MinuteEarth

Why do rivers curve? Why did the T. rex have such tiny arms? And why do so many more kids need glasses now than they used to? Spoiler alert: it isn't screentime. From the creators of the popular science show with millions of YouTube subscribers comes the MinuteEarth podcast. Every episode of the show dives deep into a science question you might not even know you had - but once you hear the answer, you'll want to share it with everyone you know. Our team of scientists digs into the research and breaks it down into a short, entertaining explanation jam-packed with science facts and terrible puns. We'll tell the incredible story of how monkeys crossed the Atlantic ocean on natural rafts, and we'll explain why it gets hotter the deeper you dig underground. If you like the Earth, then you'll love MinuteEarth. Subscribe on Apple, Spotify, Amazon, or wherever you like to listen. MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC - https://neptunestudios.info

In an effort to protect us from getting killed by something we've ingested, our brain's vomit control center processes a lot of information from several different places … and sometimes is a little overly cautious.   LEARN MORE To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords:  Emesis: The act of vomiting Vomiting: The oral eviction of gastrointestinal contents due to contractions in the gut and stomach. Nausea: A diffuse sensation of uneasiness and discomfort often felt as the need to vomit. Vomiting Center: An area in the brain's medulla oblongata that initiates and controls emesis. Chemoreceptor Trigger Zone: An area in the area postrema of the medulla oblongata that is sensitive to certain toxic chemicals in the blood.  Nucleus Tractus Solitarius: A region in the medulla oblongata that receives input from the cardiovascular, respiratory and GI systems.  Vagus Nerve: A cranial nerve that regulates internal organ functions, including vomiting.  Vestibular System: A Sensory system that provides our brain with information about motion, head position, and spatial positioning for balance. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH If you like what we do, you can help us!: Become our patron:   Share this video with your friends and family Leave us a comment (we read them!)   CREDITS David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation  Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC      OUR STAFF Lizah van der Aart • Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich  Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Ever Salazar Alexander Vidal • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida   OUR LINKS Youtube | TikTok |   Twitter |   Instagram |   Facebook |   Website |   Apple Podcasts |    REFERENCES Singh P, Yoon SS, Kuo B. Nausea: a review of pathophysiology and therapeutics. Therap Adv Gastroenterol. 2016;9(1):98-112. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4699282/ Hasler, W. (2013). Pathology of emesis: its autonomic basis. Handbook of Clinical Neurology, Vol. 117 (3rd series) Autonomic Nervous System. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24095137/ Zhong W, Shahbaz O, Teskey G, Beever A, Kachour N, Venketaraman V, Darmani NA. Mechanisms of Nausea and Vomiting: Current Knowledge and Recent Advances in Intracellular Emetic Signaling Systems. Int J Mol Sci. 2021 May 28;22(11):5797. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34071460/ Kowalski A, Rapps N, Enck P. Functional cortical imaging of nausea and vomiting: a possible approach. Auton Neurosci. 2006 Oct 30;129(1-2):28-35. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16945593/ Hornby, PJ. Central neurocircuitry associated with emesis. Am J Med. 2001 Dec 3;111 Suppl 8A:106S-112S. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11749934/ Kuo, Braden. (2022). Personal Communication. Director of the Center for Neurointestinal Health at Mass General. https://www.massgeneral.org/doctors/17189/brad-kuo

To learn more about restoration action - and get involved - visit RESTOR from the Crowther Lab at https://restor.eco. Soil doesn't seem like it's "alive", yet it functions like a living thing in lots of key ways. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Soil health: the continued capacity of soil to function as a vital living system, within ecosystem and land-use boundaries, to sustain biological productivity, promote the quality of air and water environments, and maintain plant, animal, and human health Living system: an open self-organizing life form that interacts with its environment Ecosystem services: varied benefits to humans provided by the natural environment and from healthy ecosystems SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Harshberger, JW. (1911) The Soil, A Living Thing. Reprinted from Science, N.S. vol. 33 No. 854. 469.1 https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.33.854.741 Minami K. (2021) “Soil is a living substance”. Soil Science and Plant Nutrition 67: 26-30. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00380768.2020.1827939 Rattal Lal, personal communication (11/19/21) Asmeret Berhe, personal communication (12/2/21)

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth Bitcoin and other blockchain technologies, like NFTs, work a lot like reindeer mating. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Bitcoin: a digital currency known as a cryptocurrency, which uses a proof-of-work consensus to validate transactions and create new units of Bitcoin. - Proof-of-work: a decentralized consensus mechanism that requires members of a network to expend effort solving an arbitrary mathematical puzzle to prevent malicious activity - Blockchain: a record of transactions made in Bitcoin or another cryptocurrency maintained across several linked computers, which can also be used in non-cryptocurrency applications - Mining: the process of validating transactions and creating new Bitcoin or other cryptocurrencies - Sexual selection: a form of natural selection driven by competition between members of a species of one sex for access to mating partners of another sex that favors certain characteristics SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer and Narrator Ever Salazar | Director Aldo de Vos | Illustration, Video Editing, Animation, and Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Antonopoulos, Andreas M. "Mastering bitcoin." (2019) Brennan, P. “Sexual Selection.” (2010) Nature Education Knowledge 3(10):79 https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/sexual-selection-13255240/ Cambridge Bitcoin Electricity Consumption Index (CBECI), University of Cambridge, https://ccaf.io/cbeci/index. de Vries, Alex. “Bitcoin Energy Consumption Index.” Digiconomist, 6 Nov. 2021, https://digiconomist.net/bitcoin-energy-consumption. Goss, Richard J. Deer antlers: regeneration, function and evolution. Academic Press, 2012. Panko, Ben. “Go Big or Go Generic: How Sexual Selection Is like Advertising.” Smithsonian Magazine, Smithsonian Institution, 6 Dec. 2016, https://www.smithsonianmag.com/science-nature/either-go-big-or-go-generic-how-sexual-selection-advertising-180961311/.

GiveWell is matching donations from first-time donors dollar for dollar up to $250. Click on https://bit.ly/3rHPv9a to donate and be sure to use the fundraiser code MINUTEEARTH at checkout to make sure your donation gets matched A broken bone might seem worse than a sprain, but you'll get over it much more quickly. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Aqueous humour: The clear fluid filling the space in the front of the eyeball between the lens and the cornea. Bone remodeling: The continuous process of synthesis and destruction that gives bone its mature structure and maintains normal calcium levels in the body. Ligament: A short band of tough, flexible fibrous connective tissue which connects two bones or cartilages or holds together a joint. Sprain: A stretching or tearing of ligaments. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke (@dukeofcam) | Script Writer Kate Yoshida | Script Editor, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Landzhov, B. (2015). The Epiligament-The Main Donor of Cells and Vessels during Healing Of the Collateral Ligaments of the Knee. Anatomy & Physiology, s4. https://doi.org/10.4172/2161-0940.s4-006 Leong, N. L., Kator, J. L., Clemens, T. L., James, A., Enamoto‐Iwamoto, M., & Jiang, J. (2019). Tendon and Ligament Healing and Current Approaches to Tendon and Ligament Regeneration. Journal of Orthopaedic Research, 38(1), 7–12. https://doi.org/10.1002/jor.24475 Marsell, R., & Einhorn, T. A. (2011). The biology of fracture healing. Injury, 42(6), 551–555. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.injury.2011.03.031 Martini, F., Nath, J. L., & Bartholomew, E. F. (2018). Fundamentals of anatomy & physiology (11th ed.). Pearson Education Limited. Smith, P., & Bollier, M. (2014). Anterior Cruciate Ligament and Medial Collateral Ligament Injuries. Journal of Knee Surgery, 27(05), 359–368. https://doi.org/10.1055/s-0034-1381961

Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They'll plant 10 extra trees for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/start/minuteearth. Extreme weather sometimes happens in very specific areas thanks to extreme surface temperature differences. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Evapotranspiration: the return of water to the atmosphere from the ground surface. Troposphere: The lowest region of the Earth's atmosphere, extending usually to around 10 km above the Earth's surface. Tropopause: The top-most boundary of the troposphere. Low Pressure System: An area of relatively low pressure that draws air into it, causing converging winds. Micro-climate: The climate of a very small or restricted area. Heat Island: An urban area that has higher average temperatures than its surrounding due to the heat absorption of materials like concrete and asphalt. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** Articles from Denver Post, Denverite, BBC, itv News,The Independent, Weather Channel, NBC 10 Philadelphia, WFMZ 69, WQAD 8 abc, KSDK 5 OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** MIT Concrete Sustainability Hub. Topic Summary: Mitigating Climate Change with Reflective Pavements. (2021). Retrieved from: https://cshub.mit.edu/sites/default/files/images/Albedo%201113_0.pdf Randel W. J., Jensen E. J., (2013) Physical processes in the tropical tropopause layer and their roles in a changing climate. Nature Geoscience Vol 6, pp 169. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/ngeo1733 Kurn, D M, Bretz, S E, Huang, B, and Akbari, H. (1994) "The potential for reducing urban air temperatures and energy consumption through vegetative cooling." United States OSTI, Retrieved from: https://www.osti.gov/biblio/10180633-potential-reducing-urban-air-temperatures-energy-consumption-through-vegetative-cooling Lejeune, Q., Davin, E.L., Gudmundsson, L. et al. (2018) Historical deforestation locally increased the intensity of hot days in northern mid-latitudes. Nature Clim Change 8, 386–390. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1038/s41558-018-0131-z Ma J., Chadwick R., Seo K. H., Dong C., Huang G., Foltz G. R., Jiang J. H. (2018) Responses of the Tropical Atmospheric Circulation to Climate Change and Connection to the Hydrological Cycle. Annual Review of Earth and Planetary Sciences, Vol. 46:549–580. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-earth-082517010102 Terzi, L. (2021). Personal communication. Belgian Nuclear Research Center.

Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They'll plant 10 extra trees for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/start/minuteearth. Our oceans don't technically contain salt, but the ions salt is made of play a critical role in planet-wide processes that make the Earth habitable. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Salt: chemical compounds made of positively- and negatively-charged particles called “ions” like sodium and chloride Convection current: the movement of fluid, like water, due to a difference in temperature and/or density Hydrothermal vent: a fissure on the seafloor that takes in dense ocean water and discharges water heated by volcanic activity below the seafloor. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Duxbury, A. C. (n.d.). Seawater. Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved December 3, 2021, from https://www.britannica.com/science/seawater. Earley, Joseph E. "Why there is no salt in the sea." Foundations of Chemistry 7.1 (2005): 85-102. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1023/B:FOCH.0000042881.05418.15 Henney, J. E., C. L. Taylor, and C. S. Boon. "Taste and flavor roles of sodium in foods: A unique challenge to reducing sodium intake." Strategies to Reduce Sodium Intake in The United States; National Academies Press: Washington, DC, USA (2010). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK50958/ Ouillon, Raphael, et al. "Halite precipitation from double‐diffusive salt fingers in the Dead Sea: Numerical simulations." Water Resources Research 55.5 (2019): 4252-4265. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1029/2019WR024818

BLACK FRIDAY OFFER: Get 42% off of both CuriosityStream and Nebula when you sign up at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth by 11/28. The urushiol molecules in poison ivy have the ability to trigger a harmful immune response in most people because the immune system mistakenly labels them as a threat. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Allergy: A damaging immune response by the body to a substance. Allergen: The substance that causes the allergic reaction. Urushiol: The allergen in poison ivy and poison oak. Allergic Contact Dermatitis: An allergic response caused by contact with a substance that causes rash or lesions at the site of the exposure. Langerhans Cell: An immune sentinel that lives in the epidermis of the skin but can travel to nearby lymph nodes. Helper T Cell: A type of white blood cell that activates immune responses in the body. Thrush: A white skin rash caused by the fungus candida. Anaphylaxis: A whole body allergic reaction that can include throat swelling. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Khaled Marwa, Noah P. Kondamudi (2021) Type IV Hypersensitivity Reaction. StatPearls. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK562228/ John Barrat (2014), A Poison Ivy Primer, Smithsonian Retrieved from: https://www.si.edu/stories/poison-ivy-primer Florian Winau (2021) Personal Communication. Department of Pediatrics, Harvard Medical School. Tiffany Scharschmidt (2021) Personal Communication. Department of Dermatology, UCSF Medical School. Yesul Kim, Alexandra Flamm, Mahmoud A. ElSohly, Daniel H. Kaplan, Raymond J. Hage Jr, Curtis P. Hamann, and James G. Marks Jr (2019). Poison Ivy, Oak, and Sumac Dermatitis: What Is Known and What Is New? Dermatitis. 30: 3 (183-190). Retrieved from: https://journals.lww.com/dermatitis/Abstract/2019/05000/Poison_Ivy,_Oak,_and_Sumac_Dermatitis__What_Is.2.aspx

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth. The way we experience seasons don't necessarily line up with how they're technically defined - here's why. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Astronomical seasons - seasons that are defined by equinoxes and solstices (not temperature or weather) Equinox: the time/dates at which the sun crosses the celestial equator, when day and night are of approximately equal length Solstice: the time/dates at which the sun reaches its maximum or minimum declination, marked by the longest and shortest days Seasonal lag: the phenomenon by which the hottest/coldest days of the year are delayed until after the days with the most/least sunlight SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Josh Taira | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** ABC News: “Spring, summer, autumn and winter — why do we have seasons?” https://www.abc.net.au/news/science/2017-09-01/seasons-and-their-changes-explained/8858776 Coastal Interpretive Center: “Equinoxes, Solstices, and Why We Have Seasons” https://interpretivecenter.org/equinoxes-solstices-and-why-we-have-seasons/ KNPR Krulwich Wonders: “Not All Seasons Are Created Equal” https://www.npr.org/templates/story/story.php?storyId=5335287 National Weather Service: “The Seasons, the Equinox, and the Solstices” https://www.weather.gov/cle/Seasons

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To find out how you can help Nature Canada protect at least 30% of the world's lands and ocean by 2030, visit https://www.naturecanada.ca/?utm_source=MinuteEarth. A technology to ignore birds on radar ended up being useful to study and conserve them. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Radar aeroecology - the use of radar to study airborne life, like birds, bats, and bugs Radar ornithology - the use of radar to study birds, especially bird migration Dual-polarization radar - radar that transmits and receives waves in both a horizontal and vertical orientation, giving a better idea of a target's size, shape, and variety. Doppler effect - a change in a wave's frequency in relation to whatever is observing it, such as a radar, but also your ears (it's the reason a sound like an ambulance siren changes as it gets closer or further away from you). SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** Radar footage by National Weather Service, BirdCast, and Alex Bencke Swallows footage by Ted Cheskey, Nature Canada OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Bauer, Silke, et al. "The grand challenges of migration ecology that radar aeroecology can help answer." Ecography 42.5 (2019): 861-875. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecog.04083 Dokter, Adriaan M., et al. "Bird migration flight altitudes studied by a network of operational weather radars." Journal of the Royal Society Interface 8.54 (2011): 30-43. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsif.2010.0116 Duda, Jeff. "How to use and interpret Doppler weather radar." Retrieved July 18 (2009): 2014. https://meteor.geol.iastate.edu/~jdduda/portfolio/How%20to%20read%20and%20interpret%20weather%20radar.pdf Fox, Anthony D., and Patrick DL Beasley. "David Lack and the birth of radar ornithology." Archives of natural history 37.2 (2010): 325-332. https://www.euppublishing.com/doi/10.3366/anh.2010.0013 Gauthreaux Jr, Sidney A., and Carroll G. Belser. "Radar ornithology and biological conservation." The Auk 120.2 (2003): 266-277. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4090179 Hüppop, Ommo, et al. "Perspectives and challenges for the use of radar in biological conservation." Ecography 42.5 (2019): 912-930. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/ecog.04063 Lack, David, and G. C. Varley. "Detection of birds by radar." Nature 156.3963 (1945): 446-446. https://www.nature.com/articles/156446a0 Marshall, S., & Toma, A. (2012, May 23). The close calls: How false alarms triggered fears of Nuclear War. Council for a Livable World. Retrieved November 2, 2021, from https://livableworld.org/the-close-calls-how-false-alarms-triggered-fears-of-nuclear-war/. Schuur, T., et al. "Observations and classification of echoes with the polarimetric WSR-88D radar." Report of the National Severe Storms Laboratory, Norman, OK 73069 (2003): 46. https://citeseerx.ist.psu.edu/viewdoc/download?doi=10.1.1.540.9868&rep=rep1&type=pdf Stepanian, Phillip M., et al. "Dual‐polarization radar products for biological applications." Ecosphere 7.11 (2016): e01539. https://esajournals.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/ecs2.1539 Tang, Lin, et al. "A physically based precipitation–nonprecipitation radar echo classifier using polarimetric and environmental data in a real-time national system." Weather and Forecasting 29.5 (2014): 1106-1119. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/wefo/29/5/waf-d-13-00072_1.xml Zhang, Pengfei, Shun Liu, and Qin Xu. "Identifying Doppler velocity contamination caused by migrating birds. Part I: Feature extraction and quantification." Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology 22.8 (2005): 1105-1113. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/atot/22/8/jtech1757_1.xml

Get your butt-, er, book here: https://www.minuteearth.com/books/ Hyenas communicate via an information-dense physical medium (hyena butter) - and now MinuteEarth does too (book). SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer and Narrator David Goldenberg | Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** Hyena audio clips by Dr. Kenna Lehmann OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Hofer, H., M. L. East, I. Sammang, and & M. Dehnhard. 2001. Analysis of volatile compounds in scent-marks of spotted hyenas (Crocuta crocuta) and their possible function in olfactory communication. Chemical Signals in Vertebrates 9:141–148. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-1-4615-0671-3_18 Theis, K.R., Venkataraman, A., Dycus, J. A., Koonter, K.D.S., Schmitt-Matzen, E.N., Wagner. A.P., Holekamp, K.E., & Schmidt, T.M (2013) Symbiotic bacteria appear to mediate hyena social odors. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 110: 19832–19837. Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/cgi/doi/10.1073/pnas.1306477110 Theis, K. R., Schmidt, T. M. & Holekamp, K. E. (2012) Evidence for a bacterial mechanism for group-specific social odors among hyenas. Scientific Reports 2, 615. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3431069/ MinuteEarth (2021). MinuteEarth Explains: How Did Whales Get So Big? & Other Curious Questions about Animals, Nature, Geology and Planet Earth. Retrieved from: https://www.MinuteEarth.com/books

Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They'll plant 10 extra trees for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/start/minuteearth. The current hurricane category scale doesn't accurately convey the danger of a storm, because it doesn't account for a hurricane's most destructive factors. ⬇️ PREORDER OUR FIRST BOOK (out October 12th) ⬇️ DFTBA (get SUPER-cool book bundles here!): https://store.dftba.com/collections/minuteearth Amazon - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthExplains Bookshop.org - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthexplains Barnes and Noble - http://bit.ly/Minuteearthexplains Indigo (Canada)- http://bit.ly/MinuteearthExplains LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Storm surge: a sea level rise caused by strong winds pushing the water and a change in atmospheric pressure of a storm. Hurricane: a tropical cyclone occurring in the Atlantic Ocean or northeastern Pacific Ocean Saffir-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale: the current scale used to categorize hurricanes from 1 to 5 based on the hurricane's maximum sustained wind speed. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Belles, Jonathan. “Surface Pressure a Better Indicator of Hurricane Damage Potential, New Study Says | the Weather Channel - Articles from the Weather Channel | Weather.com.” The Weather Channel, 2020, https://weather.com/storms/hurricane/news/2020-01-29-hurricane-surface-pressure-damage-potential-wind. Erdman, Jonathan. “88% of U.S. Deaths from Hurricanes, Tropical Storms Are from Water, Not Wind | the Weather Channel - Articles from the Weather Channel | Weather.com.” The Weather Channel, 2021, https://weather.com/safety/hurricane/news/hurricanes-tropical-storms-us-deaths-surge-flooding. Gibbens, Sarah. “Hurricane Categories Don't Tell the Whole Story.” Environment, National Geographic, 14 Sept. 2021, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/article/hurricane-categories-do-not-tell-the-whole-story-see-what-matters. Klotzbach, Philip J., et al. "Surface pressure a more skillful predictor of normalized hurricane damage than maximum sustained wind." Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 101.6 (2020): E830-E846. https://journals.ametsoc.org/view/journals/bams/101/6/bamsD190062.xml Olson, Richard S. “Add a New Hurricane Category. Cat 6 | Opinion.” Sun-Sentinel.com, South Florida Sun-Sentinel, 3 Dec. 2019, https://www.sun-sentinel.com/opinion/commentary/fl-op-com-olson-cat-six-hurricane-category-20191203-4fwaq7hjmbdkli3sg5trmfysku-story.html. Pilkington, Stephanie F., and Hussam N. Mahmoud. "Using artificial neural networks to forecast economic impact of multi-hazard hurricane-based events." Sustainable and Resilient Infrastructure 1.1-2 (2016): 63-83. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/23789689.2016.1179529 Plumer, Brad. “Hurricane Patricia: Why a Record Storm Did Surprisingly Little Damage.” Vox, Vox, 26 Oct. 2015, https://www.vox.com/2015/10/26/9615274/hurricane-patricia-aftermath. ‌“Storm Surge Overview.” Noaa.gov, 2021, https://www.nhc.noaa.gov/surge/.

