow on FacebookSupport the show (https://www.patreon.com/castingthroughancientgreece)

Heute berichte ich über meinen derzeitigen Reiseabschnitt und wie die Planung der weiteren Wochen meiner Überwinterung in Griechenland sein werden. Zudem erzähle ich von meinem Besuch in einem besonderen Badehaus. Dieses liegt auf der Halbinsel Methana. Auf der Vulkaninsel habe ich einige Tage verbracht - und ich muss sagen, diese Insel hat es mir echt angetan. Viel Spaß beim eintauchen in meine Geschichte.   Hier findest du meinen Podcast und alle weiteren Infos zu mir: website: https://andre-anderswo.de instagram: https://www.instagram.com/andreanderswo/ facebook: https://www.facebook.com/andreanderswo/ mail: podcast@andre-anderswo.de Wenn du meinen Podcast ein wenig unterstützen möchtest findest du hier den Link zu meiner Dieselkasse: https://www.paypal.com/paypalme/andreanderswo Hier kannst du meinen Podcast abonnieren: spotify: http://bit.ly/spotify-andretalktanderswo google: http://bit.ly/google-andretalktanderswo apple podcasts: http://bit.ly/apple-andretalktanderswo android: http://bit.ly/android-andretalktanderswo Impressum: https://andre-anderswo.de/impressum/ Datenschutz: https://andre-anderswo.de/datenschutzerklaerung/

Heinrich Schliemann var affärsman, språkgeni, arkeologisk äventyrare och något av en mytoman. Jan Henrik Swahn går genom Aten i Schliemanns och den moderna flyktingkrisens fotspår. ESSÄ: Detta är en text där skribenten reflekterar över ett ämne eller ett verk. Åsikter som uttrycks är skribentens egna. Essän sändes första gången 2019.Jag har alltid försökt närma mig storstäder genom att gå in i dem. Det blir som ett slags arkeologisk utgrävning. Jag söker mig via ytterområdena skikt efter skikt in mot kärnan. Reseguiderna har sina förslag på upptrampade stigar, som alla passerar det största turistmålet. I Aten är denna plats Akropolis.Aten är ingen obekant stad för mig, men vägen jag går är främmande. Jag ska lämna över ett brev och lite pengar till ett syskonpar som bor på gatan i ett tält nära Exarchia, ett område mitt i Aten där poliserna är civilklädda för att de då får färre stenar kastade på sig. Tältet ska finnas på en sidogata till Patissiongatan, eller fotgängarnas gata, som förvandlats till en bullrande boulevard. Kanske fanns här skuggiga alléträd och en hästdragen spårvagn en gång. För att inte missa den lilla sidogatan som saknas på kartan tar jag mig till Patissions början. Den visar sig vara en av stadens längsta gator med över femhundra husnummer. Det är en varm dag.Efter att ha grävt mig igenom de afrikanska och vietnamesiska kvarteren når jag svettig fram till ett palats. Folk sitter på bänkar i lockande skugga bakom pelarna på det arkeologiska museet. Jag går in för att svalka mig. Bland Heinrich Schliemanns fynd från utgrävningar i Mykene 1876 är en dödsmask i guld höjdpunkten. "Jag har skådat Agamemnon", skriver den omstridde tyske entreprenören och arkeologipionjären i ett telegram till grekiske kungen efter fyndet. Schliemann har tidigare skådat även Odysseus och Penelopes aska och hittat staden Troja tre gånger. För honom är hjältarna vid liv och kriget pågår. Att masken är många hundra år äldre och måste ha tillhört någon annan ser han som en petitess. Den kallas än i dag för Agamemnons dödsmask.Jag går vidare längs fotgängarnas gata; sidogatan jag letat efter räddar mig undan trafiken. Och där ser jag tältet. Ur öppningen räcker en hand ut en kittel. Rubina häller upp te, pratar. Till slut måste jag lämna över brevet och på svaga ben vandra vidare mot Omoniatorget. Här dyker det upp en gatstump uppkallad efter den fyrfaldige brittiske premiärministern och Homerosälskaren Gladstone. Han representerar en epok då politiker runt om i Europa inte bara läser Homeros, de skriver böcker om honom också. Och tanken börjar ta form kanske går Iliadens och Odysséns värld att gräva fram?Efter arkeologiska museet och Gladstones gata når jag fram till Schliemanns hus. Det verkar som att denna vandring är tänkt att ske i hans fotspår. Jag slinker in på kaféet i trädgården bakom huset, som idag är ett numismatiskt museum, och unnar mig och mina öron en stunds vila.Schliemanns hus kunde uppfattas som ett museum redan när han bodde i det, med sina mäktiga rum, marmorfriser och marmorgolv, väggarna fulltecknade med antika citat. Det känns på något sätt självklart att han döper sina barn till Agamemnon och Andromache.Jag häller vattnet jag fått till kaffet nerför ryggen och går ut på gatan. Benen styr mig mot Schliemanns mausoleum men tankarna är hos Rubina och tältet, hennes kamp för upprättelse, svårigheterna att få tag i vatten, till te, tvätt och personlig hygien.Efter att ha korsat Syntagma viker jag av i riktning mot kyrkogården. Där högst upp ligger mausoleet. En fris berättar om Schliemanns liv, så som han själv ville att det skulle återges. Här är hans älskade Sophia med på varje utgrävning, en självklar sekundant vid kniviga frågor. I själva verket stannade hon mest hemma och var förmodligen ganska ointresserad av arkeologi.Schliemann skaffar sig många fiender, inte för att han är elak men för att han saknar etikett och vägrar låta någon stå i vägen för sig. Frank Calvert, den vänlige och lågmälde, lätt aristokratiske och svårt skuldsatte man som äger marken där han tror att Troja ligger gömt, saknar resurser att genomföra utgrävningar. Calvert erbjuder Schliemann att ta över. Det har varit hans pojkdröm att hitta Troja. Schliemann snor drömmen från honom, gör den till sin, och så är Calvert ute ur leken.Ingen kan ta ifrån Schliemann att han varvar elva språk i sina dagböcker och gör sig förstådd på ytterligare ett dussin. Han blir förmögen flera gånger om, bland annat i guldruschens Kalifornien, han överlever ett skeppsbrott. Han umgås med kungar och presidenter och blir omskriven i all världens tidningar. Att det bakom mausoleets helgonlegend döljer sig en rejäl bunt rövarhistorier är lätt att glömma bort där jag står och ser ut över Atens kullar.Engelska, franska, italienska, holländska, spanska och portugisiska är språk Schliemann lär sig genom att rabbla ord och meningar, som en papegoja. Grammatiken hoppar han över.  Det gäller även den arkeologiska grammatiken. Noggrannhet vad gäller arkeologiska strata ligger inte för honom. Att i stekande sol pensla bort sandkorn för sandkorn är honom främmande. Han använder spade och vid behov dynamit.Det egentliga året för hans pensionering infaller 1864. Då är han 42 år. Behovet av resor och ny kunskap är omättligt. Barnen och hustrun har han inte tid med men, det hade ju inte Odysseus heller. 1868 gör han sina första utgrävningar i Grekland, besöker Ithaka och det heliga Athosberget. Homeros läser han som den bokstavstrogne läser bibeln. Allt i Iliaden ser han som sant, låt vara att gudarnas inblandning i kriget vittnar om viss spekulation Homeros var ju poet. Men i Schliemanns ögon är Homeros framför allt en historiker. Ja, närmast en krigsreporter som vesslesnabbt slinker ut och in genom stadsportarna för att få höra det senaste. Schliemann stakar ut riktningen med hjälp av Homeros och Pausanias, antikens och förmodligen världens förste författare av guideböcker, numera ersatta av GPS, som hjälper dagens turister till målet, om än till priset att de missar vägen dit.Det finns ingen nu levande arkeolog eller historiker som inte ifrågasätter Schliemanns metoder och ovetenskapliga, alltför snabbt dragna slutsatser, hans tendens att anpassa fynden efter teorin och inte teorin efter fynden, hans girighet och brutala utgrävningar. Knappast någon ifrågasätter dock hans betydelse för arkeologin i stort. Han har gjort den till ett äventyr. Låt vara att han i de allra flesta biografier framstår som en mytoman och en skrävlare, men visst är det väl ändå lite fint att att även skrävlare kan visa upp goda sidor och faktiskt, som i Schliemanns fall, förändra världen, om så bara genom att upptäcka den.I historiens och poesins ljus blir dessa platser magiska. Men eposen berättar också om krig och lidande, om flyktingar på nya kontinenter och om vad det innebär att längta hem.Jag tänker återigen på Rubina. Varje vandring som gör anspråk på att visa Aten och spegla vår samtid i historiens ljus borde inte enbart passera Akropolis höjd utan även hennes knappt meterhöga tält.Jan Henrik Swahn, författare

