Podcasts about nacl

Check Out PrizePicks! - https://prizepicks.onelink.me/ivHR/TRAVISTake a look at NZXT! - https://nzxt.co/travis ( Use code: travis5 )Follow Travis on Twitch: http://twitch.tv/travisgaffordSupport: https://linktr.ee/tgisupport00:00:00 Intro 00:14:05 kon's take: LTA North could learn from LEC's example with live roadshows00:36:19 NZXT break!00:39:12 MBT's take: 100T might be slipping, and DIG might be on the rise00:51:25 MsTimed wants to know what happened with 100T's game 2 draft01:02:17 Ezzyez's take: TL have put themselves in an impossible position01:16:45 PrizePicks break!01:19:40 mihir's take: integrating NACL with Collegiate/CLOL is close to a non-negotiable at this point01:32:45 conz's take: Valorant has more fans and is growing and is easier to watch and support vs league01:45:53 Outro

Today's crossword was fun (absolutely!), fast (YMMV), and this episode has exactly the same characteristics! So have a listen, and remember, we're having our next Triplet Tuesday Contest next week, so listen to today's segment to get the format, start practicing, and start honing your acceptance speech (you know, just in case ...)Show note imagery: NACL (aka table salt) crystals, as seen in an electron microscopeWe love feedback! Send us a text...Contact Info:We love listener mail! Drop us a line, crosswordpodcast@icloud.com.Also, we're on FaceBook, so feel free to drop by there and strike up a conversation!

Check Out PrizePicks! - https://prizepicks.onelink.me/ivHR/TRAVISTake a look at NZXT! - https://nzxt.co/travis ( Use code: travis5 )Follow Travis on Twitch: http://twitch.tv/travisgaffordSupport: https://linktr.ee/tgisupport00:00:00 Intro 00:15:23 Rudy asks for HLL's predictions around Tier 200:46:50 PrizePicks break!00:50:50 Azikiel's take: the reason why Near Airport and Los Ratones are so awesome is because fans are excited to see these former pros put their reputations on the line again01:21:50 IceBreaker is excited for the Split 2 format, and here's why01:40:20 NZXT break!01:43:28 i9Gamingz's take on TL Breaking Point 2.002:02:30 Outro

Take a look at NZXT! - https://nzxt.co/travis ( Use code: travis5 ) Check out Idle Slayer! - https://store.steampowered.com/app/1353300?utm_source=Travis Follow Travis on Twitch: http://twitch.tv/travisgafford Support: https://linktr.ee/tgisupport 00:00:00 Intro - first weekend of LTA, movies, Magic and more 00:20:53 Cloud's take: Shopify will be the biggest team in terms of fandom in the LTA by the end of the year. 00:36:08 KKG's take: this feels like the most important year yet for C9 00:53:08 NZXT break! 00:55:48 waka's take: with players coming up from NACL, DIG and DSG have potential to hit top 4 01:14:20 Seanatonin's take: T1 teams should stream a portion of their scrims to the public 01:27:12 Idle Slayer break! 01:30:30 Cedric's take: Impact and TL have a lot to prove to make up for last year's shortcoming 01:48:58 Raz's Amazing Outro

Klor var det første halogenet som ble isolert. Det ble oppdaget i 1774 av Carl Wilhelm Scheele som et produkt ved reaksjonen mellom mangandioksid og hydrogenklorid. Han trodde imidlertid at gassen ifølge flogistonteorien bestod av deflogistikert muriatisk syre (saltsyre).Det var Humphry Davy som i 1810 ble klar over at klor er et grunnstoff og gav det navn. Dets vanligste salt, natriumklorid (NaCl), altså vanlig koksalt, har vært kjent fra tidlige tider som et viktig kosttilskudd og er omtalt allerede i Bibelen. (kilde: SNL.NO)Klor betyr grønn-gul på gresk, og beskriver fargen på gassen i romtemeratur. I denne episoden har vi med oss Frode Stordal fra Geovitenskapelig institutt ved UiO, som kan mye om hvordan klorforbindelser påvirker ozonlaget i stratosfæren (tema for hans Dr.Scient i 1983!), og han har jobbet med/truffet Crutzen, Rowland og Molina som fikk Nobelprisen i kjemi i 1995 for oppdagelser av betydning for ozonlaget. Bli med oss på vår vimsete reise gjennom det periodiske system der vi får nerdet fra oss og gravd oss dypt ned i hvert enkelt grunnstoff, men på et nivå som alle skal kunne forstå. Med oss på reisen har vi eksperter som kan mer enn de fleste om de ulike grunnstoffene og hjelper oss å skjønne litt mer av det vi alle er lagd av. Vi er Gunstein Skomedal (materialteknolog UiA), Ole Martin Løvvik (fysiker, UiO/Sintef) og Birte Runde (journalist i Eyde-klyngen)Har du forslag til grunnstoff vi bør snakke om, gjester/eksperter vi bør invitere eller besøke, eller morsomme fakta og historier om et grunnstoff? Eller har du innspill til lyd, form, innhold eller annet? Send oss gjerne tilbakemelding på gunstein.skomedal@uia.no.Husk å sjekke ut våre nettsider www.grunnstoffene.no. Du finner videoer og annet stoff på vår youtube-kanal Grunnstoffene og eksperimenter - YouTube eller på Facebook

ROMA (ITALPRESS) - In questa edizione:- La stimolazione cerebrale non invasiva rallenta la SLA- Immunoterapie, il sale risveglia l'azione antitumorale dei linfociti T- A Bologna 360 VOLTS, al centro la cura della malattia venosa cronicasat/mrv

ROMA (ITALPRESS) - Secondo i dati di una ricerca, pubblicati sulla rivista Nature Immunology, l'aggiunta di una quantità specifica di sale potrebbe avere un'utilità inaspettata nella preparazione delle terapie cellulari contro il cancro, come le CAR-T o le TCR. Per questi trattamenti i linfociti di un paziente vengono prelevati, modificati in modo che riconoscano meglio le cellule tumorali e poi infusi nuovamente nel paziente stesso. In esperimenti di laboratorio, il sale somministrato ai linfociti T in coltura prima dell'infusione sembra in grado di attivare tali cellule e di aumentarne l'azione terapeutica, come spiega Enrico Lugli, responsabile del Laboratorio di Immunologia Traslazionale e del Flow Cytometry Core dell'Istituto Clinico Humanitas, alla guida del team di ricerca che ha realizzato lo studio.sat/mrv

Greg Davis tells listeners about his recent trip along the East Coast, including his time at the National Association of Christian Lawmakers (NACL) Conference, the National D-Day Memorial, Liberty University, the Biltmore Estate, Monticello, and more.

MonteCristo and Thorin discuss controversy around Faker's Ahri skin for the Hall of Legends, changes coming to the LCS, Fearless Draft in the NACL and LPL, roster moves at Dignitas and Shopify Rebellion, how the Esports World Cup has affected pro teams' marketing exercises during LGBT+ Pride Month, and more!

Follow Travis on Twitch: http://twitch.tv/travisgafford Support: https://linktr.ee/tgisupport 00:00:00 Intro 00:26:30 kon's take: these are the best format changes in LCS history 52:40 Kisiel's take: the gauntlet is the best thing the lcs is bringing back 01:04:46 Jonathon's take: there's a bunch of factors keeping sponsors away from CLoL 01:25:20 Marcelo's take: Silvxs has proven that content inspires old fans and new fans to the LCS 01:43:50 groggy is stoked for the Twitch extension 01:56:50 ehero's take: Sheiden has been tearing up solo queue 02:05:50 Outro

Dzisiaj sól używamy w zasadzie tylko jako przyprawę do potraw. W czasach starożytnych było jednak inaczej. Sól miała o wiele więcej zastosowań. Widać to także w Biblii. Zacznijmy jednak od hebrajskiego słowa melah zapisywano je przy pomocy trzech liter MLH. Fenickie słowo brzmiała malaha i też zapisywano je jako MLH. Podobno Fenicjanie sprowadzali sól aż z Hiszpanii i miasto Malaga na Półwyspie Iberyjskim ma mieć nazwę od fenickiego słowa sól. Sól występowała jednak także w Izraelu. Czemu sprowadzano ją z tak dalekich regionów? Do czego używano soli w czasach biblijnych?W Księdze Ezdrasza czytamy o urzędnikach, którzy sprzeciwili się budowie świątyni w Jerozolimie. Napisali on list do króla Persji Artakserksesa. W Ezdrasza 4:14 czytamy: “Ponieważ zaś jesteśmy na utrzymaniu twego dworu i nie godzi się nam patrzeć na pohańbienie króla, przeto posłaliśmy wiadomość o tym królowi”. Napisali oni, że są na utrzymaniu króla. Dosłownie w tym miejscu czytamy, że jedzą sól króla. Ten zwrot jeść kogoś sól oznaczał “być na czyimś utrzymaniu. Sól była bardzo droga i czasem używano jej jako pieniędzy.Np. dawać sól po łacinie brzmi: sal dare. Podobno od tego zwrotu pochodzi angielskie słowo soldier. Podobnie salary czyli wynagrodzenie też ma pochodzić od słowa sól. Tak więc w Ezdrasza 4:14 czytamy o urzędnikach, którzy byli na utrzymaniu króla i dostawali sól. Były okresy w historii gdy sól miała wartość jak złoto. Nie zdziwi was chyba więc to, że z jej powodu wybuchały wojny czy rewolucje. Przykładem jest choćby marsz solny Gandhiego. W 1930 ten indyjski przywódca poszedł nad morze i sam odparował sobie trochę soli protestując w ten sposób przeciwko monopolowi rządowemu i sprzedaży soli z wysokim podatkiem. Do czego jeszcze używano soli w czasach biblijnych?Ci urzędnicy z czasów Ezdrasza chcieli wstrzymać budowę świątyni, ale król Artakserkses nakazał pomóc kapłanom. W Ezdrasza 7:22 czytamy co należało dostarczać do świątyni po odbudowie: “Aż do stu talentów srebra, stu korców pszenicy, stu baryłek wina i stu baryłek oliwy, soli zaś bez ograniczenia”. Do świątyni składano w ofierze zwierzęta i inne pokarmy. Nie wszystko spalono, część spożywali kapłani i ich rodziny. Wszystkie te ofiary miały być posolone. Dlatego Kapłańska 2:13 mówi: “Każdą twoją ofiarę z pokarmów posolisz; żadnej twojej ofiary z pokarmów nie pozbawisz soli przymierza Boga twego. Przy każdej ofierze swojej składać będziesz i sól”. Przypominam sól była wtedy bardzo droga. Na szczęście te przepisy nie określały jak wiele soli miano dać wraz z ofiarą.Używanie soli jako przyprawy lub jako czynnika konserwującego żywność nie jest zaskakująca. Ale soli używano także przy narodzinach dzieci. W Ezechiela 16:4 czytamy: “A z twoim narodzeniem było tak: Gdy się narodziłaś, nie przecięto twojej pępowiny i nie obmyto cię wodą, aby cię oczyścić, nie wytarto cię solą i nie owinięto w pieluszki”. Jest to opis zaniedbanego dziecka, którego po narodzinach nie okryto pieluszką, ale też nie natarto solą. Wynika z tego, że to była zwykła praktyka w czasach proroka Ezechiela. Czy to działo się także w późniejszych czasach, np. czy Jezus też był natarty solą po urodzeniu tego nie wiemy. Jezus użył jednak przykładu z solą.W Mateusza 5:13 czytamy: “Wy jesteście solą ziemi; jeśli tedy sól zwietrzeje, czymże ją nasolą? Na nic więcej już się nie przyda, tylko aby była precz wyrzucona i przez ludzi podeptana”. W tym przykładzie przyrównał swoich uczniów do soli. Wspomniał jednak, że ta sól może zwietrzeć albo stracić smak. Jezus nie mówił tutaj o soli jakiej my dzisiaj używamy albo takiej jaką sprowadzali w tamtych czasach Fenicjanie z Hiszpanii. Jezus mówił tutaj o soli jaką można było znaleźć w Izraelu.Nie była to czysta sól, ale taka zmieszana z różnymi zanieczyszczeniami. Gdybyśmy sobie wyobrazili sól zmieszaną z piaskiem. Taka sól wrzucona do wody się rozpuści i pozostanie sam piasek. Właśnie o takiej soli mówił Jezus, gdy straci ona swój słony smak zostają same zanieczyszczenia, które można rzucić na drogę jak żwir.W innej ewangelii ten przykład z solą został rozszerzony. W Marka 9:50 czytamy: “Sól, to dobra rzecz, ale jeśli sól zwietrzeje, czymże ją przyprawicie? Miejcie sól w samych sobie i zachowujcie pokój między sobą”. Tutaj ponownie słyszymy o soli, która może stracić swoją słoną wartość, ale później czytamy do czego to było potrzebne. Tą sól uczniowie Jezusa mieli mieć w sobie aby zachować pokój między sobą. Jak należy to rozumieć? Wyjaśnił to chyba apostoł Paweł w Liście do Kolosan.W Kolosan 4:6 czytamy: “Mowa wasza niech będzie zawsze uprzejma, zaprawiona solą, abyście wiedzieli, jak macie odpowiadać każdemu”. Paweł przyrównał tutaj mowę do posiłku. Moglibyśmy odpowiedzieć bardzo szorstko i to przypominałoby podanie komuś jedzenia bez soli. Paweł zalecał jednak uprzejmą mowę, którą porównał do jedzenia doprawionego solą. Ludzie w tamtych czasach, szczególnie ci biedniejsi jedli pewnie czasami posiłki bez soli i wiedzieli jakie to niesmaczne. Zauważmy jaki to świetny przykład. Jeżeli damy komuś szorstką radę to ta rada mu pomoże tak jak ciału pomoże nawet pokarm bez soli. Jednak o wiele łatwiej jest przyjąć uprzejmą radę od kogoś tak samo jak łatwiej i przyjemniej jest zjeść coś, co przyprawiono.Sól przydawała się do konserwowania np. mięsa z tego powodu używano tego słowa w przenośni aby zaznaczyć, że coś jest trwałe. Np. w Liczb 18:19 czytamy: “Jest to wieczyste przymierze soli przed Panem dla ciebie i twojego potomstwa”. Przymierze soli to wieczyste przymierze. Tak jak mięso zaprawione solą mogło przetrwać długo tak samo przymierze soli wskazywało nie na krótkotrwałą umowę, ale na coś trwałego. Ale sól wiąże się także z zagładą.W Sędziów 9:45 czytamy: “Następnie nacierał Abimelech na miasto przez cały ten dzień, zdobył miasto a lud, który był w nim, wybił do nogi, miasto zrównał z ziemią i posypał miejsce to solą”. Nie był to wynalazek Izraelitów. Tak podobno mieli zrobić także Rzymianie po zniszczeniu Kartaginy. Historycy się spierają czy tak rzeczywiście było. Przypomnę może, że sól była droga. Rozsypanie soli na większym terenie było dość kosztowne, ale oczywiście było możliwe.W Starym Testamencie występuje hebrajskie słowo melah, a w Nowym Testamencie greckie słowo halas. W Izraelu używano czystej soli sprowadzanej przez Fenicjan, ale używano też miejscowej soli, która była pełna zanieczyszczeń. Soli używano jako przyprawy pokarmu, ale także do konserwowania np. mięsa. Używano jej także w celach leczniczych, np. nacierano nią noworodki po narodzinach. Sól była droga i w niektórych okresach była używana jak pieniądze. W czasach Ezdrasza określenie “jeść czyjąś sól” oznaczało być na czyimś utrzymaniu. Sól pojawia się także w przenośni. Oznacza całkowitą zagładę, ale także dobre cechy sprzyjające jedności wśród chrześcijan. Do takich dobrych cech można zaliczyć np. uprzejmą mowę.Ponieważ zaś jesteśmy na utrzymaniu twego dworu i nie godzi się nam patrzeć na pohańbienie króla, przeto posłaliśmy wiadomość o tym królowihttp://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/Ksiega-Ezdrasza/4/14Aż do stu talentów srebra, stu korców pszenicy, stu baryłek wina i stu baryłek oliwy, soli zaś bez ograniczenia.http://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/Ksiega-Ezdrasza/7/22Każdą twoją ofiarę z pokarmów posolisz; żadnej twojej ofiary z pokarmów nie pozbawisz soli przymierza Boga twego. Przy każdej ofierze swojej składać będziesz i sól.http://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/3-Ksiega-Mojzeszowa/2/13A z twoim narodzeniem było tak: Gdy się narodziłaś, nie przecięto twojej pępowiny i nie obmyto cię wodą, aby cię oczyścić, nie wytarto cię solą i nie owinięto w pieluszki.http://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/Ksiega-Ezechiela/16/4Wy jesteście solą ziemi; jeśli tedy sól zwietrzeje, czymże ją nasolą? Na nic więcej już się nie przyda, tylko aby była precz wyrzucona i przez ludzi podeptana.http://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/Ewangelia-Mateusza/5/13Sól, to dobra rzecz, ale jeśli sól zwietrzeje, czymże ją przyprawicie? Miejcie sól w samych sobie i zachowujcie pokój między sobą.http://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/Ewangelia-Marka/9/50Mowa wasza niech będzie zawsze uprzejma, zaprawiona solą, abyście wiedzieli, jak macie odpowiadać każdemu.http://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/List-do-Kolosan/4/6Wszystkie dary ofiarne z obrzędu podnoszenia z rzeczy poświęconych, które synowie izraelscy składać będą Panu, oddałem tobie i twoim synom, i twoim córkom, według wieczystego prawa. Jest to wieczyste przymierze soli przed Panem dla ciebie i twojego potomstwa.http://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/4-Ksiega-Mojzeszowa/18/19Następnie nacierał Abimelech na miasto przez cały ten dzień, zdobył miasto a lud, który był w nim, wybił do nogi, miasto zrównał z ziemią i posypał miejsce to solą.http://biblia-online.pl/Biblia/Warszawska/Ksiega-Sedziow/9/45

This episode is part of our, 'Stewarding the Awakening' series, discussing key truths that Christians need to understand in anticipation of the coming moves of God. Today, Bunni is joined by the Honorable Jason Rapert, a former State Senator from Arkansas, founder of the National Association of Christian Lawmakers (NACL), and an ordained minister of the Gospel. In this conversation, Bunni and Jason discuss the importance of meditating on God's Word during of a move of God, "dry" seasons, and service in ministry and government. Jason shares his story of walking with God in government, and why he has built a nationwide association for Christian lawmakers. This conversation brings the top of stewarding an awakening full circle.Learn more about NACL: https://christianlawmakers.com Support Christians Engaged's efforts to educate and empower Christians nationwide: https://christiansengaged.org/donate⁠⁠ Conversations with Christians Engaged | Hosted by Bunni Pounds Listen, watch, and subscribe: https://christiansengaged.org/conversations-show Christians Engaged exists to awaken, educate, and empower believers in Jesus Christ to: ▪️ PRAY for our nation and elected officials regularly ▪️ VOTE in every local, state, and national election to impact our culture ▪️ ENGAGE our hearts in civic education or involvement for the well-being of our local communities and our nation Learn more: ⁠⁠https://christiansengaged.org/⁠⁠ Support our efforts: ⁠⁠https://christiansengaged.org/donate⁠⁠ Take the PLEDGE to PRAY, VOTE, & ENGAGE: ⁠⁠https://christiansengaged.org/pledge⁠