Check out the heroes who saved the ozone layer at https://futureoflife.org/future-of-life-award/ Lots of global problems seem intractable, but there's a formula for success that we can follow. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Ozone layer: A thin layer of ozone concentrated in the Earth's stratosphere roughly 10 kilometers above that absorbs most of the sun's ultraviolet radiation before it hits the Earth's surface. Ultraviolet radiation: Invisible rays of energy that come from the sun that can be harmful to humans and other lifeforms. Chlorofluorocarbons: Also known as CFCs, these long man-made molecules used to be widely used refrigerants and solvents before it was discovered that - when exposed to ultraviolet radiation - their chlorine atoms would break off and combine with ozone molecules. Smallpox: A virus that killed more than half a billion humans before being eradicated in 1980. Disease Surveillance: A practice by which disease progressions are closely monitored in order to minimize the harm caused by outbreaks. ⬇️ PREORDER OUR FIRST BOOK (out October 12th) ⬇️ DTFBA (get SUPER-cool book bundles here!): https://store.dftba.com/collections/minuteearth Amazon - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthExplains Bookshop.org - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthexplains Barnes and Noble - http://bit.ly/Minuteearthexplains Indigo (Canada)- http://bit.ly/MinuteearthExplains SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Ever Salazar (@eversalazar) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Ochmann, Sophie, and Max Roser. “Smallpox.” Our World in Data, 2018, https://ourworldindata.org/smallpox. Data on Smallpox. Henderson, D A. SMALLPOX - the DEATH of a DISEASE : The inside Story of Eradicating a Worldwide Killer. S.L., Prometheus, 2021, pp. 57–61. CDC. “History of Smallpox.” Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 20 Feb. 2021, https://cdc.gov/smallpox/history/history.html. Waxman, Olivia B. 2019. “Reagan Administration Officials at First Dismissed the Ozone Hole. Here's What Changed.” Time. April 9, 2019. https://time.com/5564651/reagan-ozone-hole/ Velders, G. J. M., S. O. Andersen, J. S. Daniel, D. W. Fahey, and M. McFarland. 2007. “The Importance of the Montreal Protocol in Protecting Climate.” Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 104 (12): 4814–19. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0610328104. US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. n.d. “Susan Solomon: Pioneering Atmospheric Scientist.” Celebrating200years.noaa.gov. Accessed July 20, 2021. https://celebrating200years.noaa.gov/historymakers/solomon/welcome.html. Solomon, Susan. 2019. “The Discovery of the Antarctic Ozone Hole.” Nature 575 (7781): 46–47. https://doi.org/10.1038/d41586-019-02837-5 Pyle, John, and Neil Harris. 2013. “Joe Farman (1930–2013).” Nature 498 (7455): 435–35. https://doi.org/10.1038/498435a. Foege, William H, and Milbank Memorial Fund. House on Fire : The Fight to Eradicate Smallpox. Berkeley, University Of California Press, 2012 Future of Life Institute. “Future of Life Award 2020: Saving 200,000,000 Lives by Eradicating Smallpox.” Future of Life Institute, Lucas Perry, 11 Dec. 2020, https://futureoflife.org/the-future-of-life-podcast/.

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth. People all around the world tend to represent time via space, but there's no consensus on which way time goes. PREORDER OUR FIRST BOOK (out October 12th): DTFBA (get SUPER-cool book bundles here!): https://store.dftba.com/collections/minuteearth Amazon - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthExplains Bookshop.org - http://bit.ly/MinuteEarthexplains Barnes and Noble - http://bit.ly/Minuteearthexplains Indigo (Canada)- http://bit.ly/MinuteearthExplains SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Bergen, B. K. & Lau, T. T. C. (2012) Writing direction affects how people map space onto time. Frontiers in Psychology 3:109. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2012.00109/full Boroditsky, L. (2000). Metaphoric Structuring: Understanding time through spatial metaphors. Cognition, 75(1), 1-28. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027799000736 Casasanto, D. & Boroditsky, L. (2008). Time in the mind: Using space to think about time. Cognition 106 (2):579-593 http://lera.ucsd.edu/papers/duration-cognition-2008.pdf Majid, A., Gaby, A., & Boroditsky, L. (2013). Time in terms of space. Frontiers in Psychology, 4: 554. https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00554/full Núñez, R., Cooperrider, K., Doan, D., & Wassmann, J. (2012). Contours of time: Topographic construals of past, present, and future in the Yupno valley of Papua New Guinea. Cognition, 124(1), 25– 35. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/abs/pii/S0010027712000571

Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They'll plant 10 extra trees for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/start/minuteearth. Because smaller animals have to eat more relative to their bodyweight, Tolkein's hobbits need to eat a lot - not for comfort, but for survival. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Metabolism: The chemical processes that occur within a living organism in order to maintain life. Square-cube Law: A mathematical principle which describes the relationship between the volume and the surface area as a shape's size increases or decreases. Kleiber's Law: The observation that, for the vast majority of animals, an animal's metabolic rate scales to the 3⁄4 power of the animal's mass. Calorie: Unit of energy. One food calorie equals 1 kilocalorie. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer David Goldenberg | Script Editor, Narrator and Director Adam Thompson | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Kleiber, M. (1947). BODY SIZE AND METABOLIC RATE. Physiological Reviews, 27(4), 511–541. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1152/physrev.1947.27.4.511. Dawson, N. (1967). The Surface-Area/Body-Weight Relationship in Mice. Australian Journal of Biological Sciences, 20(3), 687. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1071/bi9670687. How Much Does an Elephant Weigh? (2019, September 26). Wonderopolis.org. Retrieved from: https://wonderopolis.org/wonder/how-much-does-an-elephant-weigh Thommen, Albert, et al. “Body Size-Dependent Energy Storage Causes Kleiber's Law Scaling of the Metabolic Rate in Planarians.” (2019) ELife, eLife Sciences Publications, Ltd, 4 Jan. 2019. Retrieved from: http://www.elifesciences.org/articles/38187. West, G. B., Brown, J. H., & Enquist, B. J. (1997). A General Model for the Origin of Allometric Scaling Laws in Biology. Science, 276(5309), 122–126. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1126/science.276.5309.122.

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at http://www.curiositystream.com/minuteearth. Sharks wouldn't be known for their fierce teeth today if it weren't for their ancient scales. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Dermal denticles: also called placoid scales, they're the most primitive form of fish scales that are structurally similar to teeth and are today found only in sharks, rays, and chimaeras. Outside-in theory: The strongest theory for the evolution of teeth, which are thought to have evolved from dermal denticle scales. Ostracoderms: Extinct armored jawless fish that lived in the Paleozoic Era Thelodonts: Extinct jawless fish that had individual scales as opposed to plates of armor Placoderms: Now extinct, they were some of the first jawed fish and lived from the Silurian through the Devonian era. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Kate Yoshida | Co-Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Donoghue, Philip CJ, and Martin Rücklin. "The ins and outs of the evolutionary origin of teeth." Evolution & development 18.1 (2016): 19-30. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/pdf/10.1111/ede.12099 Fraser, Gareth J., et al. "The odontode explosion: the origin of tooth‐like structures in vertebrates." Bioessays 32.9 (2010): 808-817. https://authors.library.caltech.edu/20188/3/nihms266189.pdf Huysseune, Ann, Jean‐Yves Sire, and P. Eckhard Witten. "Evolutionary and developmental origins of the vertebrate dentition." Journal of Anatomy 214.4 (2009): 465-476. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2736119/ Pennisi, Elizabeth. "Eating Was Tough For Early Tetrapods." (2013): 390-391. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/339/6118/390.full

For your chance to win two seats on one of the first commercial flights to space with Virgin Galactic – all while supporting a great cause – enter at https://omaze.com/minuteearth. While the rest of the world's megafauna are still foundering in the anthropocene era, these two big animals have used little animal strategies to bounce back. Way back. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Megafauna: Large animals, usually over 45 Kgs. - Anthropocene era: A proposed time period delineated the age during which human activity has been the dominant force on the environment and the climate. - Holocene Extinction: An ongoing extinction event of species due to human activity. - Fertility Rate: The number of babies an organism has in its lifetime. - Omnivory: The ability to eat food from two different trophic levels. - Bubble-Net Feeding: A cooperative hunting technique where groups of whales use bubbles to disorient fish prey. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Adam Thompson | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Vivitskaia, J D, Tulloch, Éva E Plagányi, Richard Matear, Christopher J Brown, Anthony J Richardson. (2017) Ecosystem modelling to quantify the impact of historical whaling on Southern Hemisphere baleen whales. Fish and Fisheries, 19:1 (117-137). Retrieved from: https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/faf.12241 Kosma Madison M., Werth Alexander J., Szabo Andrew R. and Straley Janice M. (2019). Pectoral herding: an innovative tactic for humpback whale foraging. Royal Society Open Science. 6:10. Retrieved from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsos.191104 Ritchie, Hannah, Roser, Max. "Biodiversity". Published online at OurWorldInData.org. Retrieved from: 'https://ourworldindata.org/biodiversity Pershing, A. J., Christensen, L. B., Record, N. R., Sherwood, G. D., & Stetson, P. B. (2010). The impact of whaling on the ocean carbon cycle: why bigger was better. PloS One, 5(8), e12444. Retrieved from: https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0012444 Ripple, William J., Newsome, Thomas M., Wolf, Christopher, Dirzo, Rodolfo, Everatt, Kristoffer, T.Galetti, Mauro, Hayward, Matt W.Kerley, Graham I. H.Levi, Taal, Lindsey, Peter A, Macdonald, David W. Malhi, Yadvinder, Painter, Luke E.Sandom, Christopher J., Terborgh, JohnVan, Valkenburgh, Blaire. (2015) Collapse of the world's largest herbivores. Science Advances. 1:3 Retrieved from: https://advances.sciencemag.org/content/1/4/e1400103/tab-pdf Meynecke, Olaf. 2021. Personal communication. Center for Coastal and Marine Management, Griffith University. https://www.dr-olaf.com/ Pallin Logan J., Baker C. Scott, Steel Debbie, Kellar Nicholas M., Robbins Jooke, Johnston David W., Nowacek Doug P., Read Andrew J. and Friedlaender Ari S. (2018) High pregnancy rates in humpback whales (Megaptera novaeangliae) around the Western Antarctic Peninsula, evidence of a rapidly growing population. Royal Society Open Science. 5:5. Retrieved from: http://doi.org/10.1098/rsos.180017 Holland, Jennifer. (2015) Black Bears Are Rebounding - What Does That Mean For People? National Geographic. Retrieved from: https://www.nationalgeographic.com/animals/article/150626-black-bears-animals-science-nation-conservation?loggedin=true Ramona L. Gonzales, Alejandra V. Mendoza, Brendan M. Himelright, Jenna M. Moore, Thomas J. Spady (2013) American black bear mating behavior and chemosensation of estrus. Ursus, 24(2), 139-147. Retrieved from: https://bioone.org/journals/ursus/volume-24/issue-2/URSUS-D-12-00026.1/American-black-bear-mating-behavior-and-chemosensation-of-estrus/10.2192/URSUS-D-12-00026.1.short Himelright, B. M., Moore, J. M., Gonzales, R. L., Mendoza, A. V., Dye, P. S., Schuett, R. J., Durrant, B. S., Read, B. A., & Spady, T. J. (2014). Sequential ovulation and fertility of polyoestrous in American black bears (Ursus americanus). Conservation physiology, 2(1), Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1093/conphys/cou051