Metaphysics is a dark ocean without shores or lighthouse, strewn with many a philosophic wreck - Immanuel Kant In this episode we begin discussing the first part, in a two part series, Plato's Symposium. The Symposium consists of a gathering of people, including Socrates in this instance, who took turns giving speeches devoted to the God of Love, Eros. Each person would go around giving their own take on what they believe love is and how that relates to the God of Love, with each similar, but importantly different from the speech before it. We discuss issues of love, sexuality, cultural influence on love, and even Socrates' practice of standing meditation. We will finish this discussion in the next episode and speak more to the piece as a whole. Always feel free to let us know what you think, or if you have any episode requests. We would love to hear from you! Thank you for listening and we'll see you next time as we search for truth on the road that never ends!

Episode 10 -  The Peloponnesian WarsHi, my name is Clayton Mills.  Welcome to ‘A Short Walk through our Long History' - a podcast where we look at the events of history, and try to see how those events shaped our modern world. This is Episode 10 -  The Peloponnesian Wars.  The Golden Age of Greece, which we focused on last episode, lasted from around 528 BC to 323 BC, and it was a time of great prosperity in Greece.  And that very prosperity brought about some inter-city rivalries, as the city-states of Greece competed for their share, or more than their share, of the riches.  When I say rivalry, what I actually mean is some fairly long brutal, bloody, battles.  This wasn't just a political or economic rivalry, it was armies in the field, destroying each other's cities and territory.  The two main cities in this war, were of course Athens and Sparta.  But the other cities of Greece were basically forced to choose sides.  Fighting took place all over Greece, hence the name of the war:  The Peloponnesian Wars.  The Peloponnese is the name of the lower part of the Greek peninsula - the part that Sparta was on.  Athens is on a different peninsula, the Attic peninsula, located across a narrow isthmus, just to the north-east of the Peloponnese.  The city of Corinth sits right at the isthmus.  Just look it up on a map, for goodness sake.  Anyway, Athens and Sparta are only about 150 miles apart by land, so it's not that surprising that they were rivals.  It's interesting that during what is considered the Golden Age of Greece, there was this really intense set of battles between the two leading cities.  It's still the Golden Age, and there's still great art, philosophy, historical writing and literature being created, but there's also a lot of fighting.  Part of that is because even though there was fighting, for most of the war, Athens was not really threatened.  The armies were off fighting somewhere else.  I say most of the war, because in the end, it does go pretty poorly for Athens, and yes, that was a major interruption in the plays and philosophy and art while the Spartans were assaulting the walls of Athens.  Oh, and there was a plague, too.  But hey, it's still the Golden Age, so it's all good.  Ok, we need to ask the question, why are the Peloponnesian wars important enough to spend a whole episode on them?  Well, for one, there's the fact that Athens was basically destroyed.  That's kind of big.  For another, the Peloponnesian wars basically mark the beginning of the end of the era of Greek city-states, because after the wars are over, a weakened Greece is conquered by Macedonia, and rolled up into the kingdom of Philip of Macedon.  Another reason it's worth talking about is that Thucydides wrote an excellent history of the wars, and his historical work is even better than Herodotus' work on the Persian wars.  Thucydides was a participant in the wars, and so his work is even more timely and accurate.  Speaking of the Persian wars, Greece's victory over Persia is what sowed the seeds of the Peloponnesian wars.  During the war, the independent Greek cities had joined together in what was called the Hellenic League, which was kind of a loose treaty in which all the cities that joined agreed to send soldiers, in exchange for which, that city would be protected by the Hellenic army.  You didn't have to join, but if not, it was just your little city against Xerxes and a million Persians.  Hmm, what should we do?  After the Persian wars, Persia never again threatened the Greek mainland, but Persia still was in control of all of Ionia, also called Asia Minor, or modern-day Turkey.  The Persians had captured Byzantium, a Greek city, and some of the Hellenic League, including Athens, wanted to take it back.  The Spartans, however, proposed that they just leave Asia Minor in the hands of the Persians, and that they all go home.  Athens strongly objected to this, because many of the cities on the coast of Asia Minor were Athenian colonies.  Also, Athens itself had been abandoned to the Persians by the Greek land forces, and the Persians had destroyed much of Athens.  The Athenians managed to convince most of the Hellenic league to join them in liberating Byzantium and the other Greek colonies.  Sparta was now kind of over a barrel.  If they just packed up and left, that would leave Athens as clearly in charge of the Hellenic League, which Sparta definitely did not want to happen.  Also, the lead general of the Hellenic land forces was a Spartan, so if they left, they would also leave the army in Athenian hands.  So Sparta stayed, and helped the Hellenic league liberate Byzantium.  But that was the last time Athens and Sparta would work together.  So while the army was off fighting in Byzantium, back in Athens, the city was being rebuilt.  And on of the things that Athens decided to do was to not just rebuild the city wall, but to extend the city walls all the way down to their port city of Piraeus.  These walls were called the Long Walls, and they were about 8 miles long, and the Spartans were not at all happy about it.  The Spartans were also not happy with what was going on in the Hellenic army.  Their commander, Pausanias, had been accused of carrying on secret negotiations with Xerxes.  Now this was probably just a political play, but it was a serious enough accusation that Pausanias was removed as the lead general, and replaced by Xanthippus, an Athenian.  The Spartans sent a replacement general, but Xanthippus refused to give up command, so the Spartan army went home.  That was the end of the Hellenic League.  Now we're about to get into a whole series of other leagues, with shifting alliances and cities moving from one league to the other.  It's a bit like the old NFL - AFL days, with a bit of the WFL and USFL thrown in as well.   Sorry, millennials, if you don't understand that reference. Anyway, Athens responded to the Spartans leaving the league by simply creating a new league, which became known as the Delian League.  It was named this because the Greek Island of Delos served as the treasury for the entire league.  