This is a recap of the top 10 posts on Hacker News on March 23rd, 2024.This podcast was generated by wondercraft.ai(00:42): Linux Crisis ToolsOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39804214&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(02:38): A Return to Blu-ray as Streaming Value EvaporatesOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39801088&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(04:29): New Aztec Codices Discovered: The Codices of San Andrés TetepilcoOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39803508&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(06:13): The man who bought Pine Bluff, Arkansas (2022)Original post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39802157&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(07:51): The Intel 8088 processor's instruction prefetch circuitry: a look insideOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39801963&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(09:53): What happens to Google Maps when tectonic plates move? (2020)Original post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39802934&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(11:37): TinySSH is a small SSH server using NaCl, TweetNaClOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39806139&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(13:33): Oxide Cloud Computer. No Cables. No Assembly. Just CloudOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39804052&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(15:06): Marimo: Interactive Fluffy BallOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39803174&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(16:28): Google will start showing AI-powered search results for users who didn't opt-inOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39800779&utm_source=wondercraft_aiThis is a third-party project, independent from HN and YC. Text and audio generated using AI, by wondercraft.ai. Create your own studio quality podcast with text as the only input in seconds at app.wondercraft.ai. Issues or feedback? We'd love to hear from you: team@wondercraft.ai

This is a recap of the top 10 posts on Hacker News on March 24th, 2024.This podcast was generated by wondercraft.ai(00:37): Monolith – CLI tool for saving complete web pages as a single HTML fileOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39810378&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(02:20): TinySSH is a small SSH server using NaCl, TweetNaClOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39806139&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(04:23): Aegis v3.0 – a free, secure and open source 2FA app for AndroidOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39808921&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(06:03): What Happens When a Fifteen Year Old Pumps and Dumps with a Net Profit of $800k? (2002)Original post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39807967&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(08:06): China blocks use of Intel and AMD chips in government computers: ReportOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39808664&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(09:49): 'Super memory': Why Emily Nash is sharing her brain with scienceOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39807759&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(11:34): D2 PlaygroundOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39805529&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(13:25): The ü/ü ConundrumOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39808357&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(15:07): Lezer: A parsing system for CodeMirror, inspired by Tree-sitterOriginal post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39805591&utm_source=wondercraft_ai(16:42): C++ left arrow operator (2016)Original post: https://news.ycombinator.com/item?id=39808616&utm_source=wondercraft_aiThis is a third-party project, independent from HN and YC. Text and audio generated using AI, by wondercraft.ai. Create your own studio quality podcast with text as the only input in seconds at app.wondercraft.ai. Issues or feedback? We'd love to hear from you: team@wondercraft.ai

00:00:00 Intro - Playoffs incoming, a sprinkle of drama 00:20:30 Gambirino's take: shifting from a live patch to a fixed patch for Playoffs will test the teams 00:37:40 icebreaker's take: from a product/hype perspective, 100T is the best team to send to MSI 00:51:22 Human Boy YesYes's take: DIG and TL have better shots at MSI than NRG and C9 01:07:40 Skizzle's take: C9 can't beat 100T if they maintain their 0-3 superweek form 01:19:55 deeeep space's take: DL's comments on Dodo are an example of where esports seriously needs to improve in PR and comms 01:43:25 NoReason asks: What does FLY look like without their NACL team? 01:52:51 muzzvein's take: River or Quid MVP, but Inspired and Jojo 1st Team All-Pro 02:06:24 Outro

Welcome back to Talking Pools, the podcast where we dive deep into all things pool-related. In today's episode, our host Lee is joined by her knowledgeable cohosts Peter and Shane as they explore the intricacies of testing for essential elements in pool water. Drawing from her recent conversation with her representative at Lamotte Company Australia, Lee shares valuable insights into the importance of testing for magnesium, salt, sodium, and total dissolved solids in pool water.As they delve into the topic, Peter and Shane offer their expertise, discussing the significance of maintaining optimal levels of these elements for water balance and overall pool health. Together, they uncover the nuances of each test, shedding light on the implications of their findings for pool maintenance and ensuring a safe and enjoyable swimming experience. Tune in as Lee, Peter, and Shane unravel the complexities of water testing and empower pool owners with the knowledge needed to keep their pools pristine and inviting. Support the showThank you so much for listening! You can find us on social media: Facebook Instagram Tik Tok Email us: talkingpools@gmail.com

“Don't shortcut boiler safety. Do it once, do it right, and don't put your life or someone else's life at risk.” - Barry Higgins Happy days are here again! Dive deeper into the realm of steam boilers with Part 2 of our exclusive interview with the brilliant Barry Higgins from AquaChem. If you enjoyed last Friday's episode, get ready for an even more profound exploration into the intricacies of boiler management. In this episode, Barry takes us on a journey through advanced topics crucial for every water treater and industry enthusiast. Discover the significance of pH management, from its intricate relation to alkalinity to the cautionary notes on caustic demand above pH 11. Barry emphasizes the importance of precise pH meter calibration, advocating for separate probes in high pH ranges and the use of single-use cells for calibration. Explore the nuances of the blowdown system as Barry stresses the effectiveness of short, pulsating blowdowns for optimal sludge removal. Uncover the distinctions between bottom and top blowdowns and the potential pitfalls of leaving the blowdown open for extended periods. Safety measures take center stage as Barry shares a personal account, highlighting the critical importance of regular checks on low and high-level probes, weekly boiler checks, and alarm tests. Water level monitoring becomes a fascinating topic, discussing variations due to steam density, the significance of steady levels, and the importance of checking sight glasses for signs of corrosion. Barry wraps it up with insights into boiler water sampling, offering guidance on ideal sampling locations and considerations when a sample cooler is unavailable. Join host Trace Blackmore as he continues his conversation with Barry Higgins, unraveling advanced boiler checks and sharing invaluable wisdom. Get ready for a knowledge-packed episode that elevates your expertise in industrial water treatment. Happy days, indeed!   Timestamps 01:00 - Trace Blackmore reminds you to share your water resources with others 03:40 -  Upcoming Events for Water Treatment Professionals  08:30 - Interview with Barry Higgins, Boilers Part 2 34:30 - Lightning round questions 40:00 - Closing thoughts with Trace 48:15 - Drop by Drop With James McDonald    Quotes “Do it once, do it right, and don't put your life or someone else's life at risk. It's not worth your life. Don't shortcut boiler safety. Get the steam properly in one hour, not two minutes.” - Barry Higgins “You have to check all your levels and check all your probes and make sure all these alarms are working.” - Barry Higgins “Jump in, you'll love working with water. If you like to solve problems this is a job for life. You will never have two days that are exactly the same.” - Barry Higgins “I'm a water treater, I'm not a Magician.” - Barry Higgins  “Advice for water treaters on day one: Be bold. Make hard decisions that come your way, don't be scared of them. It's gonna be a roller coaster. It's gonna be up. It's gonna be down, but just go with the flow and learn. If you get a knock get back up again and and learn learn from why you failed and just keep going” - Barry Higgins    Connect with Barry Higgins Phone: +353 87 987 8606 Email: bhiggins@aquachem.ie Website: www.aquachem.ie  LinkedIn: in/barry-higgins-bagrsc-59030225 company/aquachem-dac Read or Download Barry Higgins' Press Release HERE   Links Mentioned Ep 340 Alkalinity and pH Ep 281 The One About The Power of Kindness with Kathleen Edelman Ep 117 The One With Temperament Expert, Kathleen Edelman Ep 179 Another One that Teaches Us to Communicate Better with Others Robert Boyle, Boyle's Law The Rising Tide Mastermind AWT (Association of Water Technologies)   Books Mentioned Drive by Daniel Pink Traction by Gino Wickman I Said This, You Heard That by Kathleen Edelman I Said This, You Heard That, Workbook by Kathleen Edelman I Said This, You Heard That, Workbook, 2nd Edition by Kathleen Edelman Adults Guide to Kids Wiring by Kathleen Edelman Talking To Strangers by Michael Harding   Drop By Drop with James  In today's episode, we are going to talk about one of water's absolutely amazing properties. We are going to talk about hydrogen bonding, one of my favorite types of bonding in the atomic world. Yeah, I'm weird that way.    Water is H2O or two hydrogen atoms and one oxygen atom. The two hydrogen atoms are not stuck to each other but are stuck to the oxygen atom instead. It's HOW they are stuck to the oxygen atom that makes all the difference in the universe! They are NOT stuck directly across from each other on the oxygen atom at 180 degrees like the buns on Princess Leia's hair. No buddy. That would have been disastrous for life as we know it!  We would have had no hope.    Instead, they are stuck at an angle; at approximately a 104.5 degree angle. Think Mickey Mouse with his two ears representing the two hydrogen atoms and his head the oxygen atom. THAT is water. This kink of an angle leads to a very important superpower. Because the hydrogen atoms are small and only have 1 measly electron, they're easy to push around and take their electrons. The much bigger oxygen atom only needs 2 more electrons to fill its outer shell and be in a state of nirvana, and it gets these from the two hydrogen atoms. Because the water molecule looks like Mickey Mouse with the hydrogen atoms more on one side of the molecule than the other, you end up with a partial positive charge on the more hydrogen side and a partial negative charge on the more oxygen side.  We've all heard that opposites attract, and that's true in the world of chemistry as well. The partially positive side of one water molecule is attracted to the partially negative side of another water molecule, making water “sticky.” This, my friends, is called hydrogen bonding. It doesn't just end with water molecules sticking to each other, though. Water molecules will also be attracted to other positively and negatively charged ions, too. For example, this explains why table salt or NaCl dissolves so easily in water. The positive sodium ions are attracted to the partially negative oxygen side of the water molecule while the negative chloride ions are attracted to the partially positive hydrogen side.  Hydrogen bonding leads to all kinds of unique properties of water. Water is a liquid at room temperature. That may sound like a “duh” comment, but when one considers that other molecules of similar or heavier weights are gasses at room temperature, such as methane, propane, and butane, it suddenly seems a little more amazing.    Water has a high heat capacity, meaning it takes more heat to raise the temperature of water and especially to make it change phases from solid to liquid to gas. We use this property every day in industrial water applications with boilers, cooling towers, etc., and it's all thanks to hydrogen bonding.  There are more examples, but it should suffice to say that hydrogen bonding is one of water's primary super powers that influences our industrial water lives in so many ways every second of every minute of every day.    2024 Events for Water Professionals Check out our Scaling UP! H2O Events Calendar where we've listed every event Water Treaters should be aware of by clicking HERE or using the dropdown menu.  

Today we discuss the 1-1 draw against Nashville and then preview the upcoming Fake Salt Lake game.

OutlineChapter 14- Hypovolemic States- Etiology - True volume depletion occurs when fluid is lost from from the extracellular fluid at a rate exceeding intake - Can come the GI tract - Lungs - Urine - Sequestration in the body in a “third space” that is not in equilibrium with the extracellular fluid. - When losses occur two responses ameliorate them - Our intake of Na and fluid is way above basal needs - This is not the case with anorexia or vomiting - The kidney responds by minimizing further urinary losses - This adaptive response is why diuretics do not cause progressive volume depletion - Initial volume loss stimulates RAAS, and possibly other compensatory mechanisms, resulting increased proximal and collecting tubule Na reabsorption. - This balances the diuretic effect resulting in a new steady state in 1-2weeks - New steady state means Na in = Na out - GI Losses - Stomach, pancreas, GB, and intestines secretes 3-6 liters a day. - Almost all is reabsorbed with only loss of 100-200 ml in stool a day - Volume depletion can result from surgical drainage or failure of reabsorption - Acid base disturbances with GI losses - Stomach losses cause metabolic alkalosis - Intestinal, pancreatic and biliary secretions are alkalotic so losing them causes metabolic acidosis - Fistulas, laxative abuse, diarrhea, ostomies, tube drainage - High content of potassium so associated with hypokalemia - [This is a mistake for stomach losses] - Bleeding from the GI tract can also cause volume depletion - No electrolyte disorders from this unless lactic acidosis - Renal losses - 130-180 liters filtered every day - 98-99% reabsorbed - Urine output of 1-2 liters - A small 1-2% decrease in reabsorption can lead to 2-4 liter increase in Na and Water excretion - 4 liters of urine output is the goal of therapeutic diuresis which means a reduction of fluid reabsorption of only 2% - Diuretics - Osmotic diuretics - Severe hyperglycemia can contribute to a fluid deficit of 8-10 Iiters - CKD with GFR < 25 are poor Na conservers - Obligate sodium losses of 10 to 40 mEq/day - Normal people can reduce obligate Na losses down to 5 mEq/day - Usually not a problem because most people eat way more than 10-40 mEq of Na a day. - Salt wasting nephropathies - Water losses of 2 liters a day - 100 mEq of Na a day - Tubular and interstitial diseases - Medullary cystic kidney - Mechanism - Increased urea can be an osmotic diuretic - Damage to tubular epithelium can make it aldo resistant - Inability to shut off natriuretic hormone (ANP?) - The decreased nephro number means they need to be able to decrease sodium reabsorption per nephron. This may not be able to be shut down acutely. - Experiment, salt wasters can stay in balance if sodium intake is slowly decreased. (Think weeks) - Talks about post obstruction diuresis - Says it is usually appropriate rather than inappropriate physiology. - Usually catch up solute and water clearance after releasing obstruction - Recommends 50-75/hr of half normal saline - Talks briefly about DI - Skin and respiratory losses - 700-1000 ml of water lost daily by evaporation, insensible losses (not sweat) - Can rise to 1-2 liters per hour in dry hot climate - 30-50 mEq/L Na - Thirst is primary compensation for this - Sweat sodium losses can result in hypovolemia - Burns and exudative skin losses changes the nature of fluid losses resulting in fluid losses more similar to plasma with a variable amount of protein - Bronchorrhea - Sequestration into a third space - Volume Deficiency produced by the loss of interstitial and intravascular fluid into a third space that is not in equilibrium with the extracellular fluid. - Hip fracture 1500-2000 into tissues adjacent to fxr - Intestinal obstruction, severe pancreatitis, crush injury, bleeding, peritonitis, obstruction of a major venous system - Difference between 3rd space and cirrhosis ascities - Rate of accumulation, if the rate is slow enough there is time for renal sodium and water compensation to maintain balance. - So cirrhotics get edema from salt retension and do not act as hypovolemia - Hemodynamic response to volume depletion - Initial volume deficit reduced venous return to heart - Detected by cardiopulmonary receptors in atria and pulmonary veins leading to sympathetic vasoconstriction in skin and skeletal muscle. - More marked depletion will result in decreased cardiac output and decrease in BP - This drop in BP is now detected by carotid and aortic arch baroreceptors resulting in splanchnic and renal circulation vasoconstriction - This maintains cardiac and cerebral circulation - Returns BP toward normal - Increase in BP due to increased venous return - Increased cardiac contractility and heart rate - Increased vascular resistance - Sympathetic tone - Renin leading to Ang2 - These can compensate for 500 ml of blood loss (10%) - Unless there is autonomic dysfunction - With 16-25% loss this will not compensate for BP when patient upright - Postural dizziness - Symptoms - Three sets of symptoms can occur in hypovolemic patients - Those related to the manner in which the fluid loss occurs - Vomiting - Diarrhea - Polyuria - Those due to volume depletion - Those due to the electrode and acid base disorders that can accompany volume depletion - The symptoms of volume depletion are primarily related to the decrease in tissue perfusion - Early symptoms - Lassitude - Fatiguability - Thirst - Muscle cramps - Postural dizziness - As it gets more severe - Abdominal pain - Chest pain - Lethargy - Confusion - Symptomatic hypovolemia is most common with isosmotic Na and water depletion - In contrast pure water loss, causes hypernatremia, which results in movement of water from the intracellular compartment to the extracellular compartment, so that 2/3s of volume loss comes from the intracellular compartment, which minimizes the decrease in perfusion - Electrolyte disorders and symptoms - Muscle weakness from hypokalemia - Polyuria/poly dips is from hyperglycemia and hypokalemia - Lethargy, confusion, Seizures, coma from hyponatremia, hypernatremia, hyperglycemia - Extreme salt craving is unique to adrenal insufficiency - Eating salt off hands ref 18 - Evaluation of the hypovolemic patient - Know that if the losses are insensible then the sodium should rise - Volume depletion refers to extracellular volume depletion of any cause, while dehydration refers to the presence of hypernatremia due to pure water loss. Such patients are also hypovolemic. - Physical exam is insensitive and nonspecific - Finding most sensitive and specific finding for bleeding is postural changes in blood pressure - I don't find this very specific at all! - Recommends laboratory confirmation regardless of physical exam - Skin and mucous membranes - Should return too shape quickly - Elastic property is called Turgur - Not reliable is patients older than 55 to 60 - Dry axilla - Dry mucus membranes - Dark skin in Addison's disease Frim increased ACTH - Arterial BP - As volume goes down so does arterial BP - Marked fluid loss leads to quiet korotkoff signs - Interpret BP in terms of the patients “normal BP” - Venous pressure - Best done by looking at the JVP - Right atrial and left atrial pressure - LV EDP is RAP + 5 mmHg - Be careful if valvular disease, right heart failure, cor pulmonare, - Figure 14-2 - Shock - 30% blood loss - Lab Data - Urine Na concentration - Should be less than 25 mmol/L, can go as low as 1 mmol/L - Metabolic alkalosis can throw this off - Look to the urine chloride - Figure 14-3 - Renal artery stenosis can throw this off - FENa - Mentions that it doesn't work so well at high GFR - Urine osmolality - Indicates ADH - Volume depletion often associated with urine osm > 450 - Impaired by - Renal disease - Osmotic diuretic - Diuretics - DI - Mentions that severe volume depletion and hypokalemia impairs urea retension in renal medulla - Points out that isotonic urine does not rule out hypovolemia - Mentions specific gravity - BUN and Cr concentration - Normal ratio is 10:1 - Volume depletion this goes to 20:1 - Serum Na - Talks about diarrhea - Difference between secretory diarrhea which is isotonic and just causes hypovolemia - And osmotic which results in a lower electrolyte content and development of hypernatremia - Talks about hyperglycemia - Also can cause the sodium to rise from the low electrolyte content of the urine - But the pseudohyponatraemia can protect against this - Plasma potassium - Treatment - Both oral and IV treatment can be used for volume replacement - The goal of therapy are to restore normovolemia - And to correct associated acid-base and electrolyte disorders - Oral Therapy - Usually can be accomplished with increased water and dietary sodium - May use salt tablets - Glucose often added to resuscitation fluids - Provides calories - Promotes intestinal Na reabsorption since there is coupled Na and Glucose similar to that seen in the proximal tubule - Rice based solutions provide more calories and amino acids which also promote sodium reabsorption - 80g/L of glucose with rice vs 20 g/L with glucose alone - IV therapy - Dextrose solutions - Physiologically equivalent to water - For correcting hypernatremia - For covering insensible losses - Watch for hyperglycemia - Footnote warns against giving sterile water - Saline solutions - Most hypovolemic patients have a water and a sodium deficit - Isotonic saline has a Na concentration of 154, similar to that of plasma see page 000 - Half-isotonic saline is equivalent to 550 ml of isotonic saline and 500 of free water. Is that a typo? - 3% is a liter of hypertonic saline and 359 extra mEq of Na - Dextrose in saline solutions - Give a small amount of calories, otherwise useless - Alkalinizing solutions - 7.5% NaHCO3 in 50 ml ampules 44 mEq of Na and 44 mEq of HCO3 - Treat metabolic acidosis or hyperkalemia - Why 44 mEq and not 50? - Do not give with calcium will form insoluble CaCO3 - Polyionic solutions - Ringers contains physiologic K and Ca - Lactated Ringers adds 28 mEq of lactate - Spreads myth of LR in lactic acidosis - Potassium chloride - Available as 2 mEq/mL - Do not give as a bolus as it can cause fatal hyperkalemia - Plasma volume expanders - Albumin, polygelastins, hetastarch are restricted to vascular space - 25% albumin can pull fluid into the vascular space - 25% albumin is an albumin concentration of 25 g/dL compare to physiologic 4 g/dL - Says it pulls in several times its own volume - 5% albumin is like giving plasma - Blood - Which fluid? - Look at osmolality, give hypotonic fluids to people with high osmolality - Must include all electrolytes - Example of adding 77 mEw of K to 0.45 NS and making it isotonic - DI can be replaced with dextrose solutions, pure water deficit - Case 14-3 - Diarrhea with metabolic acidosis - He chooses 0.25 NS with 44 mEq of NaCl and 44 NaHCO3 - Talks about blood and trauma - Some studies advocate delaying saline until penetrating trauma is corrected APR about to. Keep BP low to prevent bleeding. Worry about diluting coagulation factors - Only do this if the OR is quickly available - Volume deficit - Provides formula for water deficit and sodium deficit - Do not work for isotonic losses - Provides a table to adjust fluid loss based on changes in Hgb or HCTZ - Says difficult to estimate it from lab findings and calculations - Follow serial exams - Serial urine Na - Rate of replacement - Goal is not to give fluid but to induce a positive balance - Suggests 50-100 ml/hr over what is coming out of the body - Urine - Insensibles 30-50 - Diarrhea - Tubes - Hypovolemic shock - Due to bleeding - Sequesting in third space - Why shock? - Progressive volume depletion leads to - Increased sympathetic NS - Increased Ang 2 - Initially this maintains BP, cerebral and coronary circulation - But this can decrease splanchnic, renal and mucocutaneous perfusion - This leads to lactic acicosis - This can result in intracellular contents moving into circulation or translocation of gut bacteria - Early therapy to prevent irreversible shock - In dogs need to treat with in 2 hours - In humans may need more than 4 hours - Irreversible shock associated with pooling of blood in capillaries - Vasomotor paralysis - Hyperpolarization of vascular smooth muscle as depletion of ATP allows K to flowing out from K channels opening. Ca flows out too leading to vasodilation - Glyburide is an K-ATP channel inhibitor (?) caused increased vasoconstriction and BP - Pluggin of capillaries by neutrophils - Cerebral ischemia - Increased NO generation - Which Fluids? - Think of what is lost and replace that. - Bleeding think blood - Raise the hct but not above 35 - Acellular blood substitutes, looked bad at the time of this writing - Di aspirin cross linked hemoglobin had increased 2 and 28 day mortality vs saline - Colloids sound great but they fail in RCTs - SAFE - FEAST - Points out that saline replaces the interstitial losses why do we think those losses are unimportant - Pulmonary circulation issue - Pulmonary circulation is more leaky so oncotic pressure less effective there - Talks about the lungs be naturally protected from pulmonary edema - Rate of fluid - 1-2 liters in first hour - Suggests CVP or capillary wedge pressure during resuscitation - No refs in the rate of fluid administration section - Lactic acidosis - Points out that HCO can impair lactate utilization - Also states that arterial pH does not point out what is happening at the tissue level. Suggests mixed-venous sample.ReferencesJCI - Phenotypic and pharmacogenetic evaluation of patients with thiazide-induced hyponatremia and a nice review of this topic: Altered Prostaglandin Signaling as a Cause of Thiazide-Induced HyponatremiaThe electrolyte concentration of human gastric secretion. https://physoc.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1113/expphysiol.1960.sp001428A classic by Danovitch and Bricker: Reversibility of the “Salt-Losing” Tendency of Chronic Renal Failure | NEJMOsmotic Diuresis Due to Retained Urea after Release of Obstructive Uropathy | NEJMIs This Patient Hypovolemic? | Cardiology | JAMAAnd by the same author, a textbook: Steven McGee. 5th edition. Evidence-Based Physical Diagnosis Elsevier Philadelphia 2022. ISBN-13: 978-0323754835The clinical course and pathophysiological investigation of adolescent gestational diabetes insipidus: a case report | BMC Endocrine DisordersSensitivity and specificity of clinical signs for assessment of dehydration in endurance athletes | British Journal of Sports MedicineDiagnostic performance of serum blood urea nitrogen to creatinine ratio for distinguishing prerenal from intrinsic acute kidney injury in the emergency department | BMC NephrologyThe meaning of the blood urea nitrogen/creatinine ratio in acute kidney injury - PMCLanguage guiding therapy: the case for dehydration vs volume depletion https://www.acpjournals.org/doi/10.7326/0003-4819-127-9-199711010-00020?url_ver=Z39.88-2003&rfr_id=ori:rid:crossref.org&rfr_dat=cr_pub%20%200pubmedValidation of a noninvasive monitor to continuously trend individual responses to hypovolemiaReferences for Anna's voice of God on Third Spacing : Shires Paper from 1964 (The ‘third space' – fact or fiction? )References for melanie's VOG:1. Appraising the Preclinical Evidence of the Role of the Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System in Antenatal Programming of Maternal and Offspring Cardiovascular Health Across the Life Course: Moving the Field Forward: A Scientific Statement From the American Heart Association2. excellent review of RAAS in pregnancy: The enigma of continual plasma volume expansion in pregnancy: critical role of the renin-angiotensin-aldosterone systemhttps://journals-physiology-org.ezp-prod1.hul.harvard.edu/doi/full/10.1152/ajprenal.00129.20163. 10.1172/JCI107462- classic study in JCI of AngII responsiveness during pregnancy4. William's Obstetrics 26th edition!5. Feto-maternal osmotic balance at term. A prospective observational study