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Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They'll protect 5 extra acres of rainforest for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/join/minuteearth. Optimal foraging theory means that turning down food is sometimes more efficient than eating it - but even then, what's “wasted” doesn't necessarily go to waste. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Foraging: to search widely for food. Optimal Foraging Theory: A behavioral model that describes how an animal should behave when searching for food. Surplus Killing: a common behavior exhibited by predators, in which they kill more prey than they can immediately eat and then cache or abandon the remainder. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer Kate Yoshida | Script Editor Julián Gustavo Gómez | Narrator and Director Adam Thompson | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Alcock, J. (2013). Animal behavior : an evolutionary approach. Sinauer, Cop. Hopkins, J. B. (2013). Use of genetics to investigate socially learned foraging behavior in free-ranging black bears. Journal of Mammalogy, 94(6), 1214–1222. https://doi.org/10.1644/13-mamm-a-009.1 Klinka, D. R., & Reimchen, T. E. (2009). Darkness, Twilight, and Daylight Foraging Success of Bears (Ursus americanus) on Salmon in Coastal British Columbia. Journal of Mammalogy, 90(1), 144–149. https://doi.org/10.1644/07-mamm-a-200.1 Lincoln, A. E., & Quinn, T. P. (2018). Optimal foraging or surplus killing: selective consumption and discarding of salmon by brown bears. Behavioral Ecology, 30(1), 202–212. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/ary139 Lounibos, L. P., Makhni, S., Alto, B. W., & Kesavaraju, B. (2008). Surplus Killing by Predatory Larvae of Corethrella appendiculata: Prepupal Timing and Site-Specific Attack on Mosquito Prey. Journal of Insect Behavior, 21(2), 47–54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10905-007-9103-2 Maupin, J. L. (2001). Superfluous killing in spiders: a consequence of adaptation to food-limited environments? Behavioral Ecology, 12(5), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1093/beheco/12.5.569 McMahon, B. F., & Evans, R. M. (1992). Foraging Strategies of American White Pelicans. Behaviour, 120(1-2), 69–89. https://doi.org/10.1163/156853992x00219

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth. Fevers are one of our best weapons against infections, but they don't work like you might think. We'd like to give a big thank you to Sharon Evans from the Roswell Park Comprehensive Cancer Center for sharing her expertise for this video! LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Fever: a rise in body temperature, usually caused by infection Heat shock proteins (HSP): a family of proteins that are produced by cells in response to exposure to stressful conditions Neutrophils: white blood cells that play an important role in inflammation and are early responders to pathogens. T cells: major components of the adaptive immune system whose roles include regulating the immune response to pathogens. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Appenheimer, M.M. & Evans, S.S. (2018) Temperature and adaptive immunity. Handbook of Clinical Neurology 156: 397–415. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/B978-0-444-63912-7.00024-2 Casadevall, A. (2016) Thermal Restriction as an Antimicrobial Function of Fever. PLoS Pathog 12(5): e1005577. https://journals.plos.org/plospathogens/article?id=10.1371/journal.ppat.1005577 ChangDong L. et al. (2019). Fever Promotes T Lymphocyte Trafficking via a Thermal Sensory Pathway Involving Heat Shock Protein 90 and α4 Integrins. Immunity 50(1):137-151. https://www.cell.com/immunity/fulltext/S1074-7613(18)30495-3 Evans, S.S. et al. (2015) Fever and the thermal regulation of immunity: the immune system feels the heat. Nature Reviews Immunology 15(6): 335+. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4786079/ Hasday, J.D., Thompson, C., Singh, I.S. (2014) Fever, immunity, and molecular adaptations. Comprehensive Physiology 4:109–48. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1002/cphy.c130019 Hasday, J.D. & Singh, I.S. (2000) Fever and the heat shock response: distinct, partially overlapping processes. Cell Stress Chaperones 5:471–480. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC312879/ Javid, B., MacAry, P.A. & Lehner, P.J. (2007) Structure and function: heat shock proteins and adaptive immunity. Journal of Immunology 179:2035–2040. https://www.jimmunol.org/content/179/4/2035 Mackowiak, P. A.: Direct effects of hyperthermia on pathogenic microorganisms: teleological implications with regard to fever. Reviews of Infectious Diseases 1981, 3: 508–518. https://academic.oup.com/cid/article-abstract/3/3/508/307776

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Offset your carbon footprint with Wren! They'll protect 5 extra acres of rainforest for each of the first 100 people who sign up at https://www.wren.co/join/minuteearth. It turns out that defining what is and isn't a “tree” is way harder than it seems. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Wood: A bunch of cellulose fibers intertwined with lignin usually found in the trunk of a tree. Trunk: A wooden stem that thickens over time. Bonsai: An ornamental tree or shrub that is artificially prevented from reaching its normal size. Shrub: A woody plant that is smaller than a tree. Gymnosperm: A group of plants, including conifers, that have naked seeds. Angiosperm: A group of plants, including lots of other “trees” that have enclosed seeds. Monocots: A group of flowering plants - mostly angiosperms - with a single embryonic leaf that includes palm trees. Dicots: A group of flowering plants - mostly angiosperms - with two embryonic leaves that includes oak trees. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator, and Director Adam Thompson | Illustration, Video Editing, and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Georg Miehe, Sabine Miehe, Jonas Vogel, Sonam Co, Duo La. (2007) "Highest Treeline in the Northern Hemisphere Found in Southern Tibet," Mountain Research and Development, 27(2), 169-173. Retrieved from: https://bioone.org/journals/mountain-research-and-development/volume-27/issue-2/mrd.0792/Highest-Treeline-in-the-Northern-Hemisphere-Found-in-Southern-Tibet/10.1659/mrd.0792.full#i0276-4741-27-2-169-b33 Ellenberg, H., Mueller-Dombois, D. (1965). A key to Raunkiaer plant life forms with revised subdivisions. Retrieved from: https://www.e-periodica.ch/cntmng?pid=bgi-002%3A1965%3A37%3A%3A130 Alcott, D. (2019). Are palm trees really trees? That's Life Science. Retrieved from: http://thatslifesci.com/2019-11-25-Are-palm-trees-really-trees-dalcott/ David B. Neale, Pedro J. Martínez-García, Amanda R. De La Torre, Sara Montanari, Xiao-Xin Wei. (2017). “Novel Insights into Tree Biology and Genome Evolution as Revealed Through Genomics.” Annual Review of Plant Biology 68:1, 457-483. Retrieved from: https://www.annualreviews.org/doi/abs/10.1146/annurev-arplant-042916-041049?journalCode=arplant Ehrenberg, Rachel. (2018). “What Makes A Tree A Tree?” Knowable Magazine. Retrieved from: https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2018/what-makes-tree-tree#:~:text=A%20banana%20tree%27s%20trunk%20doesn,cells%20typical%20of%20most%20trees Christophe Plomion, Grégoire Leprovost, Alexia Stokes. (2001). “Wood Formation in Trees”. Plant Physiology, Volume 127, 4: 1513–1523. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1104/pp.010816 Ray, Georgia (2021). "There's no such thing as a tree (phylogenetically)". Eukaryote Writes Blog. Retrieved from: https://eukaryotewritesblog.com/2021/05/02/theres-no-such-thing-as-a-tree/

Watch the new season of MinuteBody - and get access to both CuriosityStream and Nebula - at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth. We might have a strong hand because having a weak hand is actually useful. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Handedness: the tendency to use one hand more than the other for specific tasks SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Peter Reich | Script Writer Kate Yoshida | Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast... REFERENCES ************** Chédotal A and LJ Richards. 2010. Wiring the brain: the biology of neuronal guidance. Cold Spring Harb Perspect Biol. 2010 Jun; 2(6): a001917. doi: 10.1101/cshperspect.a001917 Magat M and C Brown. 2009. Laterality enhances cognition in Australian parrots. Proc. R. Soc. B 276:4155-4162 Forrester GS, WD Hopkins, K Hudry, A Lindell (eds). 2018. Cerebral Lateralization and Cognition: Evolutionary and Developmental Investigations of Behavioral Biases. Progress in Brain Research. Book series. Volume 238, Pages 2-433 Corballis MC (2014) Left Brain, Right Brain: Facts and Fantasies. PLoS Biol 12(1): e1001767. https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001767

Learn more about Lydall’s mission to create a cleaner, quieter and safer world at https://www.lydall.com. The global pandemic led to a drop in outdoor air pollution, but it also led to an increase in indoor air pollution - and our exposure to it. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Particulate matter: often abbreviated PM, it is the sum of all the tiny particles and drops of liquid suspended in the air including soil, soot, dust, metals, and acids like nitrates. Air quality: a measurement of how polluted the air is, judged by the level of known pollutants in the air like NO2 and particulate matter like soot. Ozonolysis: an organic chemical reaction wherein ozone cleaves a carbon-carbon bond in unsaturated compounds. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi i Garcia Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing, and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Anthes, Emily. "Coronavirus lockdowns may raise exposure to indoor air pollution." Scientific American 1 (2020). Chen, Yilin, et al. "Environmental Inequality Deepened During the COVID-19 in the Developing World." Environmental Science & Technology (2020). Eldeirawi, Kamal, et al. "Increased disinfectant use among adults with asthma in the era of COVID-19." The Journal of Allergy and Clinical Immunology: In Practice 9.3 (2021): 1378-1380. González-Martín, Javier, et al. "A state-of-the-art review on indoor air pollution and strategies for indoor air pollution control." Chemosphere (2020): 128376. Hoddinott, K. B., and A. P. Lee. "The use of environmental risk assessment methodologies for an indoor air quality investigation." Chemosphere 41.1-2 (2000): 77-84. Klepeis, Neil E., et al. "The National Human Activity Pattern Survey (NHAPS): a resource for assessing exposure to environmental pollutants." Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 11.3 (2001): 231-252. Lewis, Dyani. "COVID-19 rarely spreads through surfaces. So why are we still deep cleaning." Nature 590.7844 (2021): 26-28. Long, Christopher M., and Peter A. Valberg. "Indoor airborne particulate matter: Unregulated, but a major contributor to our everyday exposure." Nat. Resources & Env't 32 (2017): 8. Megahed, Naglaa A., and Ehab M. Ghoneim. "Indoor Air Quality: Rethinking rules of building design strategies in post-pandemic architecture." Environmental Research (2020): 110471. Nazaroff, William W., and Charles J. Weschler. "Cleaning products and air fresheners: exposure to primary and secondary air pollutants." Atmospheric environment 38.18 (2004): 2841-2865. Nwanaji-Enwerem, Jamaji C., Joseph G. Allen, and Paloma I. Beamer. "Another invisible enemy indoors: COVID-19, human health, the home, and United States indoor air policy." Journal of Exposure Science & Environmental Epidemiology 30.5 (2020): 773-775. Patel, Sameer, et al. "Indoor particulate matter during HOMEChem: Concentrations, size distributions, and exposures." Environmental science & technology 54.12 (2020): 7107-7116. Pluschke, Peter, and Hans Schleibinger. Indoor air pollution. Springer, 2018. Smith, Kirk R., et al. "Millions dead: how do we know and what does it mean? Methods used in the comparative risk assessment of household air pollution." Annual review of public health 35 (2014): 185-206. Sundell, Jan. "On the history of indoor air quality and health." Indoor air 14.s 7 (2004): 51-58. Schwarzenegger, Arnold. "Indoor air pollution in California." California EPA (2005). Torkmahalleh, Mehdi Amouei, et al. "Review of factors impacting emission/concentration of cooking generated particulate matter." Science of the Total Environment 586 (2017): 1046-1056. Tran, Vinh Van, Duckshin Park, and Young-Chul Lee. "Indoor air pollution, related human diseases, and recent trends in the control and improvement of indoor air quality." Internatio Venter, Zander S., et al. "COVID-19 lockdowns cause global air pollution declines." Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 117.32 (2020): 18984-18990.