From the beginning, the league was dominated by its largest and wealthiest member, Athens.  Back in Sparta, not to be outdone, the Spartans formed a league of their own - The Peloponneisan league, made up of basically all the cities on the Peloponnesian peninsula, and also Corinth, which was on the isthmus that connects the peninsula to the rest of Greece.  And of course this league was dominated by the Spartans.  The Delian league set about re-capturing islands that had been captured by the Persians, and of course all those ‘liberated' islands became part of the Delian league too.  Not everyone in the Delian league always wanted to do what Athens wanted to do, so at times, Athens was quite forceful and threatening to its own allies.  In 460 BC, the Aegean island of Naxos, not to be confused with the tex-mix island of Nachos, decided it had had enough, and declared itself out of the league, and no longer subject to the league rules and payments.  According to Thucydides, they were forced to re-join the league after a siege.  Athens also used force on several other Greek cities to keep them in the league.  Thucydides said, ‘The Athenians were not the old popular rulers that they had been at first.' The beginning of the active fighting between Athens and Sparta was in 457 BC.  Sparta sent an army into the area of Boetia, which was part of the Delian league.  Their pretext was that they were just passing through, on their way to the town of Doris, which was farther to the north, but the Athenians didn't want them to visit Doris, so they sent out their own army.  The Spartans won the battle (no surprise there, ‘Don't fight the Spartans in a ground battle' should be one of the two classic blunders).  The two armies skirmished in the area for several years, and though the Spartans often won, they usually just left aftewards, and Athen reclaimed the territory.  In 446 BC, so about 11 years later, Athens proposed a peace with Sparta.  The treaty was supposed to be for 30 years, so it was called the 30 years peace.  Even though it only lasted 14 years.  In 433, a city named Corcyra, which was a Corinthian colony, decided to leave the league, and asked Athens for help. They weren't technically part of the Peloponnesian league, but still, when Athens sent ships to help them, it was a treat to the peace.  Athenian ships ended up fighting with Corinthian ships, and the war was on.  The Spartan army marched into Athenian territory.  Many people of the Attic peninsula retreated to Athens, hoping for safety behind the long walls.  But there, they ended up finding something worse.  In 430 BC, a terrible plague struck Athens.  Crowded with refugees, the city was ripe for an epidemic.  The plague, plus continued defeats from the Spartans and their allies, severely weakened Athens.  The plague even killed the Athenian leader Pericles.  Thucydides, the historian, was in Athens at the time, but he survived, and it is his record of the plague that is our best account of what happened.  In his own words, it sounds pretty horrible:  …violent heats in the head, and redness and inflammation in the eyes; the inward parts, such as the throat or tongue, becoming bloody and emitting an unnatural and fetid breath.  …. Sneezing and horseness, after which the pain soon reached the chest, and produced a hard cough.  The body was reddish, livid, and breaking out into small pustules and ulcers.  If they passed this stage, the disease descended further into the bowels, inducing a violent ulceration there accompanied by severe diarrhea.  This brought on a weakness that was generally fatal.'No mention of ‘loss of sense of smell,' though.  But still, yuck.  It doesn't sound like Athens was the place to be in 430.  Meanwhile, the Spartans had been building their own navy, and they put it under the command of an admiral named Lysander.  Lysander defeated the Athenian navy several times, and in August of 405, the Spartan navy destroyed 171 Athenian ships in a single battle.  Lysander set sail for Athens, and when he got there, the Athenians surrendered.  Lysander had the Long Walls destroyed, and he set up a puppet government of 30 Athenian aristocrats, who have gone down in history as simply ‘the 30.'  They were supported by a garrison of Spartan troops.  They presided over a bloody purge of anyone who had't gotten their vaccination, oh, sorry, over anyone who had even the slightest leanings towards democracy.  They reportedly had thousands of leading Athenians killed.  Eventually, the Athenians were helped by a force from the Greek city of Thrace, and the Spartans and the 30 all left Athens.  But they left Athens in ruins.  The Athenians re-instituted their democracy, but they were never again the political or military force they had been in the previous years.  Sparta also was damaged by the wars.  They had also lost many men, and many of their harvests had been ruined by the soldiers being away from home at harvest time.  So supplies were low, and so were the treasuries of the cities.  As a result, many of the Spartan and other Peloponnesian league soldiers left to find work outside of Greece.  In fact, right at this time a new king named Cyrus  -  not Cyrus the Great, he was earlier - was rising in Persia, and he sent out a call for soldiers from the Peloponnese, and many answered his call, because he could pay them.  The combined effect of the weakness of Athens and the exodus of Spartan soldiers left all of the southern part of Greece very vulnerable.  That vulnerability will be exploited by Philip of Macedon, but before we get to that story, we need to talk about one of the biggest impacts of the Golden Age of Greece.  One of the people who survived the plague, and all the fighting, was a rambling old teacher named Socrates.  Next episode, we will look at him, his student Plato, and Plato's student Aristotle, who together are easily the most important teacher-student teacher -student trio in all of history. 

Dass man mit Hilfe antiker Schriften bedeutendste archäologische Funde machen kann, hatte Heinrich Schliemann mit Troja und der Ilias bewiesen. Also nahm Otto Walter den vielleicht ältesten Reiseführer der Welt, verfasst von Pausanias zur Hand und wurde tatsächlich fündig.

Professor Kozlowski begins his encomium of the Symposium by discussing Greek cultural assumptions and how they relate and manifest in the first four speeches: Phaedrus' virtuous love, Pausanias' passionate (if disreputable) love, Erixymachus' love as a universal force, and Aristophanes' (comic?) love-myth. Perhaps, by synthesizing all these perspectives, we might come to see some true vision of love as Plato sees it. Or not... If you have questions or topic suggestions for Professor Kozlowski, e-mail him at profbkozlowski2@gmail.com To see what else Professor Kozlowski is up to, visit his webpage: https://professorkozlowski.wordpress.com/

Dass man mit Hilfe antiker Schriften bedeutendste archäologische Funde machen kann, hatte Heinrich Schliemann mit Troja und der Ilias bewiesen. Also nahm Otto Walter den vielleicht ältesten Reiseführer der Welt, verfasst von Pausanias, zur Hand und wurde tatsächlich fündig.