The Casuals Discuss the November 2023 Film Saltburn

00:00:00 Intro 00:15:04 Franz asks Mark how LCS can match energy of LEC games ie. KC vs. MAD 00:30:30 Farmerginge wants to discuss having pro play take place on the live patch 00:39:50 murderino's take: no NA player should qualify for the new Hall of Legends 00:53:25 Alienware break 00:56:30 Wizery asks Mark for examples of past content that shined or missed the mark 01:12:00 gil asks Mark how his career so far is informing his new role 01:25:40 beans's take: Riot banning live coverage of NACL qualifiers is disrespectful to all parties involved 01:37:00 ezekiel asks Mark about the possibility of LCS vs LEC or other regions 01:41:40 Urdiales's take: LCS fans should focus on healthy ecosystem over international success 01:51:00 Outro

The National Association of Christian Lawmakers is devoted to promoting a right wing Christian nationalist vision in right-wing statehouses across the land. Working with the powerful Christianist law firm Alliance Defending Freedom, the NACL is waging what some have called “a spiritual civil war.” Who's the enemy? Trans kids, book authors and librarians, anyone who's not a fundamentalist Christian born in these United States, etc. Who's a friend? House Speaker Mike Johnson, who the NACL just awarded their “American Patriot Award for Christian Honor and Courage.” I'll talk with BJC general counsel and associate executive director Holly Hollman about ways to identify and resist the erosion of American democracy at the hands of a theocratic minority. And Interfaith Alliance Senior Director of Policy and Advocacy Darcy Hirsh will be here to highlight the steps that are needed to push back against this growing threat.

Check out Alienware's deals: http://alienware.com/travis https://www.dell.com/en-us/shop/deals/pc-gaming-deals Help protect 30% of the ocean by 2030: https://bit.ly/3ucafsV Follow Travis on Twitch: http://twitch.tv/travisgafford Support: https://linktr.ee/tgisupport 00:00:00 Intro 00:20:25 chief's take: the grassroots part of LCS is what made it great 00:33:45 TL Steve calls in to talk 8 teams and offseason 01:01:05 Alienware deals! 01:05:25 hexblast's take: the biggest loss from the two downsized teams is Inero and Kelsey Moser 01:10:05 lazerfruit's take: Riot should've given the two empty slots to top NACL teams 01:17:57 sogeking's take: Free agency is too lax, needs explicit rules to protect players 01:29:33 Only One break! See link in description 01:33:19 shake n bake's take: Needham downplayed how much the loss of 2 teams hurts the LCS 01:48:17 justin's take: the 2022-23 T1 roster is the strongest ever in LoL 02:00:24 treethan's take: jojo should've gone to Liiv SANDBOX 02:05:55 Outro

Today's show refers to this writing:    Religion News Service ran a story last week on the National Association of Christian Lawmakers, and their efforts to pass laws that (they claim) are based on Christianity.   Specifically (from their website), they are about “abolishing abortion,” “restoring marriage between one man and one woman,” and (an often forgotten part of the Sermon on the Mount), “promoting universal school choice.”   The story attributes the following criticism of the NACL to Holly Hollman, general counsel of the Baptist Joint Committee for Religious Liberty: that making laws “shaped by a legislator's view of Christian values can be harmful for both the government and people of faith because it erodes the separation of church and state.”   There's a lot to unpack here, with implications for everyone—Christian or not, religious or not—who cares about the future of American democracy.   The key phrase in Hollman's criticism is “the separation of church and state.” What does this phrase mean today? In what ways has it become a reflexive and feckless fallback position for well-intentioned religious people who are politically liberal? And in what circumstances is it indispensable?   So permit me, then, as a thought experiment, to defend the National Association of Christian Lawmakers—not for their specific causes, nor for their method. No. Let me defend the NACL for what they are trying to do, understood in the most generous way possible: they are trying to bring a moral vision into our shared common life, and reconnect that vision to the practice of making laws.   That's a good thing. A healthy society needs to ask questions about, and have respectful debates about, the good towards which policies and practices are aimed. And a healthy politics is connected to a vision of the common good, or else you get what you have now—a politics of getting and keeping power for personal gain, bought by powerful moneyed interests.   Here's where the imprecision of the phrase “separation of church and state” becomes problematic.    If Hollman is playing the “separation of church and state” card in order to trump any religious voice's articulation of values in public conversations, including conversations about public policy and the making of laws, then she (along with many secularists who believe religion should be just a private activity) are making 2 mistakes: the first is constitutional; the second is strategic.   Let me take the constitutional mistake first. The separation of church and state is a Jeffersonian phrase that refers to the First Amendment. The First Amendment prohibits the  establishment of a state religion, and prohibits the government from restricting individuals' free exercise of religion.   Neither of these prohibitions can be construed to mean that religious voices are disqualified from articulating values or visions of human flourishing that rise from religious commitments, or advocating for those values as matters of policy. There's nothing about articulation or advocacy per se, that establishes a state religion or prohibits an individual's free exercise of religion. A particular bill that NACL supports that gets signed into law may violate the First Amendment, but that's a separate question.    The second, strategic mistake Hollman makes in playing the “separation of church and state” card is not unique to her. In fact, it is common to most religious people who are politically left of center. It's a failure to engage with substantive moral and theological critiques of liberal democracy, including laws that rise from liberal democracy's commitment to equality and individual rights.    Failing to engage these moral and theological critiques is a strategic mistake because it (to use the language of battle) cedes the moral field to the critics. In short, where there needs to be an articulation of moral good in the public square by religious people who are politically left of center, those people retreat behind the wall of “separation  of church and state.” The needed moral and theological articulation is never made. Silence ensues, and the loud voices win.   Let me be more concrete. NACL wants to undo Obergefell. Instead of criticizing NACL's advocacy for reversing Obergefell as violating the separation of church and state, what religious people (and non-religious people, for that matter) ought to do, is articulate the moral and theological good that the 14th Amendment's equal protection clause (on which Obergefell was decided) guards.   Or again, abortion. Instead of criticizing NACL as violating the separation of church and state by seeking to abolish abortion, what religious people ought to do, is articulate how “choice” is a moral and theological good in this humanly complex issue.   The “separation of church and state” was never meant to disconnect moral philosophy and moral theology from public questions.   There are reasonable people, of good will, who have substantive critiques of liberal (understood as a political philosophy, not a political party) democracy, and (some of) its laws. The National Association of Christian Lawmakers may or may not be reasonable, or of good will. Either way, to refrain from engaging the moral and humanistic theological dimensions of our shared common life, in the name of the “separation of church and state,” leaves a void that such voices then fill.    And leaves the positive goods of liberal democracy unspoken.    Chris Owen   Chris is the Founder and Co-Associate Director of the S-1 Project, dedicated to the promotion of moral and humanistic theological reflection on our shared common life 

Contributor: Travis Barlock MD Education Pearls: The Cushing Reflex is a physiologic response to elevated intracranial pressure (ICP) Cushing's Triad: widened pulse pressure (systolic hypertension), bradycardia, and irregular respirations Increased ICP results from systolic hypertension, which causes a parasympathetic reflex to drop heart rate, leading to Cushing's Triad.  The Cushing Reflex is a sign of herniation Treatment includes: Hypertonic saline is comparable to mannitol and preferable in patients with hypovolemia or hyponatremia Give 250-500mL of 3%NaCl 20% Mannitol - given at a dose of 0.5-1 g/kg Each additional dose of 0.1 g/kg reduces ICP by 1 mm Hg 23.4% hypertonic saline is more often given in the neuro ICU 8.4% Sodium bicarbonate lowers ICP for 6 hours without causing metabolic acidosis Non-pharmacological interventions: Raise the head of the bed to 30-45 degrees Remove the c-collar to improve blood flow to the head Hyperventilation induces hypocapnia, which will vasoconsrict the cerebral arterioles You hyperventilate on the way to the OR. Otherwise, maintain normocapnia. References Alnemari AM, Krafcik BM, Mansour TR, Gaudin D. A Comparison of Pharmacologic Therapeutic Agents Used for the Reduction of Intracranial Pressure After Traumatic Brain Injury. World Neurosurg. 2017;106:509-528. doi:10.1016/j.wneu.2017.07.009 Bourdeaux C, Brown J. Sodium bicarbonate lowers intracranial pressure after traumatic brain injury. Neurocrit Care. 2010;13(1):24-28. doi:10.1007/s12028-010-9368-8 Dinallo S, Waseem M. Cushing Reflex. [Updated 2023 Mar 20]. In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2023 Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK549801/ Godoy DA, Seifi A, Garza D, Lubillo-Montenegro S, Murillo-Cabezas F. Hyperventilation therapy for control of posttraumatic intracranial hypertension. Front Neurol. 2017;8(JUL):1-13. doi:10.3389/fneur.2017.00250 Summarized by Jorge Chalit, OMSII | Edited by Meg Joyce & Jorge Chalit, OMSII  

Welcome to The Nonlinear Library, where we use Text-to-Speech software to convert the best writing from the Rationalist and EA communities into audio. This is: marine cloud brightening, published by bhauth on August 10, 2023 on LessWrong. Various geoengineering schemes have been proposed to mitigate global warming. Some prominent schemes I don't like are accelerated weathering and stratospheric aerosol injection. I think marine cloud brightening is a better proposal than those. accelerated weathering To potentially absorb 1 ton of CO2, at least 2.3 tons of pure Mg silicate would be needed. Realistically speaking, "ore" won't be pure or react completely, so 3:1 is a more realistic ratio. Based on the cost of gravel and the availability of olivine deposits, digging up and crushing olivine to gravel would be $20-30/ton. Over a reasonable period of time, olivine only reacts with CO2 in a thin layer on the surface. To get good reaction, it must be ground very finely, which costs money. I expect that to cost >$30/ton for a 4:1 olivine:CO2 ratio. Some trucking and loading is inevitable, and olivine must be spread somewhere. I expect that to cost >$5/ton. 4($25 + $30 + $5) = $240/ton CO2. That is much too expensive. If that cost was closer to viability I'd have spent more effort estimating it, but it's not worthwhile. aerosol injection Stratospheric aerosol injection proposals typically involve using special aircraft to spray SO2 at high altitudes. That oxidizes to sulfuric acid which forms small water droplets which reflect some light. Here are the reasons I don't like it very much: At high altitude, SO2 and sulfate anions in droplets deplete the ozone layer. Particle coalescence at relatively high concentrations is still unclear, and I believe it's greater than estimates used by proponents of stratospheric aerosol injection. The requisite sulfur release that proponents estimate would be comparable to current human sulfur emissions, which causes some issues such as slight acidification. The high-altitude particles would make the sky slightly white and hazy. The effects on regional weather are unclear and potentially negative. Unexpected types of negative effects are possible. If negative effects are worse than expected, it can't be reversed. Implementation would require development of a new type of aircraft, capable of efficiently carrying liquids to much higher altitudes than most aircraft fly at. At such high altitudes, air is much thinner, which affects lift and engine requirements proportionately. Development and tooling for even more-normal aircraft is very expensive; eg the Boeing 787 cost $32B to develop. Sometimes I see people online saying "OBVIOUSLY WE SHOULD SPRAY SULFUR IN AIR RIGHT NOW!!!" I understand that culture is determined by an equilibrium between different views and people feel obligated to place their "vote" if they have a strong opinion, but these days, polls are common and easy. That being the case, someone making such comments because they read some magazine article, not being aware of the above issues or even trying to investigate details - I think that's a net negative contribution. As a more-general phenomenon, that makes discussion online harder and bothers me somewhat because I think humans can do better. marine cloud brightening Marine cloud brightening involves ships spraying salty water from towers such that small salt particles are formed and are lifted by rising air. Those salt crystals then reflect some sunlight. I like this proposal better than accelerated weathering and stratospheric aerosol injection. Wood 2021 estimated the salt emission rate needed to approximately counteract current global warming at 50e9 ~ 70e9 kg/yr. I estimate costs at $80 ~ $600 / ton NaCl distributed, for $4e9 ~ $5e10 annual cost. 40~100nm salt particles are desirable for this. Producing such small salt particles is nontrivial, and economically feasible sprayer systems for this do not currently exist. Two proposed app...

It was a tough fight, but Team Meatbag prevailed and now it's time to rub a lil NaCl in Stardaddy's wounds. Captain Mackie levels up while Augie reminds the people of Cuatlecue just who the saviors are around here. Not content to rest on their laurels, Team Meatback gears up to take on a slightly more terrestrial foe.If you enjoy the mildly unhinged antics of Stardaddy and his band of merry madpersons, be sure to click subscribe on your favorite podcast platform. New episodes hit the feed at midnight Tennessee time every Wednesday. Want even more from Team Meatbag? Check us out online at www.astronomicapodcast.com.  Here you'll find links to all of our social media plus an open invite to our Discord server. Questions, comments, or details on how exactly Connect works? Email them to astronomicapodcast@gmail.com and we'll definitely get back to you sometime this month. And finally, if you just absolutely love us and wish to provide support in a monetary manner, you can find us at patreon.com/AstronomicaPodcast. Not only will you enjoy the warm fuzzy feeling of helping us foot production costs, you'll also find a number of fantastic extra perks plus get bragging rights with all your nerdiest friends. Thanks as always for listening and we'll see ya next week! We've got a big announcement! Join us on our Patreon to gain access to a bonus monthly game using the Vaesen system Support the show

In episode 89 of the pharmaceutical calculations podcast, we will learn about applying the sodium chloride equivalent method when using a boric acid solution. The process is very similar to using the sodium chloride equivalent method when using NaCl. However, there are a few extra steps.This episode was originally broadcast as a video on our YouTube channel: www.youtube.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationseasyAdditional Resources for Practice:Pharmaceutical Calculations: 1001 Questions with Answers: https://www.rxcalculations.com/shop/uncategorized/pharmaceutical-calculations-1001-questions-answers/NAPLEX Question Bank: https://www.rxcalculations.com/shop/uncategorized/gold-membership/Join Our Social Media Community:Website: http://www.rxcalculations.comForum: https://forum.rxcalculations.com/Facebook: https://www.facebbook.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationsTwitter: https://twitter.com/RxCalculationsInstagram: https://www.instagram.com/rxcalculationsYouTube: www.youtube.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationseasyAbout RxCalculations: RxCalculations helps you master pharmaceutical calculations. We make it so you never have to worry about failing an exam or compromising patient safety because of a calculations error. RxCalculations is a leading global educational service platform focused on developing top quality pharmaceutical calculations products to help prospective pharmacists and health care professionals all over the world resolve one of the biggest challenges related to their profession.Our top quality products include affordable courses, personal consults, books, video tutorials, timed quizzes and apps designed to make you an expert in solving any pharmaceutical calculations question. We also have the largest pharmaceutical calculations online question bank which has over 1000 questions covering every important calculations topic as well as step-by-step video solutions. With all these resources at your disposal we have all you need to not only master pharmacy calculations but ace every test as well as passing your board exams.