Become smarter in 5 minutes by signing up for free today: http://cen.yt/mbminuteearth - Thanks to Morning Brew for sponsoring today’s video. Because there are so many different types of penises among our evolutionary relatives, we didn’t know until a recent discovery whether they all had the same origin. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Amniote: Vertebrates whose embryos are enclosed in a thin sac. - Cloaca: A posterior orifice used for excretion and reproduction. - Cloacal Kiss: A method that penisless amniotes use to mate, which involves males and females momentarily pressing their cloacae together. - Tuatara: Reptiles endemic to New Zealand that are the only surviving members of their ancient amniote group. - Hemipenis: One of the paired copulatory organs of lizards and snakes. - Bmp4: A protein that, when present, stifles the growth of penises in chick embryos. - Convergent Evolution: The independent evolution of similar features in different species. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Emily Willingham | Script Writer David Goldenberg | Script Editor & Narrator Adam Thompson | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Ever Salazar | Director Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich • Peter Reich Ever Salazar • Leonardo Souza • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2017). “Life Expectancy” – What does this actually mean?. Our World In Data. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy-how-is-it-calculated-and-how-should-it-be-interpreted. Dendy, Arthur. 1899. “Memoirs: Outlines of the Development of the Tuatara, Sphenodon (Hatteria) punctatus.” Journal of Cell Science s2-42: 1–87. Cree, Alison. 2014. Tuatara: Biology and Conservation of a Venerable Survivor. Christchurch, New Zealand: Canterbury University Press. Gans, Carl, James C. Gillingham, and David Lang Clark. 1984. “Courtship, Mating and Male Combat in Tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus.” Journal of Herpetology 18 (2): 194–97. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.2307/1563749. Sanger, Thomas J., Marissa L. Gredler, and Martin J. Cohn. 2015. “Resurrecting Embryos of the Tuatara, Sphenodon punctatus, to Resolve Vertebrate Phallus Evolution.” Biology Letters 11 (10): pii: 20150694. REtreieved from: https://doi.org/10.1098/rsbl.2015.0694. Herrera, Ana María, Simone G. Shuster, Claire L. Perriton, and Martin J. Cohn. 2013. “Developmental Basis of Phallus Reduction During Bird Evolution.” Current Biology 23 (12): 1065–74. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2013.04.062. Brennan, Patricia L. R. 2016a. “Evolution: One Penis After All.” Current Biology 26: R29–R31. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2015.11.024. Willingham, Emily. 2020. Fallacy: Life Lessons from the Animal Penis. Avery. Retrieved from: https://www.amazon.com/Phallacy-Life-Lessons-Animal-Penis/dp/0593087178

Get a limited edition MinuteEarth YETI tumbler when you become a new patron at the $6 or above tiers or upgrade an existing pledge: https://patreon.com/minuteearth Humans are the only animals known to faint due to triggers like shock, fear, or pain; this is due to a combination of our massive brains and upright stance. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: "Fight or flight": an instinctive physiological response to a threatening situation that readies animals (including humans) to either resist forcibly or escape Fainting: loss of consciousness caused by a temporary lack of oxygen to the brain, also known as “syncope.” Vasovagal syncope: a type of fainting that happens when your body overreacts to an emotional trigger like being in danger, seeing blood, or even just hearing some shocking news. Tonic immobility: an instinctive physiological response to a threatening situation that causes some animals to relax their muscles and “freeze” in place, sometimes causing them to fall over Jump scare: a technique often used in horror films meant to scare the audience with a sudden change on screen, usually paired with a loud sound SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) | Script Writer, Narrator, and Director Josh Taira | Illustration, Video Editing, and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** Piano Jump Scare Stinger by TheSoundFXGuy_YT of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/TheSoundFXGuy_YT/sounds/534218/ Licensed under CC BY 3.0 https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/ OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Alboni, Paolo, and Marco Alboni. "Origin and Evolution of the Vasovagal Reflex." Vasovagal Syncope. Springer, Cham, 2015. 3-17. Alboni, P., Alboni, M. “Typical vasovagal syncope as a “defense mechanism” for the heart by contrasting sympathetic overactivity.” Clin Auton Res 27, 253–261 (2017). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10286-017-0446-2 Blanc, Jean-Jacques, Paolo Alboni, and David G. Benditt. "Vasovagal syncope in humans and protective reactions in animals." Ep Europace 17.3 (2015): 345-349. Bracha, H., Bienvenu, O. & Person, D. “Evolution and fear-fainting.” Clin Auton Res 16, 299 (2006). https://doi.org/10.1007/s10286-006-0359-y Buckey JC, Peshock RM, Blomqvist CG. “Deep venous contribution to hydrostatic blood volume change in the human leg.” Am J Cardiol. 1988 Sep 1;62(7):449-53. https://doi.org/10.1016/0002-9149(88)90976-9. Furst, Branko. "The Effect of Gravity and Upright Posture on Circulation." The Heart and Circulation. Springer, Cham, 2020. 319-341. Kozlowska K, Walker P, McLean L, Carrive P. “Fear and the Defense Cascade: Clinical Implications and Management.” Harv Rev Psychiatry. 2015 Jul-Aug;23(4):263-87. https://doi.org/10.1097/HRP.0000000000000065. Roelofs, Karin. "Freeze for action: neurobiological mechanisms in animal and human freezing." Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences 372.1718 (2017): 20160206. Sheldon, Robert S., and Roopinder K. Sandhu. "The search for the genes of vasovagal syncope." Frontiers in cardiovascular medicine 6 (2019): 175. Sun, Benjamin C., Jennifer A. Emond, and Carlos A. Camargo Jr. "Direct medical costs of syncope-related hospitalizations in the United States." The American journal of cardiology 95.5 (2005): 668-671. van Dijk JG. “Fainting in animals.” Clin Auton Res. 2003 Aug;13(4):247-55. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10286-003-0099-1.

Enjoy 10% off MOVA Globes with code MINUTEEARTH. Shop now on https://bit.ly/MinuteEarthGlobes All over the world, giant wave breaks appear because of underwater geology that supercharges their wave energy. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Amplitude - The distance between the crest and trough of a wave. Bathymetry - The measurement of depth of water in oceans, seas, or lakes. Nazaré Canyon - An undersea canyon just off the coast of Nazaré, Portugal, in the eastern North Atlantic Ocean. It is the largest submarine canyon in Europe, reaching depths of about 5,000 meters (16,000 ft) deep and a length of about 230 kilometers (140 mi). Plunging Breaker - Occurs when there are rapid depth changes. The crest of the wave becomes very steep, and the rear of the wave violently plunges over the front. Reef Break - A location where waves break over a reef, often amplifying them. Spilling Breaker - Occurs when the seafloor slopes gradually. As the wave becomes unstable, energy is dissipated by water spilling over the crest of the wave. Swell - a slow, regular movement of the sea in rolling waves that do not break. Wave period - The time between waves. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer Kate Yoshida | Narrator David Goldenberg | Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing, and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Babanin, A. V., Rogers, W. E., de Camargo, R., Doble, M., Durrant, T., Filchuk, K., Ewans, K., Hemer, M., Janssen, T., Kelly-Gerreyn, B., Machutchon, K., McComb, P., Qiao, F., Schulz, E., Skvortsov, A., Thomson, J., Vichi, M., Violante-Carvalho, N., Wang, D., & Waseda, T. (2019). Waves and Swells in High Wind and Extreme Fetches, Measurements in the Southern Ocean. Frontiers in Marine Science, 6. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.3389/fmars.2019.00361 Editor At Surfertoday.com. (2013, November 5). The canyon that makes waves. Surfertoday; SurferToday.com | The Ultimate Surfing News Website. Retrieved from: https://www.surfertoday.com/surfing/the-canyon-that-makes-waves Griffiths, L. S., & Porter, R. (2012). Focusing of surface waves by variable bathymetry. Applied Ocean Research, 34, 150–163. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1016/j.apor.2011.08.004 Inman, D. (2021). Living with Coastal Change - Coastal Basics - Wave Refraction Model - Jaws, Hawaii. Ucsd.edu. Retrieved from: http://coastalchange.ucsd.edu/st3_basics/p_waverefrac.html#bathymetric_map Keating, S. (2020, January 6). The story of a wave: from wind-blown ripples to breaking on the beach. The Conversation. Retrieved from: https://theconversation.com/the-story-of-a-wave-from-wind-blown-ripples-to-breaking-on-the-beach-128458 Pedro Proença Cunha, & Margarida, M. (2015, February). The Nazaré coast, the submarine canyon and the giant waves - a synthesis. ResearchGate; Universidade de Coimbra. Retrieved from: https://www.researchgate.net/publication/275522569_The_Nazare_coast_the_submarine_canyon_and_the_giant_waves_-_a_synthesis Pinet, P. R. (2009). Invitation to oceanography (5th ed.). Jones & Bartlett Learning. The generation and propagation of ocean waves and swell. I. Wave periods and velocities | Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. (2017). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. Series A, Mathematical and Physical Sciences. Retrieved from: https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rsta.1948.0005 Warner, S. (2020). What makes the world’s biggest surfable waves? The Conversation. Retrieved from: https://theconversation.com/what-makes-the-worlds-biggest-surfable-waves-150600 Warner, S. (2021). Department of Environmental Studies, Brandeis University. Personal Communication. Homepage: https://www.brandeis.edu/facultyguide/person.html?emplid=6cf46554ff6936fa51d9e22d0414e63798a5c4a1