Pausanias skrev under mitten av 100-talet e.v.t. en reseskildring som finns kvar än i denna dag. Genom Periegesis, eller "Rundresa i Grekland", berättar Pausanias om ett redan då historiskt landskap genom monument och genealogi. Ett antikt landskap som vi i vissa fall även kan ta del av idag. Så packa väskan och stoppa ner passet, för nu bär det av på en resa i antikens fotspår.

Having narrowly survived the invasion of Xerxes massive Persian army, Athens would lean on the leadership of Cimon as it looks to establish supremacy in the Aegean Sea with a new alliance and a powerful navy.Support the show (https://www.paypal.com/donate?hosted_button_id=RLVZ3VNNPSRAL)

EPISODE 25: SPARTIATESWelcome back folks to the Spartan History Podcast. Stepping back into the solo format to once again put another facet of pre-classical Sparta under the microscope. This time it is the ruling class, the Homoioi or Spartiates as they referred to themselves. This section of society, dedicated entirely to the pursuit of warfare, were propped up by the helot class who managed their vast land holdings. There was a complex system of land tenure within Sparta which was designed to provide for each the cost of his citizenship, that is the monthly contribution of produce to the dining halls every Spartiate was obliged to dine at.We'll break down the system of land ownership and how it relates to the mess halls. Along with this I'll describe in brief the marital practices within the upper echelons of the Spartan world.Famed for their equality, we'll finish this episode by looking at the massive differences between the individual Homoioi and see why that word is better translated as 'similars,' rather than 'equals.' I hope you all enjoy and take good care.https://www.spartanhistorypodcast.com/https://www.facebook.com/spartanhistorypodcasthttps://twitter.com/spartan_history

The Hellenic league had now been victorious in two major engagements of 479 BC, at Plataea on the Greek mainland and Mycale in Persian territory. This would effectively see the end of the Persian invasion, and the Greeks victorious. Though, this was not immediately apparent and measures would be taken in the years to come to make sure they would not return.With the Greek victory, a responsibility to honour the gods that had assisted them needed to be attended to. One did not want to risk offending a god who had helped their city, or disaster could be just around the corner. The various polies would construct monuments and sanctuaries over the years after the victory to show their gratitude. At Delphi, a collective monument would be constructed that listed all of the Greek cities who had been the defenders of Greece.Back on the ground in Greece after Plataea, mopping up operations continued as Pausanias camped with the army on the Boeotian plains outside of Thebes. His focus now shifted to having the city answer for their crime of Medizing. Operations would also continue off the coast of Anatolia, with the fleet now making for the Hellespont and clearing Persian garrisons on this vital trade route.With the campaign season of 479 coming to a close the Greeks contingents would now make for the safe ports of their various city states and Islands. But this would not be the end of operations in the Aegean. This could be seen as the end of one chapter and the beginning of another. The decisions and events that would follow, would have ramifications for generations to come.   Support the show (https://www.patreon.com/castingthroughancientgreece)

En el programa de hoy, desempolvaremos el pasado para entrar a una de las culturas más prodigiosas del mundo, aquí se desarrolló un conocimiento avanzado sobre ciertos fenómenos de la naturaleza, saliendo filósofos, matemáticos y artistas que cambiaron al mundo, ¿ya sabes de qué cultura estamos hablando? Pues bien, es nada y nada menos que de la cultura griega. Trascenderemos más allá de las enciclopedias históricas con el fin de analizar en profundidad la antigua Grecia, y esto lo haremos a través de la obra titulada “Eso no estaba en mi libro de mitología griega”, de la escritora Alicia García Herrera.En las noticias del misterio, Javier nos hablará de:-Bosques fantasma-El meteorito que extinguió a los dinosaurios creó la selva amazónica -Restos del protoplaneta Alien Theia-MartemotosPor último, tendremos a un invitado que nos va a revelar a través de su libro titulado “Agenda 2030: las trampas de la nueva normalidad”, los pormenores de los planes políticos en estos tiempos de pandemia, donde debatiremos las implicaciones de la imposición de un nuevo estilo de vida, sin ser consultado por el pueblo. *** Apoyanos ***https://cutt.ly/VujVpND*** Voz de la intro ***Xavi Villanueva. Web: https://abismofm.com Twitter: @abismofm Facebook: Abismo Producciones*** Voz en off ***Valeria Surcis twitter: @valeriasurcis @QuieroContarTuHblog: www.valeriasurcis.blogspot.comE-Mail: surcisvaleria@gmail.com*** Guión ***Eduar Pajaro Peña "Angel Yosniel"Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/A963852741NBInstagram: https://www.instagram.com/angelyosniel/E-Mail: angelyosniel@gmail.com*** Redes Sociales ***Twitter : @universoredFacebook: Misterioso universo en la red*** Correo Electrónico ***misteriosouniversored@gmail.com*** Unete al grupo de Telegram ***Grupo de Telegram: https://t.me/joinchat/TbesR23x7PrwS2NU*** Suscribete ***Apple Podcast: https://cutt.ly/CujVXTMSpotify: https://cutt.ly/EujV96TIvoox: https://cutt.ly/VujV64PSpreaker: https://cutt.ly/MujBoyU

This week, the guys return to Plato and Socrates. In the third installment of this ongoing series analyzing Plato's Symposium, the guys break down Pausanias' speech. This includes a discussion of ancient Greek pederasty. Plus: stick around until the end for a lightning round Q&A.

Découvrir de nouveaux lieux, visiter des musées, ou encore acheter des cadeaux souvenirs à sa famille; autant d'activités touristiques qui ne datent pas d'hier. Eh oui, bien loin des congés payés, nos amis les Romains étaient assez friands des petites escapades touristiques. Dans ce nouvel épisode, on vous embarque dans les valises des descendants de Romulus pour découvrir quel genre de tourisme ils pratiquaient et puis surtout quel type de touristes ils étaient ! Prenez vite place, embarquement immédiat ! (Ps: Si le voyage fut trop bref pour vous, continuez votre escapade  en consultant les ouvrages ci-dessous: ANDRÉ Jean-Marie et BASLEZ Marie-Françoise. Voyager dans l'Antiquité. Paris, Fayard, 1993. ANGELA Alberto. Empire. Un fabuleux voyage chez les Romains avec un sesterce en poche. Traduction française, Paris, Payot & Rivages, 2016. 462 p. CASSON Lionel. Travel in the Ancient world. 1re éd. Londres, Allen and Unwin, 1974. Réed. Baltimore, The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1994. 377 p. GARCIA SANCHEZ Jorge. « Vacances romaines : les touristes de l'Antiquité ». Histoire et Civilisations, n°52, 2019. LE BOHEC Yann (dir.). Les voyageurs dans l'Antiquité. 130e congrès national des sociétés historiques et scientifiques, La Rochelle, 2005. Paris, Éditions du CTHS, 2008. PAUCHANT Étienne. « Le tourisme. Incontournable et mobilisateur ». Confluences Méditerranée, vol. 63, n°4, 2007, p.67-76. Pausanias. Description de la Grèce. Traduction française par Jean Pouilloux, 1992. Réed. Paris, Les Belles Lettres, 2002.