Le fameux NaCl. Mais pas que... Car oui, le goût. Le débat existe sur la réelle propriété du sel en cuisine, est ce un exhausteur de gout ou est ce plus que ça ou moins que ça ? Aujourd'hui, on va parler en tout simplicité des différentes sortes de sel, le gros sel, la fleur de sel mais aussi des sels exotiques, le sel bleu, le sel noir, le sel rose, le sel rouge,, on va faire tous les powers rangers. Sauf qu'y a pas de de jaune. Quelle déception. Alors, première différenciation : le sel terrestre et le sel marin. La mer est salée, si vous en doutez, goutez la. Si vous évaporer l'eau de mer, il restera, entre autre, du sel. Du sel marin, facile. L'humain le récolte via des marais salants. On emprisonne l'eau de mer dans des marais rectangulaires façonné pour cet usage. L'eau s'évapore, on racle et hop, du sel. Le sel terrestre, lui est extrait des mines. On appelle ça du sel gemme, G E M M E, comme les pierres précieuses, en fait. Bien qu'il s'extrait du sol, il provient en fait de mers qui ont séchés il y a des milliers et des millions d'années et qui, par jeu de couches géologiques se sont retrouvées ensevelies. Alors, la différence entre le sel fin et le gros sel est tout simplement le broyage. Du sel fin, c'est du gros sel passé à la moulinette. Un peu comme le sucre, finalement. La fleur de sel, c'est plus technique. Il s'agit des petits grains de sel qui flottent à la surface des marais salants. On utilise tel quel juste avant de servir pour conserver son côté croquant et son gout. Ne commencez pas à saler l'eau de vos pâtes à la fleur de sel, c'est d'une stupidité sans limite. Le gros sel, ben c'est ce qu'on trouve une fois qu'on a raclé la fleur de sel.  Le sel gris contient des oligo éléments, le sel blanc est raffiné, on se rapproche plus du NaCl pur dont je parlais en début d'épisode. Hawai est le berceau des sels rouges et noirs. Ces sels sont colorés par leur environnement. Le sel noir vient de terrains volcanique et le sel rouge de terrains argileux. Le sel bleu de Perse s'extrait du sol d'Iran et du Pakistan. Il est encore plus rare et cher que beau. Le sel rose d'Himalaya, riche en oligo-éléments et dépourvu d'iode. Il y a évidemment d'autre sortes de sels remarquables mais le but était aujourd'hui de survoler. un nouvel épisode plus technique se prépare. en attendant, je vous laisse digérer tout ça et à demain. Learn more about your ad choices. Visit megaphone.fm/adchoices

Podcast that covers all things LCS + coverage of all mainstream League of Legends News Twitch: https://www.twitch.tv/clownfiestapodcast Twitters: https://twitter.com/jnt250 , https://twitter.com/bluejay_gg Discord: https://discord.gg/BksRn4HHUU Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/clownfiestapodcast Anchor: https://anchor.fm/clownfiestapodcast Spotify: https://open.spotify.com/show/45und4mMcRd4nbHSOZjD8G Grpahic Designer - Luis Email: lk@lkrico.com Portfolio: https://krico11234567890.wixsite.com/lkrico

Aidan and Colton discuss LCS drama, 1 Tricks, emails, and more on episode 591 of Leaguecast! Email us - mail@leaguecastpodcast.com   Support us - https://www.patreon.com/leaguecast  Tweet us - https://twitter.com/leaguecast   Facebook - https://www.facebook.com/Leaguecast/   Join Our Discord - https://discord.gg/leaguecast  Visit our Website - https://leaguecastpodcast.com/ Grab your EXCLUSIVE NordVPN Deal by going to nordvpn.com/leaguecast to get a Huge Discount off your NordVPN Plan + a Bonus month on top! It's completely risk free with Nord's 30 day money-back guarantee!

The US is familiar with mass labor action but this is new territory for the Esports world as the LCSPA votes to walkout and not play the LCS summer split until RIOT meets and discusses certain demands. The future of the LCS and NACL are hanging in the balance.... --- Support this podcast: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/leagueloreandmore/support

On this week's Steam Cleaners episode, Chase Wassenar and Walter "Ceades" Fedczuk kick off the show with a discussion of the latest news surrounding the NACL's disbandment. Then, Walter plays the definitely-not-a-horror-game fishing simulator Dredge while Chase loses himself in some puzzles with Murder by Numbers.

In episode 86 of the pharmaceutical calculations podcast, we'll be looking at how to use the sodium chloride equivalent method to solve an important type of isotonicity calculations question that many students get wrong.This episode was originally broadcast as a video on our YouTube channel: www.youtube.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationseasyAdditional Resources for Practice:Pharmaceutical Calculations: 1001 Questions with Answers: https://www.rxcalculations.com/shop/uncategorized/pharmaceutical-calculations-1001-questions-answers/NAPLEX Question Bank: https://www.rxcalculations.com/shop/uncategorized/gold-membership/Join Our Social Media Community:Website: http://www.rxcalculations.comForum: https://forum.rxcalculations.com/Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationsTwitter: https://twitter.com/RxCalculationsInstagram: https://www.instagram.com/rxcalculationsYouTube: www.youtube.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationseasyAbout RxCalculations: RxCalculations helps you master pharmaceutical calculations. We make it so you never have to worry about failing an exam or compromising patient safety because of a calculations error. RxCalculations is a leading global educational service platform focused on developing top quality pharmaceutical calculations products to help prospective pharmacists and health care professionals all over the world resolve one of the biggest challenges related to their profession.Our top quality products include affordable courses, personal consults, books, video tutorials, timed quizzes and apps designed to make you an expert in solving any pharmaceutical calculations question. We also have the largest pharmaceutical calculations online question bank which has over 1000 questions covering every important calculations topic as well as step-by-step video solutions. With all these resources at your disposal we have all you need to not only master pharmacy calculations but ace every test as well as passing your board exams.

Hello & Welcome back Dive Fans for another Power Rankings episode to kick off the Summer split. On the longest Dive Episode EVER, Azael, Kobe & Mark weigh in on the NACL news, the departure of longstanding LCS teams & the potential LCSPA walkout. Then when it came to the Power Rankings, the trio debates how much better did 100 Thieves REALLY get, where we see this EG team going and if the FLY change makes them a title contender. The LCS returns for the Summer split on Thursday, June 1st with Cloud9 vs. Golden Guardians for the Finals rematch at 2PM Pacific//5PM Eastern. See you then! Make sure to follow and subscribe: https://twitter.com/LCSOfficial https://www.youtube.com/lcs https://www.tiktok.com/@lcsofficial --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/the-dive-esports-podcast/message

00:00:00 Intro - Vulcan's updates, NACL discussion 00:37:20 TSM discussion 00:48:30 gordo's take: Riot needs to restrict imports 01:04:20 knightsz predicts Vulcan gets a title on FLY 01:11:30 micspam asks Vulcan what he'd say to disappointed LCS fans 01:24:06 brakthir asks why legacy NA fans should care 01:33:00 yami's take: creator orgs will make NA the worst region 01:47:49 Outro

ReferencesWe considered the complexity of the machinery to excrete ammonium in the context of research on dietary protein and how high protein intake may increase glomerular pressure and contribute to progressive renal disease (many refer to this as the “Brenner hypothesis”). Dietary protein intake and the progressive nature of kidney disease: the role of hemodynamically mediated glomerular injury in the pathogenesis of progressive glomerular sclerosis in aging, renal ablation, and intrinsic renal diseaseA trial that studied low protein and progression of CKD The Effects of Dietary Protein Restriction and Blood-Pressure Control on the Progression of Chronic Renal Disease(and famously provided data for the MDRD eGFR equation A more accurate method to estimate glomerular filtration rate from serum creatinine: a new prediction equation. Modification of Diet in Renal Disease Study GroupWe wondered about dietary recommendations in CKD. of note, this is best done in the DKD guidelines from KDIGO Executive summary of the 2020 KDIGO Diabetes Management in CKD Guideline: evidence-based advances in monitoring and treatment.Joel mentioned this study on red meat and risk of ESKD. Red Meat Intake and Risk of ESRDWe referenced the notion of a plant-based diet. This is an excellent review by Deborah Clegg and Kathleen Hill Gallant. Plant-Based Diets in CKD : Clinical Journal of the American Society of NephrologyHere's the review that Josh mentioned on how the kidney appears to sense pH Molecular mechanisms of acid-base sensing by the kidneyRemarkably, Dr. Dale Dubin put a prize in his ECG book Free Car Prize Hidden in Textbook Read the fine print: Student wins T-birdA review of the role of the kidney in DKA: Diabetic ketoacidosis: Role of the kidney in the acid-base homeostasis re-evaluatedJosh mentioned the effects of infusing large amounts of bicarbonate The effect of prolonged administration of large doses of sodium bicarbonate in man and this study on the respiratory response to a bicarbonate infusion: The Acute Effects In Man Of A Rapid Intravenous Infusion Of Hypertonic Sodium Bicarbonate Solution. Ii. Changes In Respiration And Output Of Carbon DioxideThis is the study of acute respiratory alkalosis in dogs: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC293311/?page=1And this is the study of medical students who went to the High Alpine Research Station on the Jungfraujoch in the Swiss Alps https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/nejm199105163242003Self explanatory! A group favorite! It Is Chloride Depletion Alkalosis, Not Contraction AlkalosisEffects of chloride and extracellular fluid volume on bicarbonate reabsorption along the nephron in metabolic alkalosis in the rat. Reassessment of the classical hypothesis of the pathogenesis of metabolic alkalosisA review of pendrin's role in volume homeostasis: The role of pendrin in blood pressure regulation | American Journal of Physiology-Renal PhysiologyInfusion of bicarbonate may lead to a decrease in respiratory stimulation but the shift of bicarbonate to the CSF may lag. Check out this review Neural Control of Breathing and CO2 Homeostasis and this classic paper Spinal-Fluid pH and Neurologic Symptoms in Systemic Acidosis.OutlineOutline: Chapter 11- Regulation of Acid-Base Balance- Introduction - Bicarb plus a proton in equilibrium with CO2 and water - Can be rearranged to HH - Importance of regulating pCO2 and HCO3 outside of this equation - Metabolism of carbs and fats results in the production of 15,000 mmol of CO2 per day - Metabolism of protein and other “substances” generates non-carbonic acids and bases - Mostly from sulfur containing methionine and cysteine - And cationic arginine and lysine - Hydrolysis of dietary phosphate that exists and H2PO4– - Source of base/alkali - Metabolism of an ionic amino acids - Glutamate and asparatate - Organic anions going through gluconeogenesis - Glutamate, Citrate and lactate - Net effect on a normal western diet 50-100 mEq of H+ per day - Homeostatic response to these acid-base loads has three stages: - Chemical buffering - Changes in ventilation - Changes in H+ excretion - Example of H2SO4 from oxidation of sulfur containing AA - Drop in bicarb will stimulate renal acid secretion - Nice table of normal cid-base values, arterial and venous- Great 6 bullet points of acid-base on page 328 - Kidneys must excrete 50-100 of non-carbonic acid daily - This occurs by H secretion, but mechanisms change by area of nephron - Not excreted as free H+ due to minimal urine pH being equivalent to 0.05 mmol/L - No H+ can be excreted until virtually all of th filtered bicarb is reabsorbed - Secreted H+ must bind buffers (phosphate, NH3, cr) - PH is main stimulus for H secretion, though K, aldo and volume can affect this.- Renal Hydrogen excretion - Critical to understand that loss of bicarb is like addition of hydrogen to the body - So all bicarb must be reabsorbed before dietary H load can be secreted - GFR of 125 and bicarb of 24 results in 4300 mEq of bicarb to be reabsorbed daily - Reabsorption of bicarb and secretion of H involve H secretion from tubular cells into the lumen. - Thee initial points need to be emphasized - Secreted H+ ion are generated from dissociation of H2O - Also creates OH ion - Which combine with CO2 to form HCO3 with the help of zinc containing intracellular carbonic anhydrase. - This is how the secretion of H+ which creates an OH ultimately produces HCO3 - Different mechanisms for proximal and distal acidification - NET ACID EXCRETION - Free H+ is negligible - So net H+ is TA + NH4 – HCO3 loss - Unusually equal to net H+ load, 50-100 mEq/day - Can bump up to 300 mEq/day if acid production is increased - Net acid excretion can go negative following a bicarb or citrate load - Proximal Acidification - Na-H antiporter (or exchanger) in luminal membrane - Basolateral membrane has a 3 HCO3 Na cotransporter - This is electrogenic with 3 anions going out and only one cation - The Na-H antiporter also works in the thick ascending limb of LOH - How about this, there is also a H-ATPase just like found in the intercalated cells in the proximal tubule and is responsible for about a third of H secretion - And similarly there is also. HCO3 Cl exchanger (pendrin-like) in the proximal tubule - Footnote says the Na- 3HCO3 cotransporter (which moves sodium against chemical gradient NS uses negative charge inside cell to power it) is important for sensing acid-base changes in the cell. - Distal acidification - Occurs in intercalated cells of of cortical and medullary collecting tubule - Three main characteristics - H secretion via active secretory pumps in the luminal membrane - Both H-ATPase and H-K ATPase - H- K ATPase is an exchange pump, k reabsorption - H-K exchange may be more important in hypokalemia rather than in acid-base balance - Whole paragraph on how a Na-H exchanger couldn't work because the gradient that H has to be pumped up is too big. - H-ATPase work like vasopressin with premise H-ATPase sitting on endocarditis vesicles a=which are then inserted into the membrane. Alkalosis causes them to be recycled out of the membrane. - H secretory cells do not transport Na since they have few luminal Na channels, but are assisted by the lumen negative tubule from eNaC. - Minimizes back diffusion of H+ and promotes bicarb resorption - Bicarbonate leaves the cell through HCO3-Cl exchanger which uses the low intracellular Cl concentration to power this process. - Same molecule is found on RBC where it is called band 3 protein - Figure 11-5 is interesting - Bicarbonate resorption - 90% in the first 1-22 mm of the proximal tubule (how long is the proximal tubule?) - Lots of Na-H exchangers and I handed permeability to HCO3 (permeability where?) - Last 10% happens distally mostly TAL LOH via Na-H exchange - And the last little bit int he outer medullary collecting duct. - Carbonic anhydrase and disequilibrium pH - CA plays central role in HCO3 reabsorption - After H is secreted in the proximal tubule it combines with HCO# to form carbonic acid. CA then dehydrates it to CO2 and H2O. (Step 2) - Constantly moving carbonic acid to CO2 and H2O keeps hydrogen combining with HCO3 since the product is rapidly consumed. - This can be demonstrated by the minimal fall in luminal pH - That is important so there is not a luminal gradient for H to overcome in the Na-H exchanger (this is why we need a H-ATPase later) - CA inhibitors that are limited tot he extracellular compartment can impair HCO3 reabsorption by 80%. - CA is found in S1, S2 but not S3 segment. See consequence in figure 11-6. - The disequilibrium comes from areas where there is no CA, the HH formula falls down because one of the assumptions of that formula is that H2CO3 (carbonic acid) is a transient actor, but without CA it is not and can accumulate, so the pKa is not 6.1. - Bicarbonate secretion - Type B intercalated cells - H-ATPase polarity reversed - HCO3 Cl exchanger faces the apical rather than basolateral membrane- Titratable acidity - Weak acids are filtered at the glom and act as buffers in the urine. - HPO4 has PKA of 6.8 making it ideal - Creatinine (pKa 4.97) and uric acid (pKa 5.75) also contribute - Under normal cinditions TA buffers 10-40 mEa of H per day - Does an example of HPO4(2-):H2PO4 (1-) which exists 4:1 at pH of 7.4 (glomerular filtrate) - So for 50 mEq of Phos 40 is HPO4 and 10 is H2PO4 - When pH drops to 6.8 then the ratio is 1:1 so for 50 - So the 50 mEq is 25 and 25, so this buffered an additional 15 mEq of H while the free H+ concentration increased from 40 to 160 nanomol/L so over 99.99% of secreted H was buffered - When pH drops to 4.8 ratio is 1:100 so almost all 50 mEq of phos is H2PO4 and 39.5 mEq of H are buffered. - Acid loading decreases phosphate reabsorption so more is there to act as TA. - Decreases activity of Na-phosphate cotransporter - DKA provides a novel weak acid/buffer beta-hydroxybutyrate (pKa 4.8) which buffers significant amount of acid (50 mEq/d).- Ammonium Excretion - Ability to excrete H+ as ammonium ions adds an important amount of flexibility to renal acid-base regulation - NH3 and NH4 production and excretion can be varied according to physiologic need. - Starts with NH3 production in tubular cells - NH3, since it is neutral then diffuses into the tubule where it is acidified by the low pH to NH4+ - NH4+ is ionized and cannot cross back into the tubule cells(it is trapped in the tubular fluid) - This is important for it acting as an important buffer eve though the pKa is 9.0 - At pH of 6.0 the ratio of NH3 to NH4 is 1:1000 - As the neutral NH3 is converted to NH4 more NH3 from theintracellular compartment flows into the tubular fluid replacing the lost NH3. Rinse wash repeat. - This is an over simplification and that there are threemajor steps - NH4 is produced in early proximal tubular cells - Luminal NH4 is partially reabsorbed in the TAL and theNH3 is then recycled within the renal medulla - The medullary interstitial NH3 reaches highconcentrations that allow NH3 to diffuse into the tubular lumen in the medullary collecting tubule where it is trapped as NH4 by secreted H+ - NH4 production from Glutamine which converts to NH4 and glutamate - Glutamate is converted to alpha-ketoglutarate - Alpha ketoglutarate is converted to 2 HCO3 ions - HCO3 sent to systemic circulation by Na-3 HCO3 transporter - NH4 then secreted via Na-H exchanger into the lumen - NH4 is then reabsorbed by NaK2Cl transporter in TAL - NH4 substitutes for K - Once reabsorbed the higher intracellular pH causes NH4 to convert to NH3 and the H that is removed is secreted through Na-H exchanger to scavenge the last of the filtered bicarb. - NH3 diffuses out of the tubular cells into the interstitium - NH4 reabsorption in the TAL is suppressed by hyperkalemia and stimulated by chronic metabolic acidosis - NH4 recycling promotes acid clearance - The collecting tubule has a very low NH3 concentration - This promotes diffusion of NH3 into the collecting duct - NH3 that goes there is rapidly converted to NH4 allowing more NH3 to diffuse in. - Response to changes in pH - Increased ammonium excretion with two processes - Increased proximal NH4 production - This is delayed 24 hours to 2-3 days depending on which enzyme you look at - Decreased urine pH increases diffusion of ammonia into the MCD - Occurs with in hours of an acid load - Peak ammonium excretion takes 5-6 days! (Fig 11-10) - Glutamine is picked up from tubular fluid but with acidosis get Na dependent peritublar capillary glutamine scavenging too - Glutamine metabolism is pH dependent with increase with academia and decrease with alkalemia - NH4 excretion can go from 30-40 mEq/day to > 300 with severe metabolic acidosis (38 NaBicarb tabs) - Says each NH4 produces equimolar generation of HCO3 but I thought it was two bicarb for every alpha ketoglutarate?- The importance of urine pH - Though the total amount of hydrogren cleared by urine pH is insignificant, an acidic urine pH is essential for driving the reactions of TA and NH4 forward.- Regulation of renal hydrogen excretion - Net acid excretion vary inverse with extracellular pH - Academia triggers proximal and distal acidification - Proximally this: - Increased Na-H exchange - Increased luminal H-ATPase activity - Increased Na:3HCO3 cotransporter on the basolateral membrane - Increased NH4 production from glutamine - In the collecting tubules - Increased H-ATPase - Reduction of tubular pH promotes diffusion of NH3 which gets converted to NH4…ION TRAPPING - Extracellular pH affects net acid excretion through its affect on intracellular pH - This happens directly with respiratory disorders due to movement of CO2 through the lipid bilayer - In metabolic disorders a low extracellular bicarb with cause bicarb to diffuse out of the cell passively, this lowers intracellular pH - If you manipulate both low pCO2 and low Bicarb to keep pH stable there will be no change in the intracellular pH and there is no change in renal handling of acid. It is intracellular pH dependent - Metabolic acidosis - Ramps up net acid secretion - Starts within 24 hours and peaks after 5-6 days - Increase net secretion comes from NH4 - Phosphate is generally limited by diet - in DKA titratable acid can be ramped up - Metabolic alkalosis - Alkaline extracellular pH - Increased bicarb excretion - Decrease reabsorption - HCO3 secretion (pendrin) in cortical collecting tubule - Occurs in cortical intercalated cells able to insert H-ATPase in basolateral cells (rather than luminal membrane) - Normal subjects are able to secrete 1000 mmol/day of bicarb - Maintenance of metabolic alkalosis requires a defect which forces the renal resorption of bicarb - This can be chloride/volume deficiency - Hypokalemia - Hyperaldosteronism - Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis - PCO2 via its effect on intracellular pH is an important determinant of renal acid handling - Ratios he uses: - 3.5 per 10 for respiratory acidosis - 5 per 10 for respiratory alkalosis - Interesting paragraph contrasting the response to chronic metabolic acidosis vs chronic respiratory acidosis - Less urinary ammonium in respiratory acidosis - Major differences in proximal tubule cell pH - In metabolic acidosis there is decreased bicarb load so less to be reabsorbed proximally - In respiratory acidosis the increased serum bicarb increases the amount of bicarb that must be reabsorbed proximally - The increased activity of Na-H antiporter returns tubular cell pH to normal and prevents it from creating increased urinary ammonium - Mentions that weirdly more mRNA for H-Na antiporter in metabolic acidosis than in respiratory acidosis - Net hydrogen excretion varies with effective circulating volume - Starts with bicarb infusions - Normally Tm at 26 - But if you volume deplete the patient with diuretics first this increases to 35+ - Four factors explain this increased Tm for bicarb with volume deficiency - Reduced GFR - Activation of RAAS - Ang2 stim H-Na antiporter proximally - Ang2 also stimulates Na-3HCO3 cotransporter on basolateral membrane - Aldosterone stimulates H-ATPase in distal nephron - ALdo stimulates Cl HCO3 exchanger on basolateral membrane - Aldo stimulates eNaC producing tubular lumen negative charge to allow H secretion to occur and prevents back diffusion - Hypochloremia - Increases H secretion by both Na-dependent and Na-independent methods - If Na is 140 and Cl is 115, only 115 of Na can be reabsorbed as NaCl, the remainder must be reabsorbed with HCO3 or associated with secretion of K or H to maintained electro neutrality - This is enhanced with hypochloridemia - Concurrent hypokalemia - Changes in K lead to trans cellular shifts that affect inctracellular pH - Hypokalemia causes K out, H in and in the tubular cell the cell acts if there is systemic acidosis and increases H secretion (and bicarbonate resorption) - PTH - Decreases proximal HCO3 resorption - Primary HyperCard as cause of type 2 RTA - Does acidosis stim PTH or does PTH stim net acid excretion