To learn more about restoration action - and get involved - visit RESTOR from the Crowther Lab at https://restor.eco. Superheroes - imaginary and real - aren't all that super on their own...here's why. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: carbon sequestration: the process of capturing and storing atmospheric carbon dioxide productivity: the rate of generation of biomass (and therefore carbon storage) in an ecosystem SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer and Narrator David Goldenberg | Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Bar-On, Y. M., Phillips, R., & Milo, R. (2018). The biomass distribution on Earth. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 201711842. http://www.pnas.org/content/115/25/6506. Liang J et al. (2016). Positive biodiversity–productivity relationship predominant in global forests. Science 354: 6309. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/354/6309/aaf8957 Liu X et al. 2018 Tree species richness increases ecosystem carbon storage in subtropical forests. Proc. R. Soc. B 285: 20181240. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rspb.2018.1240 Mistry J, Bilbao BA, Berardi A. (2016). Community owned solutions for fire management in tropical ecosystems: case studies from Indigenous communities of South America. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 371: 20150174. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2015.0174 Oehri J. et al (2020). Terrestrial land-cover type richness is positively linked to landscape-level functioning. Nature Communications 11 (1). https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-14002-7 Schmitz O.J. et al. Animals and the zoogeochemistry of the carbon cycle. Science. 2018; 362. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/362/6419/eaar3213/ Sobral, M. et al. (2017). Mammal diversity influences the carbon cycle through trophic interactions in the Amazon. Nature Ecology & Evolution 1: 1670–1676. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41559-017-0334-0 Soto-Navarro C, et al. (2020). Mapping co-benefits for carbon storage and biodiversity to inform conservation policy and action. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 375: 20190128. https://royalsocietypublishing.org/doi/10.1098/rstb.2019.0128

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/minuteearth2 You might already know that proteins are a fundamental part of your diet, but they're much more than that. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: - Amino acids: are organic compounds that contain amino (–NH2) and carboxyl (–COOH) functional groups, along with a side chain specific to each amino acid. - Proteins: are macromolecules composed of one or more long chains of amino acid residues. Most proteins fold into unique 3D structures. The shape into which a protein naturally folds is known as its native conformation. - Alpha helix (α-helix): is a common motif in the secondary structure of proteins and is a right hand-helix conformation in which every backbone N−H group hydrogen bonds to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid located four residues earlier along the protein sequence. - Beta sheet (β-sheet): is a common motif of the regular protein secondary structure and consists of beta strands (β-strands) connected laterally by at least two or three backbone hydrogen bonds, forming a generally twisted, pleated sheet. - Ribbon diagrams: are 3D schematic representations of protein structure that shows the overall path and organization of the protein backbone in 3D. Ribbon diagrams are generated by interpolating a smooth curve through the polypeptide backbone. α-helices are shown as coiled ribbons or thick tubes, β-strands as arrows, and non-repetitive coils or loops as lines or thin tubes. CREDITS ********* Ever Salazar | Co-Writer, Narrator, Illustrator and Director David Wych | Co-writer and Consultant Aldo de Vos, Know Art | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius • David Goldenberg Julián Gustavo Gómez • Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich Henry Reich • Peter Reich • Leonardo Souza Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 OTHER CREDITS & REFERENCES ********************************** Goodsell, David (2006). Visual Methods from Atoms to Cells. Structure 13, Issue 3:347-354. doi:10.1016/j.str.2005.01.012 Protein 3D images created using Mol* (https://molstar.org/) and structure data from RCSB PDB (https://www.rcsb.org/) Mol* (D. Sehnal, A.S. Rose, J. Kovca, S.K. Burley, S. Velankar (2018) Mol*: Towards a common library and tools for web molecular graphics MolVA/EuroVis Proceedings. doi:10.2312/molva.20181103) Villin folding trajectory by Stefan Doerr - https://figshare.com/authors/Stefan_Doerr/748688 Clathrin Structure (PDB ID: 3IYV) Fotin, A., et al (2004). Molecular model for a complete clathrin lattice from electron cryomicroscopy. Nature 432: 573-579. doi:10.1038/nature03079 Immunoglobulin Structure (PDB IDs: 1IGT & 1IGY) Harris, L.J., et al (1998). Crystallographic structure of an intact IgG1 monoclonal antibody. J Mol Biol 275: 861-872. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1997.1508 ATP Synthase Structure (PDB IDs: 5ARE, 5ARI & 5FIL) Zhou, A., et al (2015). Structure and conformational states of the bovine mitochondrial ATP synthase by cryo-EM. ELife, 4. doi:10.7554/eLife.10180 RCSB PDB Molecule of the Month by David S. Goodsell (The Scripps Research Institute and the RCSB PDB) - https://pdb101.rcsb.org/motm/72 Photosystem II (PDB ID: 5XNL) Su, X., et al (2017). Structure and assembly mechanism of plant C2S2M2-type PSII-LHCII supercomplex. Science 357: 815-820. doi:10.1126/science.aan0327 Ribonuclease (PDB ID: 2AAS) Santoro, J., et al (1993). High-resolution three-dimensional structure of ribonuclease A in solution by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. J Mol Biol 229: 722-734. doi:10.1006/jmbi.1993.1075 Myosin (PDB ID: 1B7T) Houdusse, A., et al (1999). Atomic structure of scallop myosin subfragment S1 complexed with MgADP: a novel conformation of the myosin head. Cell 97: 459-470. doi:10.1016/s0092-8674(00)80756-4

Get Surfshark VPN at https://surfshark.deals/minuteearth and enter code MINUTEEARTH for 83% off and 3 extra months free! The body can get a whole lot colder - but not a whole lot hotter - before we die. Why is that? LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Hyperthermia: a medical condition where an individual's body temperature is elevated beyond normal Hypothermia: a medical doncition that occurs when an individual's body loses heat faster than it can produce heat, causing a dangerously low body temperature Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different Denaturation: the alteration of a protein shape through some form of external stress (for example, heat), so that it can no longer carry out its cellular function If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: A great article from Outside on hyperthermia: https://www.outsideonline.com/2398105/heat-stroke-signs-symptoms Learn more about the woman who survived the lowest known body temp: https://www.atlasobscura.com/articles/the-woman-who-survived-the-lowest-body-temperature-ever SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Lepock JR (2004). Role of nuclear protein denaturation and aggregation in thermal radiosensitization, International Journal of Hyperthermia, 20:2, 115-130, https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/02656730310001637334 Leuenberger, P, Ganscha S, Kahraman A, Cappelletti V, PJ Boersema, Mering Cv, Claassen M, Picotti P (2017). Cell-wide analysis of protein thermal unfolding reveals determinants of thermostability Science, 355: eaai7825. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/355/6327/eaai7825 Roti Roti J (2008) Cellular responses to hyperthermia (40–46 degrees C): cell killing and molecular events. International Journal of Hyperthermia 24(1): 3–15. https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/02656730701769841 Sawka MN, Leon LR, Montain SJ, Sonna LA (2011). Integrated physiological mechanisms of exercise performance, adaptation, and maladaptation to heat stress. Comprehensive Physiology 1: 1883-1928. https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1002/cphy.c100082 Slovis CM, Anderson GF, Casolaro A (1982). Survival in a heat stroke victim with a core temperature in excess of 46.5 C. Annals of Emergency Medicine 11(5):269-271. https://linkinghub.elsevier.com/retrieve/pii/S0196-0644(82)80099-1

Watch the music video for "The Idea" off the album Music For Scientists: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tUyT94aGmbc Null results often get a bad rap, sometimes characterized as a study "finding nothing," but there's a lot we can learn from studies whose results fail to support their hypotheses. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Null result: a result in a scientific study that doesn’t support the hypothesis Premature birth: also known as preterm birth, is a birth that occurs before the 37th week of pregnancy XENON1T: a highly sensitive experiment to search for direct interactions of dark matter particles. It’s located deep under Italy’s Gran Sasso mountain at the Gran Sasso National Laboratory. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia i Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Aldo de Vos (Know Art) | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia i Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** The importance of no evidence. Nat Hum Behav 3, 197 (2019). https://doi.org/10.1038/s41562-019-0569-7 Jena, A. B. (2017, November 10). 'Null' research findings aren't empty of Meaning. Let's publish them. Retrieved March 19, 2021, from https://www.statnews.com/2017/11/10/null-research-findings/ Maloni, Judith A. “Lack of evidence for prescription of antepartum bed rest.” Expert review of obstetrics & gynecology vol. 6,4 (2011): 385-393. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3226811/ Matosin N, Frank E, Engel M, Lum JS, Newell KA. Negativity towards negative results: a discussion of the disconnect between scientific worth and scientific culture. Dis Model Mech. 2014 Feb;7(2):171-3. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/24713271/ Miller-Halegoua, Suzanne M. “Why null results do not mean no results: negative findings have implications for policy, practice, and research.” Translational behavioral medicine vol. 7,2 (2017): 137. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5526820/ Mlinarić, Ana, Martina Horvat, and Vesna Šupak Smolčić. "Dealing with the positive publication bias: Why you should really publish your negative results." Biochemia medica 27.3 (2017): 447-452. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5696751/ W David Crews, Jr, David W Harrison, James W Wright, A double-blind, placebo-controlled, randomized trial of the effects of dark chocolate and cocoa on variables associated with neuropsychological functioning and cardiovascular health: clinical findings from a sample of healthy, cognitively intact older adults, The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, Volume 87, Issue 4, April 2008, Pages 872–880, https://doi.org/10.1093/ajcn/87.4.872 Zhao, L. (2017, December 29). When null results produce important science. Retrieved March 19, 2021, from https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/observations/when-null-results-produce-important-science/

Go to https://bit.ly/noom_minuteearth and take your free 30-second quiz! Thank you #noom for sponsoring today’s video! In order to truly understand differences among animal lifespans, we need to stop thinking about a specific number and start thinking about a distribution. Check out the MinuteLabs interactive here: https://labs.minutelabs.io/survival-curves/ LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Life Expectancy At Birth: The average number of years a newborn in a particular group could expect to live. Life Expectancy After Babyhood: The average number of years a member of a particular group could expect to live given that they had survived their first year. Maximum Life Expectancy: The age at which the oldest known member of a particular group died. Mortality Rate: The frequency of occurrence of death within a particular group during a particular time period. Life Table: A table that shows the number of individuals within a group that survive from one year to the next until they are all dead. Survivorship Curve: A plot of the data in a particular life table that shows the years on the x-axis and the number or percent of survivors on the y-axis. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Ortiz-Ospina, E. (2017). “Life Expectancy” – What does this actually mean?. Our World In Data. Retrieved from: https://ourworldindata.org/life-expectancy-how-is-it-calculated-and-how-should-it-be-interpreted. Brown JS, Cunningham JJ, Gatenby RA. 2015 The multiple facets of Peto’s paradox: a life-history model for the evolution of cancer suppression. Phil. Trans. R. Soc. B 370: 20140221. Retrieved from: http://dx.doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2014.0221 Barbieri, M. (2021). Personal Communication. UC Berkeley Department of Demography. Retrieved from: https://www.site.demog.berkeley.edu/barbieri-profile-page United Nations. 2019 Revision of World Population Prospects. Retrieved from: https://population.un.org/wpp/ Khan Academy. Life Tables, Survivorship Curves, and Age-Sex Structure. Retrieved from: https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/ecology/population-ecology/a/life-tables-survivorship-age-sex-structure Deevey, E. (1934). Life Tables for Natural Populations of Animals. The Quarterly Review of Biology. 22(4): 283-314. Retrieved from: https://www.journals.uchicago.edu/doi/pdf/10.1086/395888