sermon transcript Babylon’s Judgment Throughout the Ages My goal is to work through each chapter that the Lord has laid on my heart to teach. I preach so that you would have a strong faith in Christ formed in you. The Lord has given me an insight into the nature of faith, that it is the eyesight of the soul. By faith, we are able to see past, present and future invisible spiritual realities that we could not otherwise see. By the Word of God, written for our faith, including the Book of Revelation, such hidden past, present and future realities are unveiled for us. Apart from Christ, we were spiritually blind to these things, but through the ministry of the Holy Spirit based on the Word of God, scales fall from our eyes. We see the past in Revelation 12, with the activity of the dragon, of Satan and his demons throughout redemptive history. He is a wicked adversary who has created a world system that is called Babylon in Revelation 17 and 18. Babylon has a long past history. We are also able by faith to see the present threat of Babylon to our souls. There is a present spiritual reality of Babylon that is assaulting our souls every day. Revelation 18:4-5 is a command from Christ to come out, to be separate from it, to touch no unclean thing, to be pure and holy from this defiling world system that Satan has set up. That will take every strength and grace that God will give to fight that good fight, to finish that race and to keep the faith. There is also a future form of Babylon that is yet to come with the system under the final world ruler, the Antichrist. There is a predictive element to this as well. Babylon: Symbol of Human Defiance and Self-Worship In many ancient cultures, there is a myth of a radiantly colored bird called the Phoenix. Sometimes it is depicted as a large bird which looks similar to a peacock, with purple and red flowing feathers. It could live for a very long time, even as long as five centuries. As the time of its end draws near, it makes an elaborate nest of kindling wood before being consumed in a raging ball of fire. From the ashes, the bird’s progeny rises and begins its own prodigiously long life. This cycle of fiery death and rising from the ashes is a tale often told in the ancient world, and has yielded the expression “like a Phoenix rising from the ashes”. To some degree, the Phoenix is a picture of Babylon as a lasting spiritual reality in human history. The history of the city-state of Babylon has been woven together with overt rebellion against the God of Heaven and against His chosen people. Babylon was an actual city in Mesopotamia, built by a mighty and godless hunter named Nimrod, just years after the flood of Noah. It was built in the fertile region of Mesopotamia, right on the Euphrates River, less than 75 miles from the Tigris River in modern Iraq, only about 50 miles south of modern Baghdad. It was well situated in the area called the Fertile Crescent between the Tigris and Euphrates River, which connected the Persian Gulf with the Mediterranean Sea. It prospered both from the fertile soil and from traffic along the major trade route on which it was located. Thus, it began as a nation of merchants. Ezekiel 16:29 calls it the Land of Merchants. It was also a land of warriors like their mighty founder, Nimrod, the hunter. From Babylon and these other city centers, the concept of the city-state emerged — a region controlled by a city. In the course of time, the inhabitants of the city-state of Babylon said in Genesis 11:4, “Come, let us build ourselves a city, with a tower that reaches to the heavens, [listen to their motives:] so that we may make a name for ourselves and not be scattered over the face of the whole earth.” That is the essence of the Babylonian spirit, the defiant spirit of human potentiality and capability, using technology and intelligence to make a name for oneself. The mighty Babylonian empire rose in time. It was a vassal state under the Assyrian empire, dominated by the Assyrians until at last, under Nebuchadnezzar’s father Nabopolassar, they threw off the Assyrian yoke. When Nabopolassar died, Nebuchadnezzar became the mighty king of Babylon. The Babylonian empire was awesome: irresistible in military power, complex in culture, exquisite in architecture, shrewd in politics. Its army came back up the Fertile Crescent to topple what was left of the dying Assyrian Empire, then swept down through Palestine, conquering what was left of the Jews in that land— the kingdom of Judah. The remnant of Jews that were left in Judah and Jerusalem were deported to Babylon, thus ending Jewish reign in Palestine over the Promised Land. The exile to Babylon was a line of demarcation in the history of the Jews. Prophecies Against Babylon Prior to that, however, God raised up prophets among the Jews to predict the fall of Babylon. He did this through Isaiah and Jeremiah and other prophets. Isaiah 13:19-22 “Babylon, the jewel of kingdoms, the glory of the Babylonians’ pride, will be overthrown by God like Sodom and Gomorrah. She will never be inhabited or lived in through all generations; no Arab will pitch his tent there, no shepherd will rest his flocks there. But desert creatures will lie there, jackals will fill her houses; there the owls will dwell, and there the wild goats will leap about. Hyenas will howl in her strongholds, jackals in her luxurious palaces.” That was written a century and a half before the Babylonian empire came to be. Jeremiah, who was among the remnant deported in the Babylonian exile, also predicted the destruction of Babylon. In Jeremiah 25:12, speaking of the 70-year exile of the Jews to Babylon, it says, “‘But when the seventy years are fulfilled, I will punish the king of Babylon and his nation, the land of the Babylonians, for their guilt,’ declares the LORD, ‘and will make it desolate forever.’” Sudden Fall and Gradual Demise of Babylon The beginning of the end for Babylon is written in Daniel 5. During Belshazzar’s feast, the writing appeared on the wall, predicting the immediate end of the Babylonian empire. The Babylonians were arrogant, thinking that their mighty, lofty, thick walls would protect them from the invading Medo-Persian army. Belshazzar hosted a drunken feast that night, neglecting to guard the walls. The Medo-Persian invading army took advantage of this by diverting the Euphrates River from under the walls and crawling through the portcullis, unlocking the city gate, and slaughtering the Babylonians while they lay in drunken stupor. This is the very thing Jeremiah had predicted 70 years before. Jeremiah 51:39: “‘But while they are aroused, I will set out a feast for them and make them drunk, so that they shout with laughter — then sleep forever and not awake,’ declares the LORD.” The destruction and desolation of the literal city of Babylon in Mesopotamia did not happen overnight, but gradually fulfilled the words of the prophets. Cyrus the Great of Persia ruled Babylon but destroyed its immense walls so the citizens could not revolt. Alexander the Great wanted to make it the capital of his empire, but he died there before realizing his dream. In 309 BC, a Greek successor of Alexander the Great leveled Babylon. In 275 BC, Antiochus the First deported the remaining civilian population to other cities. Pausanias, a Greek writer and geographer of the Roman period, said there was nothing left within the walls of Babylon by his time. In the last century before Christ, ancient geographer Strabo wrote, the great city had become a wilderness, thus fulfilling Isaiah’s prophecy. Roman emperor Trajan, eager to visit, was disappointed in the wasted, unidentifiable pile of rubble. In the modern age, as recently as a century ago, its ruins were discovered by archaeologists. Saddam Hussein had plans to rebuild Babylon, but was thwarted by his toppling in the Gulf War. Some Iraqi leaders want to turn it into a theme park centered around archeological artifacts, but Allied troops that have been there have taken many of the artifacts and ruined the site, which is uninhabited except by wild animals and birds, as Isaiah said it would be. The Spirit of Babylon The literal city of Babylon slowly sank down into the dust of history, but the spirit of Babylon has risen like a Phoenix from the ashes and moved from place to place ever since, a demonic spirit of the world. 