00:00:00 Intro - NACL, MSI format, and more 00:30:05 tomato's take: teams that choose not to support NACL should lose an import slot 00:46:00 Alienware break 00:47:45 Cubby calls in to talk NACL 01:11:35 Luctus's take: the people that voted on NACL decision should be getting more heat 01:33:10 OnePlus break 01:35:25 excelsior's take: GG had as good a showing as we could've hoped 01:43:37 mr. cool's take: GG and C9 looked better than expected 01:51:09 zemelci's take: this MSI format mostly succeeded

Podcast that covers all things LCS + coverage of all mainstream League of Legends News Twitch: https://www.twitch.tv/clownfiestapodcast Twitters: https://twitter.com/jnt250 , https://twitter.com/bluejay_gg Discord: https://discord.gg/BksRn4HHUU Patreon: https://www.patreon.com/clownfiestapodcast Anchor: https://anchor.fm/clownfiestapodcast Spotify: https://open.spotify.com/show/45und4mMcRd4nbHSOZjD8G Grpahic Designer - Luis Email: lk@lkrico.com Portfolio: https://krico11234567890.wixsite.com/lkrico

T1 and JDG advance to the winner's bracket at MSI while Golden Guardians and MAD Lions are eliminated first in the bracket. Given their arrival as LEC champions and the top seed from Europe, just how fraudulent was MAD Lions' performance in London?

The Channelers went where no nephrology podcasters have gone before, recording in front of a live audience at the National Kidney Foundation Clinical Meeting in Austin. We had all eight Channelers doing a live podcast.We did a Freely Filtered-inspired draft of the best diuretics.The draft order:Leticia Rolon Anna Gaddy Joel TopfRoger Rodby Josh Waitzman Amy Yau JC Velez And Melanie HoenigReferencesJC Tolvaptan in Later-Stage Autosomal Dominant Polycystic Kidney DiseaseIntravenous conivaptan for the treatment of hyponatraemia caused by the syndrome of inappropriate secretion of antidiuretic hormone in hospitalized patients: a single-centre experienceRapidity of Correction of Hyponatremia Due to Syndrome of Inappropriate Secretion of Antidiuretic Hormone Following TolvaptanTolvaptan, a Selective Oral Vasopressin V2-Receptor Antagonist, for HyponatremiaJosh Review on amiloride development https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/7039345/Toad bladder: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1351665/Amiloride derivatives that inhibit flagella: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC8544414/Amiloride as taste sensor: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.6691151Batlle on diabetes Insipidus: https://www.nejm.org/doi/full/10.1056/NEJM198502143120705?query=recirc_curatedRelated_articleAmiloride + ddavp for DI https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2518801/Amy Treatment of refractory congestive heart failure and normokalemic hypochloremic alkalosis with acetazolamide and spironolactone.Acetazolamide reversibly inhibits water conduction by aquaporin-4Inhibition of Human Aquaporin-1 Water Channel Activity by Carbonic Anhydrase InhibitorsAcetazolamide Attenuates Lithium-Induced Nephrogenic Diabetes InsipidusAcetazolamide in Lithium-Induced Nephrogenic Diabetes InsipidusIn Vivo Antibacterial Activity of AcetazolamideRoger50th anniversary of aldosteroneJoelSotagliflozin in Patients with Diabetes and Recent Worsening Heart FailureThe SGLT2 inhibitor empagliflozin in patients hospitalized for acute heart failure: a multinational randomized trialEffects of Early Empagliflozin Initiation on Diuresis and Kidney Function in Patients With Acute Decompensated Heart Failure (EMPAG-HF)Empagliflozin and Heart failure: Diuretic and Cardiorenal EffectsAnnaClinical Results of Treatment of Diabetes Insipidus with Drugs of the Chlorothiazide SeriesTreatment of nephrogenic diabetes insipidus with hydrochlorothiazide and amilorideInfluence of renal nerves and sodium balance on the acute antidiuretic effect of bendroflumethiazide in rats with diabetes insipidusAntidiuretic effect of hydrochlorothiazide in lithium-induced nephrogenic diabetes insipidus is associated with upregulation of aquaporin-2, Na-Cl co-transporter, and epithelial sodium channelMajor Outcomes in High-Risk Hypertensive Patients Randomized to Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitor or Calcium Channel Blocker vs DiureticWalsh AC, Moyes A. Intractable Congestive Heart Failure Successfully Treated With Southey Tubes. Can Med Assoc J. 1964 Jun 13;90(24):1375-6.Godwin TF, Gunton RW. Clinical trial of a new diuretic, furosemide: comparison with hydrochlorothiazide and mercaptomerin. Can Med Assoc J. 1965 Dec 18;93(25):1296-300.Gerber JG. Role of prostaglandins in the hemodynamic and tubular effects of furosemide. Fed Proc. 1983 Apr;42(6):1707-10.Schlatter E, Salomonsson M, Persson AE, Greger R. Macula densa cells sense luminal NaCl concentration via furosemide sensitive Na+2Cl-K+ cotransport. Pflugers Arch. 1989 Jul;414(3):286-90. doi: 10.1007/BF00584628.

In episode 75 of the pharmaceutical calculations podcast, you will learn how to solve 6 types of sodium chloride equivalent method questions you are likely to see on an exam. This episode was originally broadcast as a video on our YouTube channel: www.youtube.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationseasyAdditional Resources for Practice:Pharmaceutical Calculations: 1001 Questions with Answers: https://www.rxcalculations.com/shop/uncategorized/pharmaceutical-calculations-1001-questions-answers/NAPLEX Question Bank: https://www.rxcalculations.com/shop/uncategorized/gold-membership/Join Our Social Media Community:Website: http://www.rxcalculations.comForum: https://forum.rxcalculations.com/Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationsTwitter: https://twitter.com/RxCalculationsInstagram: https://www.instagram.com/rxcalculationsYouTube: www.youtube.com/pharmaceuticalcalculationseasyAbout RxCalculations: RxCalculations helps you master pharmaceutical calculations. We make it so you never have to worry about failing an exam or compromising patient safety because of a calculations error. RxCalculations is a leading global educational service platform focused on developing top quality pharmaceutical calculations products to help prospective pharmacists and health care professionals all over the world resolve one of the biggest challenges related to their profession.Our top quality products include affordable courses, personal consults, books, video tutorials, timed quizzes and apps designed to make you an expert in solving any pharmaceutical calculations question. We also have the largest pharmaceutical calculations online question bank which has over 1000 questions covering every important calculations topic as well as step-by-step video solutions. With all these resources at your disposal we have all you need to not only master pharmacy calculations but ace every test as well as passing your board exams.

Policymaking can seem like a daunting task in politics today, but Senator Jason Rapert brought his passions and personal convictions into the policy world to make a difference on behalf of the preborn. From creating the foundations of what would become the first Heartbeat Bills to creating his own organization for Christian lawmakers, Senator Rapert never ceases to align his heart with policy. Join me as we discuss the current state of policy and the way forward in the post-Roe era! Available NOW on: ExplicitlyProLife.com or wherever you get your podcasts!  ✓ YouTube: https://bit.ly/2DiGLin ✓ Spotify: https://spoti.fi/2X15zlZ ✓ Apple Podcast: https://apple.co/30ZA8tw ✓ Google Podcast: https://bit.ly/30V0Kfd ✓ Stitcher: https://bit.ly/331EgvL   Connect with Kristan:  ✓ Kristan's website: https://bit.ly/3zsv1os ✓ Kristan's YouTube: https://bit.ly/3IVonKg  ✓ Kristan's Instagram: https://bit.ly/3ogRApH  ✓ Kristan's Twitter: https://bit.ly/3z4a0iu   ✓ Kristan's Facebook: https://bit.ly/3yXjhIV   ✓ Kristan's GETTR: https://bit.ly/3z1qrMt

00:00:00 Intro - Travis's MTG addiction, a wholesome moment, and more news 00:25:38 brandywine's take: FLY is going to be the first NA team to win Worlds 00:41:25 taco's take: Tenacity is holding back 100T 00:51:25 saint's take: DIG's LCS team is so bad they should just sub in their NACL roster 01:03:20 jer's take: the vitriol towards LeTigress shows how awful the LoL community is for women 01:17:30 dean's take: Prince and DL can be a split defining rivalry 01:26:58 businesscycle's take: clg going 0-4 shows that keeping the same roster isn't legit 01:39:39 Kilo's take: solo is a top 3 toplaner LCS 01:51:05 living legend's take: GGS are a top 5 LCS team currently 02:00:38 Outro