To start comparing quotes and simplify insurance-buying check out Policygenius: http://policygenius.com/minuteearth. Thanks to Policygenius for sponsoring this video! I found a really cool coronavirus illustration that led me to learn about viral attachment and entry. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Virus: a submicroscopic infectious agent that replicates only inside the living cells of an organism. The study of viruses is known as virology. Virion: a complete virus particle, and consists of nucleic acid surrounded by a protective coat of protein called a capsid. Coronaviruses: a group of related RNA viruses that cause diseases in mammals and birds. In humans and birds, they cause respiratory tract infections that can range from mild to lethal and include some cases of the common cold, SARS, MERS, and COVID-19. SARS-CoV-2: the virus that causes coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), the respiratory illness responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic. Class I fusion proteins: resemble influenza virus hemagglutinin in their structure. Post-fusion, the active site has a trimer of α-helical coiled-coils Proteins featured in this video: - SARS-CoV-2 Spike (S) Protein - Heparan Sulfate Proteoglycan (HSPG) (Syndecan-4, especifically) - Angiotensin-converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) - Furin - Transmembrane protease, serine 2 (TMPRSS2) If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: Coronaviruses 101: Focus on Molecular Virology by Britt Glaunsinger https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8_bOhZd6ieM Virology Lectures 2021: Attachment and entry by Vincent Racaniello https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=7grtc4k1fhg Building a visual consensus model of the SARS-CoV-2 life cycle https://animationlab.utah.edu/cova SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Ever Salazar | Script Writer, Narrator, Director, and Illustrator Aldo de Vos (Know Art) | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** SARS-CoV-2 Fusion, 2020 - Illustration by David S. Goodsell, RCSB Protein Data Bank; doi: 10.2210/rcsb_pdb/goodsell-gallery-026 http://pdb101.rcsb.org/sci-art/goodsell-gallery/sars-cov-2-fusion Coronavirus outbreak (covid 19) explained through 3D Medical Animation - Video by scientificanimations.com https://youtu.be/I-Yd-_XIWJg?t=208 Coronavirus, Explained: This Pandemic - Video by Netflix https://www.netflix.com/title/81273378 How the Coronavirus Hijacks Your Cells - Video by Bloomberg Quicktake https://youtu.be/4S3DXXtRZZg?t=128 Ink Drop/Drip in water - Video by CyberWebFX https://www.youtube.com/c/CyberWebFX OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Afzelius, B. (1994). Ultrastructure of human nasal epithelium during an episode of coronavirus infection. Virchows Archiv 424:295-300 Bestle, D., Heindl, M., Limburg, H., et all (2020). TMPRSS2 and furin are both essential for proteolytic activation of SARS-CoV-2 in human airway cells. doi: 10.26508/lsa.202000786 Buijsers B., et al (2020) Increased Plasma Heparanase Activity in COVID-19 Patients. Front. Immunol. 11:575047. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2020.575047 Casalino, L., et al (2020). Beyond Shielding: The Roles of Glycans in the SARS-CoV-2 Spike Protein ACS Central Science 2020 6 (10), 1722-1734. doi: 10.1021/acscentsci.0c01056 Clausen, T. M., et al (2020). SARS-CoV-2 Infection Depends on Cellular Heparan Sulfate and ACE2. Cell Volume 183, Issue 4, Pages 1043-1057.e15. doi: 10.1016/j.cell.2020.09.033 Elenius, K & Jalkanen, M. (1994). Function of the syndecans - a family of cell surface proteoglycans. Journal of Cell Science 107, 2975-2982 Shang, J. et al (2020). Cell entry mechanisms of SARS-CoV-2. PNAS May 26, 2020 117 (21) 11727-11734. doi: 10.1073/pnas.2003138117 Thomas, G. (2002). Furin at the cutting edge: From protein traffic to embryogenesis and disease. Nat Rev Mol Cell Biol. 2002 October; 3(10): 753–766 Zhang, Q., et al (2020). Heparan sulfate assists SARS-CoV-2 in cell entry and can be targeted by approved drugs in vitro. Cell Discovery (2020) 6:80. doi: 10.1038/s41421-020-00222-5

To make our work paw-sible, join us on Patreon at http://patreon.com/MinuteEarth! Different dogs look incredibly different - but that doesn't mean they are necessarily more diverse. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: phenotypic diversity - the range of different observable traits in a certain organism - for example, size, color, strength, and friendliness. genetic diversity - the variation in the genetic information within and among individuals of a population or species artificial selection (or selective breeding) - a process used by humans to develop new organisms with desirable characteristics SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Josh Taira | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Hedrick P. & Andersson L. (2011) Are dogs genetically special? Heredity 106: 712–713. https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3186234/ Lampi S. et al. (2020) Variation in breeding practices and geographic isolation drive subpopulation differentiation, contributing to the loss of genetic diversity within dog breed lineages. Canine Medicine and Genetics 7(1): 1-10. https://cgejournal.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s40575-020-00085-9 Lyons L. (2009) Recent advances in cat genetics. CAB Reviews: Perspectives in Agriculture, Veterinary Science, Nutrition and Natural Resources, Volume 4. https://ucdavis.pure.elsevier.com/en/publications/recent-advances-in-cat-genetics Menotti-Raymond M. et al. (2008) Patterns of molecular genetic variation among cat breeds. Genomics 91(1): 1-11. https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0888754307002078?via%3Dihub Ostrander E. & Wayne R. (2005) The canine genome. Genome Research 15(12):1706-16. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16339369/ Parker H. et al. (2004) Genetic structure of the purebred domestic dog. Science 304: 1160–4. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/304/5674/1160 Plassais J. et al. (2019) Whole genome sequencing of canids reveals genomic regions under selection and variants influencing morphology. Nature Communications 10. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41467-019-09373-w

You can read Bill & Melinda Gates' 2021 letter at http://gatesnot.es/3opAPWK Certain cognitive biases cause humans to make unsafe decisions in a pandemic, making a terrible disease even worse. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Pandemic: A disease outbreak that spreads across the world. Exponential Growth: Growth that occurs when a value increases in proportion to its current value. Exponential Growth Prediction Bias: An error in prediction that occurs when people underestimate how quickly numbers rise in an exponential system. Optimism Bias: An error that occurs when people underestimate their personal likelihood of experiencing a negative event. Hyperbolic Time Discounting Bias: An error that occurs when people choose smaller rewards in the present over larger awards in the future. Reactance Psychology: An unpleasant motivational state that occurs when a freedom is threatened with elimination. Individualism: The principle of being independent and self-reliant. Collectivism: The principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it. Disinformation: Deliberately false information designed to deceive. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Ritwik Banerjee, Joydeep Bhattacharya, Priyama Majumdar (2021). Exponential-growth prediction bias and compliance with safety measures related to COVID-19. Social Science & Medicine, 268. Retrieved from:https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0277953620306924?via%3Dihub. IHME COVID-19 Forecasting Team., Reiner, R.C., Barber, R.M. et al. (2020). Modeling COVID-19 scenarios for the United States. Nat Med 27, 94–105. Retrieved from: https://www.nature.com/articles/s41591-020-1132-9. Steindl, C., Jonas, E., Sittenthaler, S., Traut-Mattausch, E., & Greenberg, J. (2015). Understanding Psychological Reactance: New Developments and Findings. Zeitschrift fur Psychologie, 223(4), 205–214. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1027/2151-2604/a000222 Joris Lammers, Jan Crusius, and Anne Gast. (2020). Correcting misperceptions of exponential coronavirus growth increases support for social distancing.PNAS. 117:8. Retrieved from: https://www.pnas.org/content/pnas/117/28/16264.full.pdf. Alan, M., Marco, M. (2020). How Your Brain Tricks You Into Taking Risks During the Pandemic. ProPublica. Retrieved from: https://www.propublica.org/article/how-your-brain-tricks-you-into-taking-risks-during-the-pandemic/. Bottemanne Hugo, Morlaàs Orphée, Fossati Philippe, Schmidt Liane. (2020). Does the Coronavirus Epidemic Take Advantage of Human Optimism Bias? Frontiers in Psychology. 11. Retrieved from: https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fpsyg.2020.02001/full Soofi, M., Najafi, F. & Karami-Matin, B. (2020). Using Insights from Behavioral Economics to Mitigate the Spread of COVID-19. Appl Health Econ Health Policy 18, 345–350. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1007/s40258-020-00595-4

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/minuteearth2 Under the right conditions, wildfires can form clouds and generate firestorms, which last far longer than normal thunderstorms. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Pyrocumulonimbus cloud - a type of cumulonimbus cloud that forms that forms above wildfires and even volcanic eruptions, which can create thunderstorms Virga - rain that evaporates before it hits the ground Updraft - upward moving air in a thunderstorm Downdraft - downward moving air in a thunderstorm SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Andreae, Meinrat O., et al. "Smoking rain clouds over the Amazon." science 303.5662 (2004): 1337-1342. https://science.sciencemag.org/content/303/5662/1337.abstract Dowdy, Andrew J., Michael D. Fromm, and Nicholas McCarthy. "Pyrocumulonimbus lightning and fire ignition on Black Saturday in southeast Australia." Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres 122.14 (2017): 7342-7354. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/full/10.1002/2017JD026577 Dowdy, Andrew J., et al. "Future changes in extreme weather and pyroconvection risk factors for Australian wildfires." Scientific reports 9.1 (2019): 1-11. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-019-46362-x McKeever, A. (2020, September 24). Fire clouds and fire tornadoes: How wildfires spawn extreme weather. Retrieved January 30, 2021, from https://www.nationalgeographic.com/environment/natural-disasters/pyrocumulonimbus-clouds-fire-tornadoes-how-wildfires-spawn-extreme-weather/ Ndalila, Mercy N., et al. "Evolution of a pyrocumulonimbus event associated with an extreme wildfire in Tasmania, Australia." Natural Hazards and Earth System Sciences 20.5 (2020): 1497-1511. https://nhess.copernicus.org/articles/20/1497/2020/ Peterson, David A., et al. "Wildfire-driven thunderstorms cause a volcano-like stratospheric injection of smoke." NPJ climate and atmospheric science 1.1 (2018): 1-8. https://www.nature.com/articles/s41612-018-0039-3