1 Peter 5:13 is the key passage to understand the transfer of the spirit of Babylon from the literal city to another city: “She who is in Babylon, chosen together with you, sends you her greetings, and so does my son Mark.” Tradition places Peter in Rome when he wrote that, meaning Babylon was code language for Rome. The spirit of Babylon rose from the ashes to infuse the Roman empire of Peter’s day. Babylon itself was a howling, empty wasteland, but “she who is in Babylon, chosen together with you” indicated the bride of Christ, which was locally the church at Rome. Thus, the spirit of Babylon has moved around according to the dominating empire — Babylon, Persia, Greece, Rome; the Vandals, the Huns, the Vikings, the Mongols, the Spanish, the French under Napoleon, the English under Victoria, the Germans under Hitler, and so on. Through the ages, two common aspects have characterized the spirit of Babylon: military power and economic power. In Babylon, neither power is wielded for the glory of God or the advancement of the Kingdom of Jesus Christ, but for self glory alone. “Come, let us ‘…make a name for ourselves.’” [Genesis 11:4] The Final Phase of Babylon The final phase of Babylon is yet to come. Antichrist will come as predicted in Revelation 13. He will set up a world-dominating kingdom. Babylon has one final phase, which Revelation 17 and 18 cover. Revelation is not only a prediction of the final seven years of human history, as some take it, but it is also relevant in every generation of church history. Every generation must read and take to heart the warnings therein. Every generation of Christians need to hear Revelation 18: 4-5: “And when you hear the voice of your Savior crying out to you, saying, ‘Come out from her, all my people and be separate.’” We cannot do something exegetically or hermeneutically if we say it is a future book that has nothing to do with us, if we deny the threat that Babylon is to us. Babylon and its essential nature is a wicked world system in defiance of God. We will see its judgment through plagues, and we will hear the voice of God, of Christ, commanding, calling, pleading with us to come out from Babylon and be separate. Babylon’s Judgment Pronounced An Angelic Messenger Proclaims God’s Decree In Revelation 18:1-3, Babylon’s judgment is pronounced: “After this, I saw another angel coming down from Heaven. He had great authority and the Earth was illuminated by his splendor. And with a mighty voice, he shouted, ‘Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great. She has become a home for demons, a haunt for every evil spirit, a haunt for every unclean and detestable bird. For all the nations have drunk the maddening wine of her adulteries, the kings of the Earth committed adultery with her, and the merchants of the Earth grew rich from her excessive luxuries.’” The proclamation of Babylon’s final fall is entrusted to this heavenly messenger, but the decree and power behind the fall of Babylon originates from Almighty God. It is not the angel’s doing, but the angel is the messenger. The angel is described in words that are hard to fathom. He has great authority. Not all angels are equally authoritative. Some angels are called archangels, literally meaning ruler angels. In addition, he has great glory. An overwhelmingly brilliant light surrounds this angelic messenger, like the light of the glory of Heaven that shone around the angel that bore the message that Jesus was born on the hills around Bethlehem, which terrified the shepherds. This angel has the same illuminating glory that shines radiantly, and the light is shining in this dark age. If the earth is still plunged into a thick darkness from the fifth bowl, so deep that it could be felt, there is a general darkness, spiritually and maybe physically at that point at the end. This angel has great authority and glory, and he speaks the decree from God with a voice like thunder, “Fallen, fallen is Babylon the great, she has become a home for demons and a haunt for every evil spirit, for every unclean and detestable bird.” God will cast her down. The final fall of Babylon, or the final phase of Babylon being cast down, is yet in the future, but this proclamation is given with repetition in the prophetic past tense, as though it has already happened, giving a sense of prophetic certainty, urgency and finality to the announcement. Babylon has become a home for demons, a haunt for evil spirits. This borrows the language we already saw in Isaiah 13, where nothing but wild animals and birds settle down in the ruins of Babylon. disgusting carrion birds. Often when we see dead deer and other animals along the side of the road, we also see those nasty black carrion birds, which really are doing us all a service. There is that same sense of decay and death here in Babylon. Jesus said in the Little Apocalypse in Matthew 24:28, “Wherever there is a carcass, there the vultures will gather.” Remember that demons billowed from the guts of the earth in Revelation 9 with the fifth trumpet, and these especially vicious and evil demons perhaps will haunt the final form of Babylon. Babylon’s Wickedness Exposed The wickedness of Babylon is exposed in Revelation 18:3: “For all the nations have drunk the maddening wine of her adulteries. The kings of the earth committed adultery with her, and the merchants of the earth grew rich from her excessive luxuries.” As with Revelation 17 which presented the great whore of Babylon, the prostitute, there is a sense of the allure and enticement of the world toward evil and sin and immorality, especially sexual immorality. 1 John 2 speaks of the lust of the eyes, the lust of the flesh, and the boastful pride of life. Being the essence of the world, the enticing allure of lusts, Babylon is a system of worldwide corruption, making all the nations drunk. Babylon’s Excessive Luxury The phrase “…the merchants of the earth” indicates the issue of merchandise, commerce, trade, possessions that can be purchased in exchange for money. Verses 3, 7 and 9 mention Babylon’s excessive luxury. “…the merchants of the earth grew rich from her excessive luxuries. … Give her as much torture and grief as the glory and luxury she gave herself. …the earth who committed adultery [the kings of the earth committed adultery] with her and shared her luxury.” Once when I was visiting at the home of a wealthy man, I skimmed through a magazine he had called Connoisseur which contained articles about the best of the best in various categories. One was about the best carving knives, valued for pure craftsmanship, made by craftsmen who have descended from the Samurai in Japan, with photos of really sharp knives going through tomatoes with no effort, and then again and again and again until it was microscopically thin. One paring knife cost $6000. Another article was about bespoke suits, tailor-made from Saville Row in London: $30,000 for a man’s suit and $40,000 for a pair of Italian shoes. A number of you are wealthy and very generous with your wealth. But it is wrong for us to read Revelation 18, wealthy as we are, and think that the word “luxury” has nothing to do with us. We admire craftsmen and artists who spend a year on a painting or a sculpture, like Michelangelo who worked for years on the Sistine Chapel. We admire that level of skill and go museums to see their work. Is that an evil and wicked thing to sell and purchase such a luxury? This morning I was praying about the topic of luxury and started to see the future of luxury in the new Heaven. We will make things in Heaven with exquisite skill, but the things we make will not become idols. They will be done overtly for the glory of God. That is the future of fine craftsmanship in the New Heaven and New Earth — no idols and no sinful luxuries. In the present, such things are a threat to our souls; there is a warning against excessive luxury. If we take this before God and ask Him to deliver us from sinful luxury, that is the safest we can be. James 5:5, speaking of wicked oppressors, says, “You have lived on earth in luxury and self-indulgence. You have fattened yourselves in the day of slaughter.” I pray that would not be true of any member of