ReferencesWe considered the effect of a high protein diet and potential metabolic acidosis on kidney function. This review is of interest by Donald Wesson, a champion for addressing this issue and limiting animal protein: Mechanisms of Metabolic Acidosis-Induced Kidney Injury in Chronic Kidney DiseaseHostetter explored the effect of a high protein diet in the remnant kidney model with 1 ¾ nephrectomy. Rats with reduced dietary acid load (by bicarbonate supplementation) had less tubular damage. Chronic effects of dietary protein in the rat with intact and reduced renal massWesson explored treatment of metabolic acidosis in humans with stage 3 CKD in this study. Treatment of metabolic acidosis in patients with stage 3 chronic kidney disease with fruits and vegetables or oral bicarbonate reduces urine angiotensinogen and preserves glomerular filtration rateIn addition to the effect of metabolic acidosis from a diet high in animal protein, this diet also leads to hyperfiltration. This was demonstrated in normal subjects; ingesting a protein diet had a significantly higher creatinine clearance than a comparable group of normal subjects ingesting a vegetarian diet. Renal functional reserve in humans: Effect of protein intake on glomerular filtration rate.This finding has been implicated in Brenner's theory regarding hyperfiltration: The hyperfiltration theory: a paradigm shift in nephrologyOne of multiple publications from Dr. Nimrat Goraya whom Joel mentioned in the voice over: Dietary Protein as Kidney Protection: Quality or Quantity?We wondered about the time course in buffering a high protein meal (and its subsequent acid load on ventilation) and Amy found this report:Effect of Protein Intake on Ventilatory Drive | Anesthesiology | American Society of Anesthesiologists Roger mentioned that the need for acetate to balance the acid from amino acids in parenteral nutrition was identified in pediatrics perhaps because infants may have reduced ability to generate acid. Randomised controlled trial of acetate in preterm neonates receiving parenteral nutrition - PMCHe also recommended an excellent review on the complications of parenteral nutrition by Knochel https://www.kidney-international.org/action/showPdf?pii=S0085-2538%2815%2933384-6 which explained that when the infused amino acids disproportionately include cationic amino acids, metabolism led to H+ production. This is typically mitigated by preparing a solution that is balanced by acetate. Amy mentioned this study that explored the effect of protein intake on ventilation: Effect of Protein Intake on Ventilatory Drive | Anesthesiology | American Society of AnesthesiologistsAnna and Amy reminisced about a Skeleton Key Group Case from the renal fellow network Skeleton Key Group: Electrolyte Case #7JC wondered about isolated defects in the proximal tubule and an example is found here: Mutations in SLC4A4 cause permanent isolated proximal renal tubular acidosis with ocular abnormalitiesAnna's Voiceover re: Gastric neobladder → metabolic alkalosis and yes, dysuria. The physiology of gastrocystoplasty: once a stomach, always a stomach but not as common as you might think Gastrocystoplasty: long-term complications in 22 patientsSjögren's syndrome has been associated with acquired distal RTA and in some cases, an absence of the H+ ATPase, presumably from autoantibodies to this transporter. Here's a case report: Absence of H(+)-ATPase in cortical collecting tubules of a patient with Sjogren's syndrome and distal renal tubular acidosisCan't get enough disequilibrium pH? Check this out- Spontaneous luminal disequilibrium pH in S3 proximal tubules. Role in ammonia and bicarbonate transport.Acetazolamide secretion was studied in this report Concentration-dependent tubular secretion of acetazolamide and its inhibition by salicylic acid in the isolated perfused rat kidney. | Drug Metabolism & DispositionIn this excellent review, David Goldfarb tackles the challenging case of a A Woman with Recurrent Calcium Phosphate Kidney Stones (spoiler alert, many of these patients have incomplete distal RTA and this problem is hard to treat). Molecular mechanisms of renal ammonia transport excellent review from David Winer and Lee Hamm. OutlineOutline: Chapter 11- Regulation of Acid-Base Balance- Introduction - Bicarb plus a proton in equilibrium with CO2 and water - Can be rearranged to HH - Importance of regulating pCO2 and HCO3 outside of this equation - Metabolism of carbs and fats results in the production of 15,000 mmol of CO2 per day - Metabolism of protein and other “substances” generates non-carbonic acids and bases - Mostly from sulfur containing methionine and cysteine - And cationic arginine and lysine - Hydrolysis of dietary phosphate that exists and H2PO4– - Source of base/alkali - Metabolism of an ionic amino acids - Glutamate and asparatate - Organic anions going through gluconeogenesis - Glutamate, Citrate and lactate - Net effect on a normal western diet 50-100 mEq of H+ per day - Homeostatic response to these acid-base loads has three stages: - Chemical buffering - Changes in ventilation - Changes in H+ excretion - Example of H2SO4 from oxidation of sulfur containing AA - Drop in bicarb will stimulate renal acid secretion - Nice table of normal cid-base values, arterial and venous- Great 6 bullet points of acid-base on page 328 - Kidneys must excrete 50-100 of non-carbonic acid daily - This occurs by H secretion, but mechanisms change by area of nephron - Not excreted as free H+ due to minimal urine pH being equivalent to 0.05 mmol/L - No H+ can be excreted until virtually all of th filtered bicarb is reabsorbed - Secreted H+ must bind buffers (phosphate, NH3, cr) - PH is main stimulus for H secretion, though K, aldo and volume can affect this.- Renal Hydrogen excretion - Critical to understand that loss of bicarb is like addition of hydrogen to the body - So all bicarb must be reabsorbed before dietary H load can be secreted - GFR of 125 and bicarb of 24 results in 4300 mEq of bicarb to be reabsorbed daily - Reabsorption of bicarb and secretion of H involve H secretion from tubular cells into the lumen. - Thee initial points need to be emphasized - Secreted H+ ion are generated from dissociation of H2O - Also creates OH ion - Which combine with CO2 to form HCO3 with the help of zinc containing intracellular carbonic anhydrase. - This is how the secretion of H+ which creates an OH ultimately produces HCO3 - Different mechanisms for proximal and distal acidification - NET ACID EXCRETION - Free H+ is negligible - So net H+ is TA + NH4 – HCO3 loss - Unusually equal to net H+ load, 50-100 mEq/day - Can bump up to 300 mEq/day if acid production is increased - Net acid excretion can go negative following a bicarb or citrate load - Proximal Acidification - Na-H antiporter (or exchanger) in luminal membrane - Basolateral membrane has a 3 HCO3 Na cotransporter - This is electrogenic with 3 anions going out and only one cation - The Na-H antiporter also works in the thick ascending limb of LOH - How about this, there is also a H-ATPase just like found in the intercalated cells in the proximal tubule and is responsible for about a third of H secretion - And similarly there is also. HCO3 Cl exchanger (pendrin-like) in the proximal tubule - Footnote says the Na- 3HCO3 cotransporter (which moves sodium against chemical gradient NS uses negative charge inside cell to power it) is important for sensing acid-base changes in the cell. - Distal acidification - Occurs in intercalated cells of of cortical and medullary collecting tubule - Three main characteristics - H secretion via active secretory pumps in the luminal membrane - Both H-ATPase and H-K ATPase - H- K ATPase is an exchange pump, k reabsorption - H-K exchange may be more important in hypokalemia rather than in acid-base balance - Whole paragraph on how a Na-H exchanger couldn't work because the gradient that H has to be pumped up is too big. - H-ATPase work like vasopressin with premise H-ATPase sitting on endocarditis vesicles a=which are then inserted into the membrane. Alkalosis causes them to be recycled out of the membrane. - H secretory cells do not transport Na since they have few luminal Na channels, but are assisted by the lumen negative tubule from eNaC. - Minimizes back diffusion of H+ and promotes bicarb resorption - Bicarbonate leaves the cell through HCO3-Cl exchanger which uses the low intracellular Cl concentration to power this process. - Same molecule is found on RBC where it is called band 3 protein - Figure 11-5 is interesting - Bicarbonate resorption - 90% in the first 1-22 mm of the proximal tubule (how long is the proximal tubule?) - Lots of Na-H exchangers and I handed permeability to HCO3 (permeability where?) - Last 10% happens distally mostly TAL LOH via Na-H exchange - And the last little bit int he outer medullary collecting duct. - Carbonic anhydrase and disequilibrium pH - CA plays central role in HCO3 reabsorption - After H is secreted in the proximal tubule it combines with HCO# to form carbonic acid. CA then dehydrates it to CO2 and H2O. (Step 2) - Constantly moving carbonic acid to CO2 and H2O keeps hydrogen combining with HCO3 since the product is rapidly consumed. - This can be demonstrated by the minimal fall in luminal pH - That is important so there is not a luminal gradient for H to overcome in the Na-H exchanger (this is why we need a H-ATPase later) - CA inhibitors that are limited tot he extracellular compartment can impair HCO3 reabsorption by 80%. - CA is found in S1, S2 but not S3 segment. See consequence in figure 11-6. - The disequilibrium comes from areas where there is no CA, the HH formula falls down because one of the assumptions of that formula is that H2CO3 (carbonic acid) is a transient actor, but without CA it is not and can accumulate, so the pKa is not 6.1. - Bicarbonate secretion - Type B intercalated cells - H-ATPase polarity reversed - HCO3 Cl exchanger faces the apical rather than basolateral membrane- Titratable acidity - Weak acids are filtered at the glom and act as buffers in the urine. - HPO4 has PKA of 6.8 making it ideal - Creatinine (pKa 4.97) and uric acid (pKa 5.75) also contribute - Under normal cinditions TA buffers 10-40 mEa of H per day - Does an example of HPO4(2-):H2PO4 (1-) which exists 4:1 at pH of 7.4 (glomerular filtrate) - So for 50 mEq of Phos 40 is HPO4 and 10 is H2PO4 - When pH drops to 6.8 then the ratio is 1:1 so for 50 - So the 50 mEq is 25 and 25, so this buffered an additional 15 mEq of H while the free H+ concentration increased from 40 to 160 nanomol/L so over 99.99% of secreted H was buffered - When pH drops to 4.8 ratio is 1:100 so almost all 50 mEq of phos is H2PO4 and 39.5 mEq of H are buffered. - Acid loading decreases phosphate reabsorption so more is there to act as TA. - Decreases activity of Na-phosphate cotransporter - DKA provides a novel weak acid/buffer beta-hydroxybutyrate (pKa 4.8) which buffers significant amount of acid (50 mEq/d).- Ammonium Excretion - Ability to excrete H+ as ammonium ions adds an important amount of flexibility to renal acid-base regulation - NH3 and NH4 production and excretion can be varied according to physiologic need. - Starts with NH3 production in tubular cells - NH3, since it is neutral then diffuses into the tubule where it is acidified by the low pH to NH4+ - NH4+ is ionized and cannot cross back into the tubule cells(it is trapped in the tubular fluid) - This is important for it acting as an important buffer eve though the pKa is 9.0 - At pH of 6.0 the ratio of NH3 to NH4 is 1:1000 - As the neutral NH3 is converted to NH4 more NH3 from theintracellular compartment flows into the tubular fluid replacing the lost NH3. Rinse wash repeat. - This is an over simplification and that there are threemajor steps - NH4 is produced in early proximal tubular cells - Luminal NH4 is partially reabsorbed in the TAL and theNH3 is then recycled within the renal medulla - The medullary interstitial NH3 reaches highconcentrations that allow NH3 to diffuse into the tubular lumen in the medullary collecting tubule where it is trapped as NH4 by secreted H+ - NH4 production from Glutamine which converts to NH4 and glutamate - Glutamate is converted to alpha-ketoglutarate - Alpha ketoglutarate is converted to 2 HCO3 ions - HCO3 sent to systemic circulation by Na-3 HCO3 transporter - NH4 then secreted via Na-H exchanger into the lumen - NH4 is then reabsorbed by NaK2Cl transporter in TAL - NH4 substitutes for K - Once reabsorbed the higher intracellular pH causes NH4 to convert to NH3 and the H that is removed is secreted through Na-H exchanger to scavenge the last of the filtered bicarb. - NH3 diffuses out of the tubular cells into the interstitium - NH4 reabsorption in the TAL is suppressed by hyperkalemia and stimulated by chronic metabolic acidosis - NH4 recycling promotes acid clearance - The collecting tubule has a very low NH3 concentration - This promotes diffusion of NH3 into the collecting duct - NH3 that goes there is rapidly converted to NH4 allowing more NH3 to diffuse in. - Response to changes in pH - Increased ammonium excretion with two processes - Increased proximal NH4 production - This is delayed 24 hours to 2-3 days depending on which enzyme you look at - Decreased urine pH increases diffusion of ammonia into the MCD - Occurs with in hours of an acid load - Peak ammonium excretion takes 5-6 days! (Fig 11-10) - Glutamine is picked up from tubular fluid but with acidosis get Na dependent peritublar capillary glutamine scavenging too - Glutamine metabolism is pH dependent with increase with academia and decrease with alkalemia - NH4 excretion can go from 30-40 mEq/day to > 300 with severe metabolic acidosis (38 NaBicarb tabs) - Says each NH4 produces equimolar generation of HCO3 but I thought it was two bicarb for every alpha ketoglutarate?- The importance of urine pH - Though the total amount of hydrogren cleared by urine pH is insignificant, an acidic urine pH is essential for driving the reactions of TA and NH4 forward.- Regulation of renal hydrogen excretion - Net acid excretion vary inverse with extracellular pH - Academia triggers proximal and distal acidification - Proximally this: - Increased Na-H exchange - Increased luminal H-ATPase activity - Increased Na:3HCO3 cotransporter on the basolateral membrane - Increased NH4 production from glutamine - In the collecting tubules - Increased H-ATPase - Reduction of tubular pH promotes diffusion of NH3 which gets converted to NH4…ION TRAPPING - Extracellular pH affects net acid excretion through its affect on intracellular pH - This happens directly with respiratory disorders due to movement of CO2 through the lipid bilayer - In metabolic disorders a low extracellular bicarb with cause bicarb to diffuse out of the cell passively, this lowers intracellular pH - If you manipulate both low pCO2 and low Bicarb to keep pH stable there will be no change in the intracellular pH and there is no change in renal handling of acid. It is intracellular pH dependent - Metabolic acidosis - Ramps up net acid secretion - Starts within 24 hours and peaks after 5-6 days - Increase net secretion comes from NH4 - Phosphate is generally limited by diet - in DKA titratable acid can be ramped up - Metabolic alkalosis - Alkaline extracellular pH - Increased bicarb excretion - Decrease reabsorption - HCO3 secretion (pendrin) in cortical collecting tubule - Occurs in cortical intercalated cells able to insert H-ATPase in basolateral cells (rather than luminal membrane) - Normal subjects are able to secrete 1000 mmol/day of bicarb - Maintenance of metabolic alkalosis requires a defect which forces the renal resorption of bicarb - This can be chloride/volume deficiency - Hypokalemia - Hyperaldosteronism - Respiratory acidosis and alkalosis - PCO2 via its effect on intracellular pH is an important determinant of renal acid handling - Ratios he uses: - 3.5 per 10 for respiratory acidosis - 5 per 10 for respiratory alkalosis - Interesting paragraph contrasting the response to chronic metabolic acidosis vs chronic respiratory acidosis - Less urinary ammonium in respiratory acidosis - Major differences in proximal tubule cell pH - In metabolic acidosis there is decreased bicarb load so less to be reabsorbed proximally - In respiratory acidosis the increased serum bicarb increases the amount of bicarb that must be reabsorbed proximally - The increased activity of Na-H antiporter returns tubular cell pH to normal and prevents it from creating increased urinary ammonium - Mentions that weirdly more mRNA for H-Na antiporter in metabolic acidosis than in respiratory acidosis - Net hydrogen excretion varies with effective circulating volume - Starts with bicarb infusions - Normally Tm at 26 - But if you volume deplete the patient with diuretics first this increases to 35+ - Four factors explain this increased Tm for bicarb with volume deficiency - Reduced GFR - Activation of RAAS - Ang2 stim H-Na antiporter proximally - Ang2 also stimulates Na-3HCO3 cotransporter on basolateral membrane - Aldosterone stimulates H-ATPase in distal nephron - ALdo stimulates Cl HCO3 exchanger on basolateral membrane - Aldo stimulates eNaC producing tubular lumen negative charge to allow H secretion to occur and prevents back diffusion - Hypochloremia - Increases H secretion by both Na-dependent and Na-independent methods - If Na is 140 and Cl is 115, only 115 of Na can be reabsorbed as NaCl, the remainder must be reabsorbed with HCO3 or associated with secretion of K or H to maintained electro neutrality - This is enhanced with hypochloridemia - Concurrent hypokalemia - Changes in K lead to trans cellular shifts that affect inctracellular pH - Hypokalemia causes K out, H in and in the tubular cell the cell acts if there is systemic acidosis and increases H secretion (and bicarbonate resorption) - PTH - Decreases proximal HCO3 resorption - Primary HyperCard as cause of type 2 RTA - Does acidosis stim PTH or does PTH stim net acid excretion