First Baptist Church. Do not excuse yourself from looking in the mirror, from asking God, “Is this true of me? I do not want to fatten myself in the day of slaughter.” Babylon’s Judgment Escaped Warning: Flee the Corruptions of Babylon Now There is a category of people who escaped Babylon, whom God delivered. We see the future doom, but this invitation — truly, this command — is given in Revelation 18:4-5: “Then I heard another voice from heaven say: ‘Come out of her, my people, so that you will not share in her sins, so that you will not receive any of her plagues; for her sins are piled up to heaven, and God has remembered her crimes.’” This is the application from Revelation 17 and 18, God’s command to His people to come out of her and be separate. There is a warning, a negative motivation — “Flee the wrath to come” — but with a positive implication that “Jesus is better.” That is why we flee, because Jesus is better than anything this world has to offer. He is better than “the lust of the flesh and the lust of the eyes and the boastful pride of life.” [1 John 2:16] Lord, Make my heart believe that. I want to know and believe that Jesus is better than the lusts and the pleasures of the flesh. The Test of the People of God in Every Generation Paul picks up on the command to flee in 2 Corinthians 6:17: “Therefore come out from them and be separate, says the Lord. Touch no unclean thing and I will receive you.” This is the test of God’s people in every generation. We cannot excuse ourselves and say we are not in the final seven years, so therefore Babylon is not a present reality so we do not need to worry about the warnings. Do not do that. In every generation to Christians, The world will continue to offer benefits and pleasures and possessions and powers if we will only in some way deny Christ. We must stand firm in our faith and be holy. The smoke from Babylon’s future fire can be smelled right now only by faith. The heat from Babylon’s future flames can be felt right now only by faith. The cries of Babylon’s future torment can be heard right now only by faith. We must look at our lives and see the way the luxuries of Babylon have worked themselves into our souls, and we must flee. Babylon’s Judgment Justified God Justifies Babylon’s Judgement In verses 6-8, we see Babylon’s judgment justified: “Give back to her as she has given; pay her back double for what she has done. Mix her a double portion from her own cup. Give her as much torture and grief as the glory and luxury she gave herself. In her heart she boasts, ‘I sit as queen; I am not a widow, and I will never mourn.’ Therefore in one day her plagues will overtake her: death, mourning and famine. She will be consumed by fire, for mighty is the Lord God who judges her.” God explains Babylon’s judgment to us. He is the just and right in casting down this city; it is payback time now for all the torment that Babylon has caused His people. She will drink torture and grief from the cup in her hand — she has mixed out a huge cup of luxury for herself and she has been drinking from that cup. God will pay her back the same measure she weighed to herself. Her over-confidence is exposed here. This is the same language we see in the book of Isaiah, that Babylon boasts that nothing bad will ever happen to her. She sits like a queen surrounded by her own; she cannot be touched or threatened, so she believes she will never mourn. Widowhood will never come on her nor the loss of children; she is safe. But she is forgetting about the power and the holiness of God. The judgments listed include death, mourning, and famine. The Source of the Judgment The source of the judgment is listed as well: “…for mighty is the Lord God who judges her.” Isaiah 14 says about the fall of Babylon and of Assyria, “This is the plan determined for the whole world. This is the hand stretched out over all nations, for the Lord Almighty has purposed, and who can thwart Him, His hand is stretched out and who is able to turn it back?” Babylon’s Judgment Lamented Her Citizens and Merchants Grieve In Revelation 18:9-19, Babylon’s citizens and merchants will lament and grieve her fall through her judgment. This the end of everything they have loved, everything they have lived for, everything they have built their lives on. Idolaters do not give up their idols easily. The sadness that they feel at the fall of this wicked world system shows the wickedness of their own hearts too. They are sad at the fall of Babylon because they loved her. The kings of the Earth will lament her. Revelation 18:9-10: “When the kings of the earth who committed adultery with her and shared her luxury see the smoke of her burning, they will weep and mourn over her. Terrified at her torment, they will stand far off and cry: ‘Woe! Woe, O great city, O Babylon, city of power! In one hour your doom has come!’” The merchants of the earth, those who traded with her, will also grieve. Revelation 18:11-17: “The merchants of the earth will weep and mourn over her because no one buys their cargoes any more-- cargoes of gold, silver, precious stones and pearls; fine linen, purple, silk and scarlet cloth; every sort of citron wood, and articles of every kind made of ivory, costly wood, bronze, iron and marble; cargoes of cinnamon and spice, of incense, myrrh and frankincense, of wine and olive oil, of fine flour and wheat; cattle and sheep; horses and carriages; and bodies and souls of men. They will say, ‘The fruit you longed for is gone from you. All your riches and splendor have vanished, never to be recovered.’ The merchants who sold these things and gained their wealth from her will stand far off, terrified at her torment. They will weep and mourn 16 and cry out: ‘Woe! Woe, O great city, dressed in fine linen, purple and scarlet, and glittering with gold, precious stones and pearls! In one hour such great wealth has been brought to ruin!’” Even the ships’ captains who delivered the cargo to Babylon will lament her. Revelation 18:17-19:“Every sea captain, and all who travel by ship, the sailors, and all who earn their living from the sea, will stand far off. When they see the smoke of her burning, they will exclaim, ‘Was there ever a city like this great city?’ They will throw dust on their heads, and with weeping and mourning cry out: ‘Woe! Woe, O great city, where all who had ships on the sea became rich through her wealth! In one hour she has been brought to ruin!’” The days of luxury and ease sinful self-indulgence will end forever, but not everyone will be grieving. Babylon’s Judgment Celebrated Remember the Blood of the Saints Not everyone will be sad about the fall of Babylon — it will be a source of energetic praise and joyful celebration among the servants of the Lord. Revelation 18:20: “Rejoice over her, O heaven! Rejoice, saints and apostles and prophets! God has judged her for the way she treated you.” Babylon the Great, in Revelation 17:6, was “drunk with the blood of the saints, the blood of those who bore testimony to Jesus.” Worldly people do not understand why Christians do not plunge with them into the same flood of dissipation. 1 Peter 4:4 says, “They think it strange that you do not plunge with them into the same flood of dissipation, and they heap abuse on you.” All of Heaven will Celebrate! When Babylon the Great is finally thrown down, all of Heaven will celebrate. We will hear the sounds of the the fourfold Hallelujah. We will be so done with Babylon when we get to Heaven, we will be healed from it forever. Babylon’s Judgment Completed The End of Babylon’s Glory Babylon’s judgment will be completed and symbolized by the casting down of a large boulder. Revelation 18:21-24: “Then a mighty angel picked up a boulder the size of a large millstone and threw it into the sea, and said: ‘With such violence the great city of Babylon will be thrown down, never to be found again. [The overthrow of Babylon will be a violent thing; God will do it. Violence has been a part of the seven trumpets and the seven bowls, and then the Second Coming of Christ.] The music of harpists and musicians, flute players and trumpeters, will never be heard in you again. No workman of any trade will ever be found in you again. The sound of a millstone will never be heard in you again. The light of a lamp will never shine in you again. The voice of bridegroom and bride will never be heard in you again. Your merchants were the world's great men. By your magic spell all the nations were led astray. In her was found the blood of prophets and of the saints, and of all who have been killed on the earth.’” We can imagine the action of hurling a boulder the size of a millstone, a massive stone used for grinding wheat into flour, into a pond or a lake — the splash would be huge. It is a symbol of Babylon’s violent fall. With the fall of Babylon comes the end of Babylon’s music. What a payback! Think about the Jews in exile and how they sat by the waters of Babylon, mocked by their tormenting captors, in Psalm 137:1-4: “By the rivers of Babylon we sat and wept when we remembered Zion. There on the poplars we hung our harps, for there our captors asked us for songs, our tormentors demanded songs of joy; they said, ‘Sing us one of the songs of Zion!’ How can we sing the songs of the LORD while in a foreign land?” This is a reversal of that. The songs of Babylon will never be sung again. Instead, we will hear a new song, the song of Heaven, the song of Zion, and we will sing and play that song forever. What payback for that mockery that they did to the Jews in exile! It is the end of all of Babylon’s work. All the skilled craftsmen who spent all their time on creating the luxuries will cease their labors. No one will buy them; their time has ended. As I pointed out earlier, skilled craftsmanship will continue in the New Heaven and New Earth forever. I look forward to seeing what we will all create. We will craft things for the glory and the radiant display of God and use our resurrection hands to make things far more skillfully than anything we find here on earth. But these Babylonian craftsmen are finished; no one will buy their luxuries ever again. It is the end of all light. The light of the lamp will not be seen in Babylon again. It will become a place of utter darkness. It is the end of all human relationships. People will be marrying and giving in marriage right up until the day of the Second Coming. At that point, the sound of bride and bridegroom will be heard no more. The Reason for Judgment Revelation 18:23-24 tells the reason: “By your magic spell all the nations were led astray. In her was found the blood of prophets and of the saints, and of all who have been killed on the earth.” Those who have been killed on the earth extend “from the blood of righteous Abel to the blood of Zechariah, son of Berekiah, whom you murdered between the temple and the altar. … all these things [this blood] will come upon this generation.” (Matthew 23:35-36). None of the blood shed will be forgotten. Cain asked rhetorically, “Am I my brother's keeper?” to which God replied, “The blood of your brother cries out from the ground for vengeance.” All the blood that has been shed wickedly on earth will be avenged by the fall of Babylon. In the Greek, the word for “magic spell” or “sorcery” is pharmakeia, from which we get the word pharmacy or pharmaceutical. It relates to drugs and perhaps also to a cultic secret religion. There is an alluring smell of sorcery or magic that Babylon has a hold of the minds and hearts of its subjects. We are only now, in our sanctification and our progressive growth, gradually coming out of the haze and stupor of Babylon’s influence. It is still in our minds and hearts. We are still allured and tempted by some of Babylon’s pharmakeia, but there will come a day when it will have no influence on us at all. Applications See the World with EYES OF FAITH Feed your faith with the Word of God. Read Romans, Colossians, Ephesians; saturate your mind with the Gospels; read the prophecies in Isaiah and Jeremiah. You do not need to focus only on Babylon. Fill your mind and heart with the Word of God and your eyes of faith will get sharper. You will be able to see what is really happening. You will be able to see the surrounding world for what it really is — the world that John writes about in 1 John 2 — as a deadly threat to your soul. Let it motivate you with a healthy fear, not of man, but of the temptations of the world. We should say, “Lord, lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from the evil one.” We should be afraid of what the world can do. Faith is the assurance of things hoped for, but also the conviction of things not seen. By that we are convicted of sin, and there is a holy fear that comes over us. Hebrews 11:7 says, “By faith Noah, when warned about things not yet seen, in holy fear built an ark to save his family.” There is a fear that should grip us of Babylon. We do not build an ark, but we walk in Christ and we protect ourselves from the world. Concerning Babylon in America, do we suppose that the most dominant military nation and the most dominant economy is immune from the spirit of Babylon that rises from the ashes of every old empire and takes over? We have godly public servants that are elected to office like Daniel who are counselors to the rulers, able to give good advice, but the system itself is still Babylon. So come out and be separate. There is repulsion and attraction, so be disgusted and repulsed by the things of Babylon that we described here. She is a haunt of every unclean burden, every demonic spirit. Be disgusted by it and be attracted to the theme of the song that Jesus is better. I would rather follow Christ today than binge on Netflix. I would rather have Jesus than sin sexually by the Internet. I would rather have Jesus than do shopping therapy online or at the mall. Jesus is better than those things. I do not need any of those things to feel better in this life. What About Luxury? To any who are wealthy, which is all of us — and if you do not think so, go to Haiti, India, Pakistan, any country in the third world — take heed of Paul’s words to the pastor Timothy. Paul said in 1 Timothy 6:17-19, “Command those who are rich in this present world not to be arrogant nor to put their hope in wealth, which is so uncertain, but to put their hope in God, who richly provides us with everything for our enjoyment. Command them to do good, to be rich in good deeds, and to be generous and willing to share. In this way they will lay up treasure for themselves as a firm foundation for the coming age, so that they may take hold of the life that is truly life.” Let 1 Timothy 6 command you to be generous and live for the future world. You alone know how generous God wants you to be with the wealth He has given you. Do not make assumptions. Ask, “God, what do You want me to do with all this wealth that You have given me?” Today is Sanctity of Human Life Sunday. See abortion as part of the Babylonian system. Some day abortion will be obsolete, praise God. Let’s keep praying and serving and working toward that end. Find ways to help crisis pregnancy centers or women in crisis pregnancies. If you yourself have had an abortion in the past and you are broken and shattered by it, understand the grace of God and the mercy He gives at the cross. If you are sexually tempted with another person, stand firm and do not give in to sexual immorality, which is the root of so many abortions. Come to Christ! My final word has to be to you who are outside of Christ, or perhaps were before you came in here today. Come to Christ. “Come out of her and be separate" is Jesus saying, “Come to me, all you who are weary and burdened, and I will give you rest.” Come to Christ. He can disentangle your heart and your soul from Babylon and save your soul. Closing Prayer Close with me in prayer. Father, we thank You for the things that we learn continually from Your Word. We know that the Word is wise, it is powerful, it is able to save our souls through faith in Christ Jesus. Christ the Savior is better. Lord I pray that you call lost people out of darkness into light. Help them to turn away from worldly wealth and power and pleasure, and the things that do not matter, to turn to Christ and find forgiveness in Him. And help us to share that message. We are a wealthy nation; help us to be willing to talk about Babylon the great and its future fall and to warn people, and to urge people to find in Christ a beautiful Savior. In His name we pray. Amen.