Hello Passengers! Thanks for listening! Become a First Class Passenger! Get all of the bonuses, support the show and Save The Music Foundation! www.patreon.com/accidentaldads   Units 731 is a hardcore metal band formed in Pittsburgh, PA, in 2005. The band combines death metal, hardcore, and slam to create a heavy and chaotic sound for which Pittsburgh bands are notable. Influences include Dying Fetus, All Out War, Irate, and Built Upon Frustration. Ok, wait… wrong notes. Um… ok, here it is. The Unit 731 we're here to talk about is short for Manshu Detachment 731. It was a covert biological and chemical warfare research and development unit of the Imperial Japanese Army that participated in lethal human experimentation and the production of biological weapons during the Second Sino-Japanese War (1937–1945) and World War II. Unit 731 was based in the Pingfang district of Harbin, the largest city in the Japanese puppet state of Manchukuo. Manchukuo's government was dissolved in 1945 after the surrender of Imperial Japan at the end of World War II. The territories claimed by Manchukuo were first seized in the Soviet invasion of Manchuria in August 1945 and then formally transferred to the Chinese administration in the following year.  For those of you wondering, "what in the Jim Henson hell is a puppet state," well, according to Wikipedia, a puppet state "is a state that is legally recognized as independent but, in fact, completely dependent upon an outside power and subject to its orders. Puppet states have nominal sovereignty, but a foreign power effectively exercises control through financial interests and economic or military support. The United States also had some puppet states during the Cold War: Cuba (United States), (before 1959) Guatemala (United States), (until 1991) South Korea A.K.A. United States Army Military Government in Korea (United States), (Until 1948) The Republic of Vietnam A.K.A. South Vietnam (United States), (Until 1975) Japan A.K.A. Allied Occupation of Japan (United States), (Until 1952) Some of the most infamous war crimes committed by the Japanese military forces were caused by this Unit. Internally dehumanized and referred to as "logs," humans were regularly used in Unit 731 testing.    Some atrocious experiments included: disease injections, controlled dehydration, hypobaric chamber experiments, biological weapons testing, vivisection, amputation, and weapons testing. Babies, children, and pregnant women were among the victims. Although the victims were from various countries, the majority were Chinese. Additionally, Unit 731 created biological weapons employed in regions of China, including Chinese cities and towns, water supplies, and farms, that were not held by Japanese soldiers.    Up to 500,000 people are thought to have been murdered by Unit 731 and its related activities. It was called "The Kwantung Army's Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department." Unit 731 was first established by the Kenpeitai military police of the Empire of Japan. General Shiro Ishii, a combat medic officer in the Kwantung Army, took control and oversaw the unit until the war's conclusion. Ishii and his crew used the facility, constructed in 1935 to replace the Zhongma Fortress, to increase their capabilities.    Up to the end of the war in 1945, the Japanese government generously supported the initiative. Facilities for the manufacturing, testing, deployment and storage of biological weapons were controlled by Unit 731 and the other units of the Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department. While researchers from Unit 731 detained by Soviet troops were convicted in the Khabarovsk war crime trials in December 1949, those seized by American forces were secretly granted immunity in exchange for the information obtained during their human experimentation.    As if we needed more bullshit to make us question the tactics of the U.S. government, The U.S. quelled the talk of the human experiments and paid the accused of doing it an actual salary. So then, similar to what they did with German researchers during Operation Paperclip, the Americans siphoned and took their knowledge of and expertise with bioweapons for use in their own program for biological warfare. Japan started its biological weapons program in the 1930s, partly because biological weapons were banned by the Geneva Convention of 1925; they reasoned that the ban verified its effectiveness as a weapon.    This begs the question, does this type of government appropriation, paying off and hiring those guilty of explicit acts on humans to use their knowledge to create our own versions of what they committed, considered an act "for the greater good?" Does allowing these turds' immunity to extract their heinous experience worth it?   Japan's occupation of Manchuria began in 1931 after the Japanese invasion. Japan decided to build Unit 731 in Manchuria because the occupation not only gave the Japanese advantage of separating the research station from their island but also gave them access to as many Chinese individuals as they wanted for use as human experimental subjects. They viewed the Chinese as no-cost research subjects and hoped they could use this advantage to lead the world in biological warfare. Most research subjects were Chinese, but many were of different nationalities.    Sound familiar? Maybe a precursor to what a bunch of mind fucked Nazis attempted AND SUCCEEDED IN DOING to so many Jews and Jewish sympathizers?    In 1932, Surgeon General Shirō Ishii, chief medical officer of the Imperial Japanese Army and protégé of Army Minister Sadao Araki, was placed in command of the Army Epidemic Prevention Research Laboratory (AEPRL). Ishii organized a secret research group, the "Tōgō Unit," for chemical and biological experimentation in Manchuria. Ishii proposed the creation of a Japanese biological and chemical research unit in 1930, after a two-year study trip abroad, because Western powers were developing their own programs. Colonel Chikahiko Koizumi, who eventually served as Japan's Health Minister from 1941 to 1945, was one of Ishii's most fierce supporters inside the Army. In 1915, during World War I, Koizumi and other Imperial Japanese Army officers were inspired by the Germans' successful use of chlorine gas at the Second Battle of Ypres (EEPRUH), in which the Allies suffered 5,000 fatalities and 15,000 injuries as a result of the chemical attack. As a result, they joined a covert poison gas research committee. As a result, unit Togo was started in the Zhongma Fortress, a prison/experimentation camp in Beiyinhe, a hamlet on the South Manchuria Railway 100 kilometers (62 miles) south of Harbin.    To start the tests on those in good health, prisoners were often well-fed on a diet of rice or wheat, meat, fish, and perhaps even wine. The inmates were then starved of food and drink and had their blood drained over many days. Finally, it was noted that their health was declining. Shocker.  Some were vivisected as well. For those who don't watch or listen to disturbing documentaries, vivisection is surgery conducted for experimental purposes on a living organism, typically animals with a central nervous system, to view living internal structures. Others had been purposefully exposed to the plague bacterium and other pathogens. Ishii had to close down Zhongma Fortress due to a jailbreak in the fall of 1934 that jeopardized the facility's secret and an explosion in 1935 that was thought to be sabotage. Then he was given permission to relocate to Pingfang, which is 24 km (15 mi) south of Harbin, to set up a new, much larger facility.  Emperor Hirohito signed a decree in 1936 approving the unit's growth and its incorporation as the Epidemic Prevention Department into the Kwantung Army. It had bases at Hsinking and was split into the "Ishii Unit" and "Wakamatsu Unit." The units were collectively referred to as the "Epidemic Prevention and Water Purification Department of the Kwantung Army" from August 1940 onward. Hirohito's younger brother, Prince Mikasa, toured the Unit 731 headquarters in China and wrote in his memoir that he watched films showing how Chinese prisoners were "made to march on the plains of Manchuria for poison gas experiments on humans." The decree also mandated the construction of a chemical warfare development unit, the Kwantung Army Technical Testing Department, and a biological warfare development unit, the Kwantung Army Military Horse Epidemic Prevention Workshop (later known as Manchuria Unit 100). (subsequently referred to as Manchuria Unit 516).    Sister chemical and biological warfare organizations known as Epidemic Prevention and Water Supply Units were established in significant Chinese towns during the Japanese invasion of China in 1937. Unit 1855 in Beijing, Unit Ei 1644 in Nanjing, Unit 8604 in Guangzhou, and Unit 9420 in Singapore were among the detachments. Ishii's network, which at its height in 1939 had control over 10,000 people, was made up of all these organizations. In addition, Japanese medical practitioners and academics were drawn to Unit 731 by the opportunity to perform human experiments, which was highly unusual, and the Army's robust financial support.   Experiments   Human subjects were used in studies for a specific project with the codename Maruta. Test subjects were selected from the local populace and were referred to as "logs," as in the phrase "How many logs fell?" Since the facility's official cover story to local authorities was that it was a timber mill, the personnel first used the word as a joke. The initiative was internally known as "Holzklotz," which is German, meaning log, according to a junior uniformed civilian employee of the Imperial Japanese Army working in Unit 731. Nothing like dehumanizing the poor people you're experimenting on.   Another similarity was the cremation of the "sacrificed" participants' corpses. Additionally, Unit 731 researchers published some findings in peer-reviewed publications while posing as non-human primates termed "Manchurian monkeys" or "long-tailed monkeys" to do the research.   According to American historian Sheldon H. Harris:   "The Togo Unit employed gruesome tactics to secure specimens of select body organs. If Ishii or one of his co-workers wished to do research on the human brain, then they would order the guards to find them a useful sample. A prisoner would be taken from his cell. Guards would hold him while another guard would smash the victim's head open with an ax. His brain would be extracted off to the pathologist, and then to the crematorium for the usual disposal."   Nakagawa Yonezo, professor emeritus at Osaka University, studied at Kyoto University during the war. While there, he watched footage of human experiments and executions from Unit 731. He later testified about the "playfulness of the experimenters:"   'Some of the experiments had nothing to do with advancing the capability of germ warfare, or of medicine. There is such a thing as professional curiosity: 'What would happen if we did such and such?' What medical purpose was served by performing and studying beheadings? None at all. That was just playing around. Professional people, too, like to play.""   Prisoners were injected with diseases disguised as vaccinations to study their effects. For example, to analyze the results of untreated venereal diseases, male and female prisoners were deliberately infected with syphilis and gonorrhea, then studied. Prisoners were also repeatedly subjected to rape by guards.   Vivisection Thousands of people held in prisoner of war camps were subjected to vivisection (You all know what that is now. Organizations against animal experimentation generally use the phrase as a derogatory catch-all term for experiments on living animals, whereas practicing scientists seldom ever do. Live organ harvesting and other forms of human vivisection, as we also know, have been used as torture.), which was frequently done without anesthetic and was typically fatal. Okawa Fukumatsu, a former member of Unit 731, said in a video interview that he had vivisected a pregnant woman. Prisoners were infected with numerous illnesses before having their bodies vivisected. Invasive surgery was conducted on inmates to remove organs and learn how the condition affects the human body.   Inmates' limbs were severed so researchers could monitor blood loss. Sometimes the victims' corpses' severed limbs were reattached to their opposite sides. In addition, some convicts had surgical procedures to remove their stomachs and reconnect their esophagus to their intestines. Others had parts of their organs removed, including the brain, the liver, and the lungs. According to Imperial Japanese Army physician Ken Yuasa, at least 1,000 Japanese soldiers participated in vivisection on humans in mainland China, suggesting that the practice was commonly done outside Unit 731.   Biological warfare   Throughout World War II, Unit 731 and its related units—including Unit 1644 and Unit 100—were engaged in the study, production, and experimental use of epidemic-producing biowarfare weapons in attacks against the Chinese population (both military and civilian). For example, in 1940 and 1941, low-flying aircraft carried plague-carrying fleas over Chinese towns, notably coastal Ningbo and Changde, in the Hunan Province. These fleas were produced in the labs of Unit 731 and Unit 1644.   With bubonic plague epidemics, these flea bombs claimed tens of thousands of lives. During an expedition to Nanjing, typhoid and paratyphoid virus were dispersed into water supplies across the city's wells, marshes, and residences and infused into snacks served to inhabitants. Soon after, epidemics spread to the joy of many scientists, who concluded that paratyphoid fever was "the most effective" of the diseases.   At least 12 large-scale bioweapon field tests were conducted, and biological weapons were used to target 11 Chinese cities. According to reports, a 1941 raid on Changde resulted in some 10,000 biological injuries and 1,700 deaths among poorly equipped Japanese soldiers, most of which died of cholera. In addition, Japanese researchers conducted experiments on inmates suffering from cholera, smallpox, bubonic plague, and other illnesses. The defoliation bacilli bomb and the flea bomb, which were used to spread the bubonic plague, were developed as a result of this study. Ishii presented the concept of designing some of these bombs using porcelain shells in 1938.   These bombs allowed Japanese forces to launch biological strikes, infecting crops, water supplies, and other places with cholera, typhoid, anthrax, and other deadly illnesses via fleas. Researchers would study the victims dying during biological bomb trials while protected by protective suits. Aircraft would deliver contaminated food and clothes into parts of China that were not under Japanese control. Additionally, innocent people received candies and food that had been tainted.   On several targets, bombs containing plague fleas, contaminated clothes, and infected goods were dropped upon the unsuspecting citizens. As a result, at least 400,000 Chinese citizens were killed due to cholera, anthrax, and plague. Also tested on Chinese citizens was tularemia, Also known as rabbit fever or deer fly fever, which typically attacks the skin, eyes, lymph nodes, and lungs.   Chiang Kai-shek dispatched military and international medical specialists delegation to document the evidence and treat the sick in November 1941 in response to pressure from various stories of the biowarfare assaults. However, the Allied Powers did not respond to a report on the Japanese deployment of plague-infected fleas on Changde until Franklin D. Roosevelt issued a public warning in 1943 denouncing the attacks. The announcement was made publicly available the following year.   Obviously, this is ridiculous and inhumane, but it couldn't be used on us here in the U.S. of "Don't Tread On Me" A, right?   Well, hold on to your stars and stripes because during the final months of World War II, codenamed "Cherry Blossoms at Night," Unit 731 planned to use kamikaze pilots to infest San Diego, California, with the plague. The plan was scheduled to launch on September 22, 1945, but Japan surrendered five weeks earlier. So yep, if the United States had not dropped Fat Man and Little Boy on Hiroshima and Nagasaki, there could have been a man-made plague set upon the west coast.   Weapons testing Human targets were used to test grenades positioned at various distances and positions. Flamethrowers were also tested on people. Victims were also tied to stakes and used as targets to test pathogen-releasing bombs, chemical weapons, shrapnel bombs with varying amounts of fragments, explosive bombs, and bayonets and knives.   To determine the best course of treatment for varying degrees of shrapnel wounds sustained on the field by Japanese Soldiers, Chinese prisoners were exposed to direct bomb blasts. They were strapped, unprotected, to wooden planks staked into the ground at increasing distances around a bomb that was then detonated. After that, it was surgery for most and autopsies for the rest.   This info was taken from the documentary — Unit 731, Nightmare in Manchuria   Other experiments   In other diplorable tests, subjects were deprived of food and water to determine the length of time until death. They would then be placed into low-pressure chambers until their eyes popped from the sockets. Next, victims were tested to determine the relationship between temperature, burns, and human survival. Next, they were hung upside down until death; crushed with heavy objects; electrocuted; dehydrated with hot fans, placed into centrifuges, and spun until they died. People were also injected with animal blood, notably horse blood; exposed to lethal doses of X-rays; subjected to various chemical weapons inside gas chambers; injected with seawater; and burned or buried alive.   The Unit also looked at the characteristics of several other poisons and chemical agents. Prisoners were subjected to substances like tetrodotoxin (the venom of pufferfish or fugu), heroin, Korean bindweed, bactal, and castor-oil seeds, to mention a few (ricin). In addition, according to former Unit 731 vivisectionist Okawa Fukumatsu, large volumes of blood were removed from some detainees to research the consequences of blood loss. At least half a liter of blood was taken in one instance at intervals of two to three days.    The human body only contains 5 liters.   As we mentioned, dehydration experiments were performed on the victims. These tests aimed to determine the amount of water in an individual's body and how long one could survive with little to no water intake. Victims were also starved before these tests began. The deteriorating physical states of these victims were documented by staff at periodic intervals.   "It was said that a small number of these poor men, women, and children who became marutas were also mummified alive in total dehydration experiments. They sweated themselves to death under the heat of several hot dry fans. At death, the corpses would only weigh ≈1/5 normal bodyweight."   — Hal Gold, Japan's Infamous Unit 731, (2019)   Unit 731 also performed transfusion experiments with different blood types. For example, unit member Naeo Ikeda wrote:   In my experience, when 100 cc A type blood was transfused to an O-type subject, whose pulse was 87 per minute and temperature was 35.4 degrees C, 30 minutes later, their temperature rose to 38.6 degrees with slight trepidation. Sixty minutes later, their pulse was 106 per minute, and the temperature was 39.4 degrees. The temperature was 37.7 degrees two hours later, and the subject recovered three hours later. When 120 cc of AB-type blood was transfused to an O-type subject, an hour after the subject described malaise and psychroesthesia (feeling cold) in both legs. When 100 cc of A.B. type blood was transfused to a B-type subject, there seemed to be no side effects.   Taken from— "Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century" (2006) pp. 38–39 Unit 731 tested a slew of chemical agents on prisoners and had a building dedicated to gas experiments. Some of the agents tested were mustard gas, lewisite, cyanic acid gas, white phosphorus, adamsite, and phosgene gas. To put things in horrific perspective, the mortality rate from mustard gas was only 2-3%. Still, those who suffered chemical burns and respiratory problems had prolonged hospitalizations and, if they recovered, were thought to be at higher risk of developing cancers during later life. The toxic effects of lewisite are rapid onset and result from acute exposures. The vesicant properties of lewisite result from direct skin contact; it has been estimated that as little as 2 ml to an adult human (equivalent to 37.6 mg/kg) can be fatal within several hours. Airborne release of cyanide gas, in the form of hydrogen cyanide or cyanogen chloride, would be expected to be lethal to 50% of those exposed (LCt50) at levels of 2,500-5,000 mg•min/m^3 and 11,000 mg•min/m^3, respectively. When ingested as sodium or potassium cyanide, the lethal dose is 100-200 mg. According to a medical report prepared during the hostilities by the ministry of health, "[w]hite phosphorus can cause serious injury and death when it comes into contact with the skin, is inhaled or is swallowed." The report states that burns on less than 10 percent of the body can be fatal because of liver, kidneys, and heart damage. Adamsite (D.M.) is a vomiting compound used as a riot-control agent (military designation, D.M.). It is released as an aerosol. Adverse health effects from exposure to adamsite (D.M.) are generally self-limited and do not require specific therapy. Most adverse health effects resolve within 30 minutes. Exposure to large concentrations of adamsite (D.M.), or exposure to adamsite (D.M.) within an enclosed space or under adverse weather conditions, may result in more severe adverse health effects, serious illness, or death.  Phosgene is highly toxic by acute (short-term) inhalation exposure. Severe respiratory effects, including pulmonary edema, pulmonary emphysema, and death, have been reported in humans. Severe ocular irritation and dermal burns may result following eye or skin exposure. It is estimated that as many as 85% of the 91,000 gas deaths in WWI were a result of phosgene or the related agent, diphosgene A former army major and technician gave the following testimony anonymously (at the time of the interview, this man was a professor emeritus at a national university): "In 1943, I attended a poison gas test held at the Unit 731 test facilities. A glass-walled chamber about three meters square [97 sq ft] and two meters [6.6 ft] high was used. Inside of it, a Chinese man was blindfolded, with his hands tied around a post behind him. The gas was adamsite (sneezing gas), and as the gas filled the chamber the man went into violent coughing convulsions and began to suffer excruciating pain. More than ten doctors and technicians were present. After I had watched for about ten minutes, I could not stand it any more, and left the area. I understand that other types of gasses were also tested there."   Taken from— Hal Gold, Japan's Infamous Unit 731, p. 349 (2019)   Super gross. Takeo Wano, a former medical employee of Unit 731, claimed to have observed a Western man being pickled in formaldehyde after being chopped in half vertically. Because so many Russians were residing in the neighborhood at the time, Wano suspected that the man was Russian. Additionally, Unit 100 experimented with poisonous gas. The captives were housed in mobile gas chambers that resembled phone booths. Others donned military uniforms, while others were made to wear various sorts of gas masks, and other people wore nothing at all. It's been said that some of the tests are "psychopathically cruel, with no possible military purpose." One experiment, for instance, measured how long it took for three-day-old newborns to freeze to death. Jesus christ. Additionally, Unit 731 conducted field tests of chemical weapons on detainees. An unknown researcher at the Kamo Unit (Unit 731) wrote a paper that details a significant (mustard gas) experiment on humans from September 7–10, 1940. Twenty participants were split into three groups and put in observation gazebos, trenches, and fighting emplacements. One group received up to 1,800 field cannon rounds of mustard gas for 25 minutes while wearing Chinese underpants, without a cap or a mask. Another set had shoes and a summer military outfit; three wore masks, while the others did not.   They also were exposed to as many as 1,800 rounds of mustard gas. A third group was clothed in summer military uniform, three with masks and two without masks, and were exposed to as many as 4,800 rounds. Then their general symptoms and damage to the skin, eye, respiratory organs, and digestive organs were observed at 4 hours, 24 hours, and 2, 3, and 5 days after the shots.  Holy shit. Then the psychopaths injected the blister fluid from one subject into another, and analyses of blood and soil were also performed. Finally, five subjects were forced to drink a water solution of mustard and lewisite gas, with or without decontamination. The report describes the conditions of every subject precisely without mentioning what happened to them in the long run. The following is an excerpt of one of these reports:   "Number 376, dugout of the first area:   September 7, 1940, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Looks with hollow eyes. Weeping redness of the skin of the upper part of the body. Eyelids edematous (uh-dim-uh-tose)(Swollen with fluid), swollen. Epiphora. (excessive watering), Hyperemic conjunctivae (ocular redness).   September 8, 1940, 6 am: Neck, breast, upper abdomen, and scrotum weeping, reddened, swollen. Covered with millet-seed-size to bean-size blisters. Eyelids and conjunctivae hyperemic and edematous. Had difficulties opening the eyes. September 8, 6 pm: Tired and exhausted. Feels sick. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Mucous and bloody erosions across the shoulder girdle. Abundant mucus nose secretions. Abdominal pain. Mucous and bloody diarrhea. Proteinuria (excess protein in urinal, possibly meaning kidney damage).   September 9, 1940, 7 am: Tired and exhausted. Weakness of all four extremities.   Low morale. Body temperature 37 degrees Celsius. Skin of the face still weeping.   Taken from— "Man, Medicine, and the State: The Human Body as an Object of Government Sponsored Medical Research in the 20th Century" (2006) p. 187 Frostbite testing   Hisato Yoshimura, an Army engineer, carried out tests by forcing captives to stand outside, putting various limbs into water at multiple temperatures, and letting the limb freeze. Yoshimura would then use a small stick to whack the victims' frozen limbs while "producing a sound similar to that which a board emits when it is struck." The damaged region was then treated with different methods, such as dousing it in water or exposing it to the heat of a fire once the ice had been chipped away.   The sadistic fuck, Yoshimura, was described to the members of the Unit as a "scientific devil" and a "cold-blooded animal" because of the strictness with which he would carry out his evil experiments. In an interview from the 1980s, Unit 731 member Naoji Uezono revealed a super uncool and nightmare-inducing incident when Yoshimura had "Researchers placed two nude males in an area that was 40–50 degrees below zero and documented the entire process until the individuals passed away. [The victims] were in such pain that they were tearing at each other's flesh with their nails ". In a 1950 essay for the Journal Of Japanese Physiology, Yoshimura revealed his lack of regret for torturing 20 kids and a three-day-old baby in tests that subjected them to ice water and ice temperatures below zero.   Although this article drew criticism, Yoshimura denied any guilt when contacted by a reporter from the Mainichi Shimbun. Yoshimura developed a "resistance index of frostbite" based on the mean temperature of 5 to 30 minutes after immersion in freezing water, the temperature of the first rise after immersion, and the time until the temperature rises after immersion. In several separate experiments, it was then determined how these parameters depend on the time of day a victim's body part was immersed in freezing water, the surrounding temperature and humidity during immersion, and how the victim had been treated before the immersion. Variables like ("after keeping awake for a night", "after hunger for 24 hours", "after hunger for 48 hours", "immediately after heavy meal", "immediately after hot meal", "immediately after muscular exercise", "immediately after cold bath", "immediately after hot bath"), what type of food the victim had been fed over the five days preceding the immersions concerning dietary nutrient intake ("high protein (of animal nature)", "high protein (of vegetable nature)", "low protein intake", and "standard diet"), and salt intake (45 g NaCl per day, 15 g NaCl per day, no salt).   Oh, science....   Then there's syphilis.   For those that may not know, syphilis is a chronic bacterial disease contracted chiefly by infection during sexual intercourse but also congenitally by infection of a developing fetus. The first sign of syphilis is a small, brownish dot on the infected person's left hand. How many of you looked? You dirty birds!  Actually, the first stage of syphilis involves a painless sore on the genitals, rectum, or mouth. After the initial sore heals, the second stage is characterized by a rash. Then, there are no symptoms until the final stage, which may occur years later. This final stage can result in damage to the brain, nerves, eyes, or heart. Syphilis is treated with penicillin. Sexual partners should also be treated. Unit members orchestrated forced sex acts between infected and noninfected prisoners to transmit syphilis, as the testimony of a prison guard on the subject of devising a method for transmission of syphilis between patients shows:   "Infection of venereal disease by injection was abandoned, and the researchers started forcing the prisoners into sexual acts with each other. Four or five unit members, dressed in white laboratory clothing completely covering the body with only eyes and mouth visible, rest covered, handled the tests. A male and female, one infected with syphilis, would be brought together in a cell and forced into sex with each other. It was made clear that anyone resisting would be shot."   These unfortunate victims were infected and then vivisected at various stages of infection to view the interior and exterior organs as the disease developed. Despite being forcefully infected, many guards testified that the female victims were the viruses' hosts. Guards used the term "jam-filled buns" to refer to the syphilis-infected female detainees' genitalia.   And THAT is so gross on just about every level.   Inside the confines of Unit 731, several syphilis-infected children grew up. "One was a Chinese mother carrying a baby, one was a White Russian woman with a daughter of four or five years of age, and the final was a White Russian woman with a kid of around six or seven," recounted a Youth Corps member who was sent to train at Unit 731. Similar tests were performed on these women's offspring, focusing on how prolonged infection times influenced the success of therapies.   Just when you thought this shit was bad enough, the rape and forced pregnancies came.   For use in experiments, nonpregnant female convicts were made to get pregnant. The declared justification for the torture was the possible danger of infections, notably syphilis, being transmitted vertically (from mother to kid). In addition, their interests included maternal reproductive organ injury and fetal survival. There have been no reports of any Unit 731 survivors, including children, even though "a considerable number of newborns were born in captivity." Female captives' offspring are said to have either been aborted or murdered after birth.   While male prisoners were often used in single studies so that the results of the experimentation on them would not be clouded by other variables, women were sometimes used in bacteriological or physiological experiments, sex experiments, and as the victims of sex crimes. The testimony of a unit member that served as a guard graphically demonstrated this violent and disturbing reality:   "One of the former researchers I located told me that one day he had a human experiment scheduled, but there was still time to kill. So he and another unit member took the keys to the cells and opened one that housed a Chinese woman. One of the unit members raped her; the other member took the keys and opened another cell. There was a Chinese woman in there who had been used in a frostbite experiment. She had several fingers missing and her bones were black, with gangrene set in. He was about to rape her anyway, then he saw that her sex organ was festering, with pus oozing to the surface. He gave up the idea, left and locked the door, then later went on to his experimental work."   What in the actual fuck.   Prisoners and victims   An "International Symposium on the Crimes of Bacteriological Warfare" was convened in Changde, China, the scene of the plague flea bombardment, as mentioned earlier, in 2002. There, it was calculated that around 580,000 people had been killed by the Imperial Japanese Army's germ warfare and other human experimentation. According to American historian Sheldon H. Harris, more than 200,000 people perished. In addition, 1,700 Japanese soldiers in Zhejiang during the Zhejiang-Jiangxi war were killed by their own biological weapons while attempting to release the biological agent, showing major distribution problems in addition to the Chinese deaths. Additionally, according to Harris, animals infected with the plague were released close to the war's conclusion, leading to plague outbreaks that, between 1946 and 1948, killed at least 30,000 people in the Harbin region.   Those chosen as test subjects included common criminals, captured bandits, anti-Japanese partisans, political prisoners, homeless people, and people with mental disabilities, including infants, men, elderly people, and pregnant women, in addition to those detained by the Kenpeitai military police for alleged "suspicious activities." About 300 researchers worked at Unit 731, including medical professionals and bacteriologists. However, many people have become numb to carrying out harsh tests due to their experience with animal experimentation.   Without considering victims from other medical research facilities like Unit 100, at least 3,000 men, women, and children: 117—of which at least 600 each year were given by the Kenpeitai—were subjected to Unit 731 experimentation at the Pingfang camp alone. Although the literature generally accepts the number of 3,000 internal casualties, former Unit member Okawa Fukumatsu challenged it in a video interview. He claimed that the Unit had at least 10,000 internal experiments victims and that he had personally vivisected thousands of them.   S. Wells said that Chinese people made up most of the casualties, with smaller proportions of Russian, Mongolian, and Korean people. A few European, American, Indian, Australian, and New Zealander prisoners of war may have also been among them. According to a Yokusan Sonendan paramilitary political youth branch member who worked for Unit 731, Americans, British, and French were present, in addition to Chinese, Russians, and Koreans. According to Sheldon H. Harris' research, the victims were primarily political dissidents, communist sympathizers, common criminals, low-income residents, and those with mental disabilities. According to estimates by author Seiichi Morimura, about 70% of the Pingfang camp's fatalities (both military and civilian) were Chinese, while roughly 30% were Russian.   Nobody who went inside Unit 731 survived. Let me repeat that: "Nobody that went inside Unit 731 survived".  At night, prisoners were usually brought into Unit 731 in black cars with no windows but only a ventilation hole. One of the drivers would exit the vehicle at the main gates and head to the guardroom to report to the guard. The "Special Team" in the inner jail, which was led by Shiro Ishii's brother, would then get a call from that guard. The convicts would then be taken to the inner prisons via an underground tunnel excavated beneath the center building's exterior.   Building 8 was one of the jails housing men and women while building 7 held just women. Once inside the inner jail, technicians would take blood and feces samples from the inmates, assess their kidney function, and gather other physical information. Prisoners found healthy and suitable for research were given a three-digit number instead of their names, which they kept until they passed away. Every time a prisoner passed away following the tests they had undergone, a clerk from the 1st Division crossed their names off of an index card and took their shackles to be worn by newly arrived captives.   At least one "friendly" social interaction between inmates and Unit 731 employees has been documented. Two female convicts were engaged by technician Naokata Ishibashi. One prisoner was a Chinese woman, age 21, while the other was a Soviet woman, age 19. Ishibashi discovered that she was from Ukraine after asking where she was from. The two inmates urged Ishibashi to acquire a mirror since they claimed to have not seen their own faces since being taken prisoner. Through a gap in the cell door, Ishibashi managed to covertly get a mirror to them. As long as they were healthy enough, prisoners were regularly employed for experimentation. Once a prisoner had been admitted to the Unit, they had a two-month life expectancy on average. Many female convicts gave birth there, and some inmates remained alive in the unit for nearly a year. The jail cells each featured a squat toilet and wood floors. The prison's exterior walls and the cells' outer walls were separated by space, allowing the guards to pass behind the cells. There was a little window in each cell door. When shown the inner jail, Chief of the Personnel Division of the Kwantung Army Headquarters, Tamura Tadashi, stated that he glanced inside the cells and observed live individuals in chains, some of whom moved around, while others lay on the bare floor and were in a very ill and helpless condition.   Yoshio Shinozuka, a former Unit 731 Youth Corps member, testified that it was difficult to look through these prison doors because of their tiny windows. Cast iron doors and a high level of security made up the inner jail. No one was allowed admission without specific authorization, a picture I.D. pass, and the entry/exit timings were recorded. These two inner-prison structures were the "special team's" workspaces. This group wore white overalls, army caps, rubber boots, and carried guns.   A former member of the Special Team (who insisted on anonymity) recalled in 1995 his first vivisection conducted at the Unit:   "He didn't struggle when they led him into the room and tied him down. But when I picked up the scalpel, that's when he began screaming. I cut him open from the chest to the stomach, and he screamed terribly, and his face was all twisted in agony. He made this unimaginable sound, he was screaming so horribly. But then finally he stopped. This was all in a day's work for the surgeons, but it really left an impression on me because it was my first time."   — Anonymous, The New York Times (March 17 1995)   According to some reports, it was standard procedure at the Unit for doctors to place a piece of cloth (or a portion of medical gauze) inside a prisoner's lips before starting vivisection to muffle any screams.   Even though the jail was pretty secure, there was at least one effort to break out... That failed. According to Corporal Kikuchi Norimitsu's testimony, a fellow unit member informed him that a prisoner had been taken "jumped out of the cell and ran down the corridor, grabbed the keys, and opened the iron doors and some of the cells" after "having shown violence and had struck the experimenter with a door handle." Only the bravest of the inmates were able to jump free, though. These brave ones were killed ". Seiichi Morimura goes into further depth about this attempt at escapology in his book The Devil's Feast.   Two male Russian prisoners were being held in handcuffs in a cell. One of them was lying flat on the ground and acting like he was sick. One of the staff members noticed and decided to go inside the cell. The Russian on the ground, suddenly sprang up and overpowered the guard. The two Russians yelled, unlocked their shackles, grabbed the keys, and opened a few more cells. Other Russian and Chinese prisoners were freaking out, up and down the halls while shouting and screaming. Finally, one Russian yelled at the members of Unit 731, pleading with them to shoot him rather than use him as a test subject.   This Russian was gunned down and murdered. One employee who saw the attempted escape remembered what happened: "In comparison to the "marutas," who had both freedom and weapons, we were all spiritually lost. We knew in our hearts at the moment that justice was not on our side ". Even if the prisoners had been able to leave the quadrangle, a vigorously defended facility staffed with guards, they would have had to traverse a dry moat lined with electric wire and a three-meter-high brick wall to get to the complex's outside.   Even members of Unit 731 weren't free from being subjects of experiments. Yoshio Tamura, an assistant in the Special Team, recalled that Yoshio Sudō, an employee of the first Division at Unit 731, became infected with bubonic plague due to the production of plague bacteria. The Special Team was then ordered to vivisect Sudō. About this Tamura said:   "Sudō had, a few days previously, been interested in talking about women, but now he was thin as a rake, with many purple spots over his body. A large area of scratches on his chest were bleeding. He painfully cried and breathed with difficulty. I sanitised his whole body with disinfectant. Whenever he moved, a rope around his neck tightened. After Sudō's body was carefully checked [by the surgeon], I handed a scalpel to [the surgeon] who, reversely gripping the scalpel, touched Sudō's stomach skin and sliced downward. Sudō shouted "brute!" and died with this last word."   Taken from— Criminal History of Unit 731 of the Japanese Military, pp. 118–119 (1991)   Additionally, Unit 731 Youth Corps member Yoshio Shinozuka testified that his friend, junior assistant Mitsuo Hirakawa, was vivisected due to being accidentally infected with the plague.   Surrender and immunity Operations and experiments continued until the end of the war. Ishii had wanted to use biological weapons in the Pacific War since May 1944, but he was repeatedly told to fuck off.   With the coming of the Red Army in August 1945, the unit had to abandon its work in a hurry. Ministries in Tokyo ordered the destruction of all incriminating materials, including those in Pingfang. Potential witnesses, such as the 300 remaining prisoners, were either gassed or fed poison while the 600 Chinese and Manchurian laborers were all frigging shot. Ishii ordered every group member to disappear and "take the secret to the grave." Potassium cyanide vials were issued for use in case the remaining personnel was captured.   Skeleton crews of Ishii's Japanese troops blew up the compound in the war's final days to destroy any evidence of their activities. Still, many were sturdy enough to remain somewhat intact.   Among the individuals in Japan after its 1945 surrender was Lieutenant Colonel Murray Sanders, whose name doesn't really sound Japanese and who arrived in Yokohama via the American ship Sturgess in September 1945. Sanders was a highly regarded microbiologist and a member of America's military center for biological weapons. Sanders' duty was to investigate Japanese biological warfare activity, and B.O.Y. was there a shit ton! At the time of his arrival in Japan, he had no knowledge of what Unit 731 was. Until he finally threatened the Japanese with bringing the Soviets into the picture, little information about their biological warfare was being shared with the Americans. The Japanese wanted to avoid prosecution under the Soviet legal system, so the morning after he made his threat, Sanders received a manuscript describing Japan's involvement in biological warfare. Sanders took this information to General Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Powers responsible for rebuilding Japan during the Allied occupation. As a result, MacArthur struck a deal with Japanese informants: he secretly granted immunity to the physicians of Unit 731, including their leader, in exchange for providing America, but not the other wartime allies, with their research on biological warfare and data from human experimentation. Yessiree, bob! You heard that correctly! American occupation authorities monitored the activities of former unit members, including going through and messing with their mail. The Americans believed the research data was valuable and didn't want other nations, especially those guys with the sickle, you know... the Soviet Union, to get their red hands on the data for biological weapons.   The Tokyo War Crimes Tribunal heard only one reference to Japanese experiments with "poisonous serums" on Chinese civilians. This took place in August 1946 and was instigated by David Sutton, assistant to the Chinese prosecutor. The Japanese defense counsel argued that the claim was vague and uncorroborated, and it was dismissed by the tribunal president, Sir William Webb, for lack of evidence! The subject was not pursued further by Sutton, who was probably unaware of Unit 731's activities and allegedly a fucking idiot. His reference to it at the trial is believed to have been "accidental."   While German physicians were brought to trial and had their crimes publicized, the U.S. concealed information about Japanese biological warfare experiments and secured immunity for the monsters. I mean perpetrators.  Critics argue that racism led to the double standard in the American postwar responses to the experiments conducted on different nationalities. For example, whereas the perpetrators of Unit 731 were exempt from prosecution, the U.S. held a tribunal in Yokohama in 1948 that indicted nine Japanese physician professors and medical students for conducting vivisection upon captured American pilots; two professors were sentenced to death and others to 15–20 years' imprisonment. So, it's one thing to do it to THOUSANDS OF CHINESE AND RUSSIANS, but HOW DARE you do that to one of us! The fuck?   Although publicly silent on the issue at the Tokyo Trials, the Soviet Union pursued the case and prosecuted 12 top military leaders and scientists from Unit 731 and its affiliated biological-war prisons Unit 1644 in Nanjing and Unit 100 in Changchun in the Khabarovsk war crimes trials. Among those accused of war crimes, including germ warfare, was General Otozō Yamada, commander-in-chief of the million-man Kwantung Army occupying Manchuria.   The trial of the Japanese monsters was held in Khabarovsk in December 1949; a lengthy partial transcript of trial proceedings was published in different languages the following year by the Moscow foreign languages press, including an English-language edition. The lead prosecuting attorney at the Khabarovsk trial was Lev Smirnov, one of the top Soviet prosecutors at the Nuremberg Trials. The Japanese doctors and army commanders who had perpetrated the Unit 731 experiments received sentences from the Khabarovsk court ranging from 2 to 25 years in a Siberian labor camp. The United States refused to acknowledge the trials, branding them communist propaganda. The sentences doled out to the Japanese perpetrators were unusually lenient by Soviet standards. All but two of the defendants returned to Japan by the 1950s (with one prisoner dying in prison and the other committing suicide inside his cell). In addition to the accusations of propaganda, the U.S. also asserted that the trials were to only serve as a distraction from the Soviet treatment of several hundred thousand Japanese prisoners of war; meanwhile, the USSR asserted that the U.S. had given the Japanese diplomatic leniency in exchange for information regarding their human experimentation. The accusations of both the U.S. and the USSR were true. It is believed that the Japanese had also given information to the Soviets regarding their biological experimentation for judicial leniency. This was evidenced by the Soviet Union building a biological weapons facility in Sverdlovsk using documentation captured from Unit 731 in Manchuria.   Official silence during the American occupation of Japan As we, unfortunately, mentioned earlier, during the United States occupation of Japan, the members of Unit 731 and the members of other experimental units were set free. However, on May 6, 1947, Douglas MacArthur, the Supreme Commander of the Allied Forces, wrote to Washington to inform it that "additional data, possibly some statements from Ishii, can probably be obtained by informing Japanese involved that information will be retained in intelligence channels and will not be employed as 'war crimes' evidence."   One graduate of Unit 1644, Masami Kitaoka, continued to perform experiments on unwilling Japanese subjects from 1947 to 1956. While working for Japan's National Institute of Health Sciences, he completed his experiments. He infected prisoners with rickettsia and infected mentally-ill patients with typhus. As the unit's chief, Shiro Ishii was granted immunity from prosecution for war crimes by the American occupation authorities because he had provided human experimentation research materials to them. However, from 1948 to 1958, less than five percent of the documents were transferred onto microfilm and stored in the U.S. National Archives before they were shipped back to Japan.   Post-occupation Japanese media coverage and debate Japanese discussions of Unit 731's activity began in the 1950s after the American occupation of Japan ended. In 1952, human experiments carried out in Nagoya City Pediatric Hospital, which resulted in one death, were publicly tied to former members of Unit 731. Later in that decade, journalists suspected that the murders attributed by the government to Sadamichi Hirasawa were actually carried out by members of Unit 731. In 1958, Japanese author Shūsaku Endō published The Sea and Poison about human experimentation in Fukuoka, which is thought to have been based on an actual incident.   The author Seiichi Morimura published The Devil's Gluttony in 1981, followed by The Devil's Gluttony: A Sequel in 1983. These books purported to reveal the "true" operations of Unit 731 but falsely attributed unrelated photos to the Unit, which raised questions about their accuracy.   Also, in 1981, the first direct testimony of human vivisection in China was given by Ken Yuasa. Since then, much more in-depth testimony has been given in Japan. For example, the 2001 documentary Japanese Devils primarily consists of interviews with fourteen Unit 731 staff members taken prisoner by China and later released.   Significance in postwar research on bio-warfare and medicine Japanese Biological Warfare operations were by far the largest during WWII, and "possibly with more people and resources than the B.W. producing nations of France, Hungary, Italy, Poland, and the Soviet Union combined, between the world wars. Although the dissemination methods of delivering plague-infected fleas by aircraft were crude, the method, among others, allowed the Japanese to "conduct the most extensive employment of biological weapons during WWII." However, the amount of effort devoted to B.W. was not matched by its results. Ultimately, inadequate scientific and engineering foundations limited the effectiveness of the Japanese program. Harris speculates that U.S. scientists generally wanted to acquire it due to the concept of forbidden fruit, believing that lawful and ethical prohibitions could affect the outcomes of their research.   Unit 731 presents a particular problem since, unlike Nazi human experimentation, which the United States publicly condemned, the activities of Unit 731 are known to the general public only from the testimonies of willing former unit members.   Japanese history textbooks usually reference Unit 731 but do not detail allegations following there strict principles. However, Saburō Ienaga's New History of Japan included a detailed description based on officers' testimony. The Ministry for Education attempted to remove this passage from his textbook before it was taught in public schools because the testimony was insufficient. The Supreme Court of Japan ruled in 1997 that the testimony was sufficient and that requiring it to be removed was an illegal violation of freedom of speech.   In 1997, international lawyer Kōnen Tsuchiya filed a class action suit against the Japanese government, demanding reparations for the actions of Unit 731, using evidence filed by Professor Makoto Ueda of Rikkyo University. All levels of the Japanese court system found the suit baseless. No findings of fact were made about the existence of human experimentation, but the court's ruling was that reparations are determined by international treaties, not national courts.   In August 2002, the Tokyo district court ruled that Japan had engaged in biological warfare for the first time. Presiding judge Koji Iwata ruled that Unit 731, on the orders of the Imperial Japanese Army headquarters, used bacteriological weapons on Chinese civilians between 1940 and 1942, spreading diseases, including plague and typhoid, in the cities of Quzhou, Ningbo, and Changde. However, he rejected victims' compensation claims because they had already been settled by international peace treaties.   In October 2003, a Japan's House of Representatives member filed an inquiry. Prime Minister Junichiro Koizumi responded that the Japanese government did not then possess any records related to Unit 731 but recognized the gravity of the matter and would publicize any records located in the future. As a result, in April 2018, the National Archives of Japan released the names of 3,607 members of Unit 731 in response to a request by Professor Katsuo Nishiyama of the Shiga University of Medical Science.   After World War II, the Office of Special Investigations created a watchlist of suspected Axis collaborators and persecutors who were banned from entering the United States. While they have added over 60,000 names to the watchlist, they have only been able to identify under 100 Japanese participants. In a 1998 correspondence letter between the D.O.J. and Rabbi Abraham Cooper, Eli Rosenbaum, director of O.S.I., stated that this was due to two factors:   While most documents captured by the U.S. in Europe were microfilmed before being returned to their respective governments, the Department of Defense decided to not microfilm its vast collection of records before returning them to the Japanese government.   The Japanese government has also failed to grant the O.S.I. meaningful access to these and related records after the war. In contrast, European countries, on the other hand, have been largely cooperative, the cumulative effect of which is that information on identifying these individuals is, in effect, impossible to recover.   Top Movies about war crimes   https://www.imdb.com/search/title/?title_type=feature&genres=war&genres=Crime   All info comes from the inter webs. Blame them.    Damn, this was a gross episode.   Are you actually reading this? That's awesome! How's it going? Life good?   

The Filtrate:Joel TopfJoshua WaitzmanNayan AroraJennie LinSophia AmbrusoSpecial Guest:Paul A Welling Editor:Sophia AmbrusoShow Notes:NephJC Summary on SSaSSPaul Welling's tweetorial on the potassium switchThe 2016 Canadian Hypertension guidelines were the first to suggest adding potassium: Hypertension Canada's 2016 Canadian Hypertension Education Program Guidelines for Blood Pressure Measurement, Diagnosis, Assessment of Risk, Prevention, and Treatment of HypertensionSwapnil's Potassium Trial: Diet or additional supplement to increase potassium intake: protocol for an adaptive clinical trialWhen Food Firms Cut The Salt, What Do They Put In Instead? From NPR.Effect of increased potassium

FaZe Clan Co-Founder, ClipZ, boxing + lifestyle influencer Overtflow, and NACL founder David Chen, discuss the intersection of gaming, crypto, and NFTs, on the debut episode of Digital Renaissance. They also discuss a Fortnite rumor, FaZe1 and the FaZe warehouse, along with Happy Punch and Tik Tok benefits Learn more about your ad choices. Visit podcastchoices.com/adchoices

Barry O'Reilly welcomes David Chen to the Unlearn Podcast this week. Barry tells listeners that David's story is nothing short of exceptional. His rapid rise at Deloitte saw him becoming one of the company's youngest partners at the age of 34. He started the group GTIF Capital, and partners with several major businesses in the eSports, technology and healthcare sectors. David has worked with several partners and celebrities on the recent Super Bowl commercial. He sits on several boards including Mediabundance as the head of eSports, Faze Clan and the North American Collegiate League. He has brokered a deal to bring Wolves eSports gaming, a professional gaming wing of the Wolverhampton Wanderers, into the NACL via their strategic partnership with the Fosun Group. A Happy Balance David was at the pinnacle of his career at Deloitte but his life was out of balance. He tells Barry that he had all the trappings of success, and yet he was miserable. Barry comments that successful people often feel guilty when they feel emptiness or dissatisfaction with their lives because they believe they don't have a right to those feelings when they've had so much opportunity. “Nobody teaches you how to be happy,” David responds. He describes his internal struggle as the darkest journey he ever went through. “But it was the best journey that I have to go through multiple times.” The secret is to change your thought process and do things that actually matter, he posits. A Booming Industry Gaming is the fastest-growing industry. Before the pandemic, gaming was projected to be a $3 billion industry by 2023; it's now estimated to be worth $200 billion by 2023. This “influential shift” is because of the large population of gamers around the world. Brands trying to reach this demographic - 35 years and younger, 60% male and 40% female - have to demonstrate that they care about societal issues in a tangible way. David admonishes parents to have an open mind about gaming because it is changing the world in the same way that Amazon did with ecommerce. Starting with eSports Barry asks David, “What are some tips you could give [people who are curious about eSports] to start experimenting and learning their way into this world because the future is going to be so connected to it?” David responds with practical steps, including: If you're a parent, ask your kids about their favorite games. It will help you bond with them. Keep up with the trends as a business leader. Gaming is now mainstream, so ignoring it means ignoring the next 40 years of your client base. Over 180 universities are giving out scholarships in gaming. If your child has the opportunity to learn, allow them to. Building Community “Community is important in anything,” David tells listeners. Community is the people who believe in the game. The danger lies, he continues, in the business leaders who only see the dollar signs, and don't care about young gamers' mental health. Being sensitive to kids' needs at such a difficult time in their lives will help you build a better brand. Also, make sure your game is great, David tells Barry. “Here's the thing: the game can't suck, and [that's] what a lot of guys are doing wrong…Let me just put it very very simply: if it's not cool, no one's gonna do it.” He shares some common mistakes brands make in trying to influence the gaming community.  Advice for Brands Revisit the games you enjoyed as a child, David advises listeners. It will give you the comfort level you need to start learning more about gaming. “Then start communicating with your child and understanding the trends that exist,” David says. The next step is learning the play to earn model, but understand that it has to make sense, he adds. You're never too old to learn. Read the full show notes at Barry O'Reilly Resources David Chen at Website | Instagram | Twitter | LinkedIn

We are in the process of finalizing the sTBI protocol for TCCC. This podcast reviews some  of the controversies in the use of 23.4% NaCl in the field, and how the discussions evolve. In the meantime it is a great review of sTBI and increased ICP(intracranial pressure).  Remember to distinguish between sTBI, increased ICP and herniation. In truama they are on a contiuum of catastrophic injury. THAT OTHERS MAY LIVE