Check out Terra Mater’s new video about the Skywalker Gibbon - and subscribe - at https://youtube.com/terramaterofficial. Most new species are discovered by amateurs because nowadays non-professionals are actually better suited to the requirements of new species “discovery.” LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Taxonomy: The branch of science concerned with classifying organisms Taxonomic Impediment: The gaps in our taxonomic knowledge and the shortage of trained taxonomists and curators. Amateur Taxonomist: Someone who classifies organisms but is not paid to do so. Malacology: The study of mollusks, including snails and slugs. Type Specimen: The specimen used to officially describe a new species. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius (@garirius) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Fontaine, B., van Achterberg, K., Alonso-Zarazaga, M. A., Araujo, R., Asche, M., Aspöck, H., Aspöck, U., Audisio, P., Aukema, B., Bailly, N., Balsamo, M., Bank, R. A., Belfiore, C., Bogdanowicz, W., Boxshall, G., Burckhardt, D., Chylarecki, P., Deharveng, L., Dubois, A., Enghoff, H., … Bouchet, P. (2012). New species in the Old World: Europe as a frontier in biodiversity exploration, a test bed for 21st century taxonomy. PloS one, 7(5), e36881. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pone.0036881. Mora C, Tittensor DP, Adl S, Simpson AGB, Worm B. (2011). How Many Species Are There on Earth and in the Ocean? PLOS Biology 9(8): e1001127. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pbio.1001127. Drew, L. (2011). Are We Losing the Science of Taxonomy? As need grows, numbers and training are failing to keep up., BioScience, 61:12 (942–946). Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.12.4. Pearson, D., Hamilton, A., Erwin, T. (2011). Recovery Plan for the Endangered Taxonomy Profession. BioScience. 61:1 (58–63). Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1525/bio.2011.61.1.11. Agnarsson I, Kuntner M. (2007). Taxonomy in a changing world: seeking solutions for a science in crisis. Syst Biol.56(3):531-9. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17562477/. Warren, R. (2019). The New Publish or Perish: Requirements for Jobs and Tenure. ASA Footnotes. $7:1. Retrieved from: https://www.asanet.org/sites/default/files/attach/footnotes/footnotes_jan-feb-19.pdf Leber, J. (2019). Species Sleuths: Amateur Naturalists Spark a New Wave of Discovery. Yale Environment 360. Retrieved from: https://e360.yale.edu/features/field-sleuths-the-amateur-naturalists-who-are-discovering-new-species Nuwer, R. (2013). A Rallying Cry For Naming All Species On Earth. New York Times. Retrieved from: https://green.blogs.nytimes.com/2013/01/24/a-rallying-cry-for-naming-all-species-on-earth/ Fraussen, Koen. Personal Communication (2020). Bus Driver, Public Transport Company, Flanders, Belgium. https://scholar.google.com/scholar?hl=en&as_sdt=0%2C5&q=author%3A%22Fraussen+Koen%22&btnG=&oq=frauss Mora, Camilo. Personal Communication (2020). Associate Professor, Department of Geography and Environment, University of Hawaii. http://www.soc.hawaii.edu/mora/index.html

Thanks Thryve for sponsoring the video. Get 50% off your gut health test at https://trythryve.com/MinuteEarth For some birds, trying to cheat your neighbors into raising your babies is just as much work - and is no more successful - than doing it yourself. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Life history strategy: How organisms allocate energy usage to maximize offspring. Parental Investment: Any non-genetic contributions by parents to help their offspring survive. Brood Parasites: Organisms that rely on others to raise their young. Mafia Behavior: The practice of repeatedly visiting victims to make sure they are complying. Fecundity: The number of offspring produced by an individual over time. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Cameron Duke | Script Writer David Goldenberg | Editor and Narrator Henry Reich | Director Josh Taira | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Antonson, Nick. (2020). Personal Communication. School of Integrative Biology, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Bibby, C. J. (1978). Some breeding statistics of Reed and Sedge Warblers. Bird Study, 25(4), 207–222. https://doi.org/10.1080/00063657809476599 Davies, N. B., & Brooke, M. D. L. (1989). An Experimental Study of Co-Evolution between the Cuckoo, Cuculus canorus, and its Hosts. II. Host Egg Markings, Chick Discrimination and General Discussion. Journal of Animal Ecology, 58(1), 225–236. https://doi.org/10.2307/4996 Fecundity of the Brown-Headed Cowbird in Southern Ontario on JSTOR. (2020). Jstor.org. https://www.jstor.org/stable/4085739?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Graveland, J. (1999). Effects of Reed Cutting on Density and Breeding Success of Reed Warbler Acrocephalus scirpacaeus and Sedge Warbler A. schoenobaenus. Journal of Avian Biology, 30(4), 469. https://doi.org/10.2307/3677019 Hoover, J. P., & Robinson, S. K. (2007). Retaliatory mafia behavior by a parasitic cowbird favors host acceptance of parasitic eggs. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 104(11), 4479–4483. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0609710104 Kilner, R. M. (2003). How selfish is a cowbird nestling? Animal Behaviour, 66(3), 569–576. https://doi.org/10.1006/anbe.2003.2204 Krüger, O. (2006). Cuckoos, cowbirds and hosts: adaptations, trade-offs and constraints. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences, 362(1486), 1873–1886. https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2006.1849 Long, R. (1975). Mortality of Reed Warblers in Jersey. Ringing & Migration, 1(1), 28–32. https://doi.org/10.1080/03078698.1975.9673695 Oddmund Kleven, Arne Moksnes, Eivin Røskaft, & Honza, M. (2004, August 26). Breeding success of common cuckoos Cuculus canorus parasitising four sympatric species of Acrocephalus... ResearchGate; Wiley. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/230023528_Breeding_success_of_common_cuckoos_Cuculus_canorus_parasitising_four_sympatric_species_of_Acrocephalus_warblers The Ecology of Avian Brood Parasitism | Learn Science at Scitable. (2010). Nature.com. https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/the-ecology-of-avian-brood-parasitism-14724491/#:~:text=Avian%20brood%20parasitism%2C%20or%20the,the%20host%20(Davies%202000)

Special Christmas Deal! Use the link https://www.privateinternetaccess.com/MinuteEarth to support our channel and get 3 years + 2 months free for $79. Just $2.08 for a MONTH! The amount of metal some special plants are able to take up from the soil would be toxic enough to an average plant to kill it several times over. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Hyperaccumulator: a plant capable of growing in metalliferous soils and to accumulate extraordinarily high amounts of heavy metals, far in excess of the levels found in the majority of species, without suffering toxic effects Phytoremediation: the treatment of pollutants or waste (as in contaminated soil or groundwater) by the use of green plants that remove, degrade, or stabilize the undesirable substances (such as toxic metals) Phytomining: the planting (and subsequent harvesting) of vegetation that will selectively concentrate specific metals from the soil into their tissues Euhalophytes: highly salt-tolerant plants capable of diluting salt within their succulent leaves or stems Active transport: the process of transferring substances against a concentration gradient into, out of, and between cells, using energy If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: Read about a farm that is harvesting nickel-hoarding plants profitably: https://www.nytimes.com/2020/02/26/science/metal-plants-farm.html SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@TheJulianGomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** Thank you to Dr. Hendrik Küpper for his expert consultation on the script! OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Andresen, Elisa, Edgar Peiter, and Hendrik Küpper. "Trace metal metabolism in plants." Journal of Experimental Botany 69.5 (2018): 909-954. https://academic.oup.com/jxb/article/69/5/909/4855954 Bouman, Roderick, et al. "Phyllanthus rufuschaneyi: a new nickel hyperaccumulator from Sabah (Borneo Island) with potential for tropical agromining." Botanical studies 59.1 (2018): 9. https://link.springer.com/article/10.1186/s40529-018-0225-y Brooks, Robert R., et al. "Phytomining." Trends in plant science 3.9 (1998): 359-362. https://www.cell.com/trends/plant-science/comments/S1360-1385(98)01283-7 Chrispeels, Maarten J., Nigel M. Crawford, and Julian I. Schroeder. "Proteins for transport of water and mineral nutrients across the membranes of plant cells." The Plant Cell 11.4 (1999): 661-675. http://www.plantcell.org/content/11/4/661 Favas, Paulo JC, et al. "Phytoremediation of soils contaminated with metals and metalloids at mining areas: potential of native flora." Environmental risk assessment of soil contamination 3 (2014): 485-516. https://cdn.intechopen.com/pdfs/46355.pdf Morgan, J. B. & Connolly, E. L. (2013) Plant-Soil Interactions: Nutrient Uptake. Nature Education Knowledge 4(8):2 https://www.nature.com/scitable/knowledge/library/plant-soil-interactions-nutrient-uptake-105289112/ Morrissey, Joe, and Mary Lou Guerinot. "Trace elements: too little or too much and how plants cope." F1000 biology reports 1 (2009). https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC2920677/ Rascio, Nicoletta, and Flavia Navari-Izzo. "Heavy metal hyperaccumulating plants: how and why do they do it? And what makes them so interesting?." Plant science 180.2 (2011): 169-181. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.plantsci.2010.08.016 Song, Jie, and Baoshan Wang. "Using euhalophytes to understand salt tolerance and to develop saline agriculture: Suaeda salsa as a promising model." Annals of Botany 115.3 (2015): 541-553. http://europepmc.org/backend/ptpmcrender.fcgi?accid=PMC4332605&blobtype=pdf Yuan, Fang, et al. "Beneficial Effects of Salt on Halophyte Growth: Morphology, Cells, and Genes." Open Life Sciences 14.1 (2019): 191-200. https://www.degruyter.com/view/journals/biol/14/1/article-p191.xml

Use the promo code "minuteearth" at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth for 26% off an annual subscription to CuriosityStream, plus access to Nebula! There’s lots of debate as to which original starter Pokémon is the best fighter among squirtle, bulbasaur, charmander, and pikachu, but only one is the most biologically plausible. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Convergent evolution: the process whereby organisms not closely related (not monophyletic), independently evolve similar traits as a result of having to adapt to similar environments or ecological niches. If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: Satirical scientific article about pikachu: https://www.scq.ubc.ca/upregulated-membrane-expression-of-a-conserved-voltage-gated-sodium-channel-nav1-4a-and-electrical-organ-discharge-in-electric-mouse-p-pikachu/ SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Bels, V. L., J. Davenport, and S. Renous. "Drinking and water expulsion in the diamondback turtle Malaclemys terrapin." Journal of Zoology 236.3 (1995): 483-497. Gallant, Jason R., et al. "Genomic basis for the convergent evolution of electric organs." Science 344.6191 (2014): 1522-1525. Hultgren, K. M., et al. "Camouflage in decorator crabs: integrating ecological, behavioural and evolutionary approaches." Animal camouflage (2011): 214-229. Lewis, Danny. “This Is How Bombardier Beetles Fire Explosives From Their Butts.” Smithsonian.com, Smithsonian Institution, 5 May 2015, www.smithsonianmag.com/smart-news/machine-gun-bug-180955150. Quirós, Gabriela. “Decorator Crabs Make High Fashion at Low Tide.” KQED, 9 May 2017, www.kqed.org/science/1602625/decorator-crabs-make-high-fashion-at-low-tide. Wanninger, Marion, Thomas Schwaha, and Egon Heiss. "Form and Function of the skin glands in the Himalayan newt Tylototriton verrucosus." Zoological Letters 4.1 (2018): 15.

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/minuteearth2 Burning a marshmallow can release more energy than detonating an equal mass of TNT...so why isn't a marshmallow as dangerous? LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Chemical reaction: a process that involves rearrangement of the molecular or ionic structure of a substance Exothermic reaction: a reaction that releases energy Stoichiometry: a section of chemistry that involves using relationships between reactants and/or products in a chemical reaction to determine desired quantitative data Reaction rate or rate of reaction: the speed at which a chemical reaction takes place SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Brown, B.S. (1979) What does the kilojoule look like? Biochemical Education 7, 88-89. https://iubmb.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1016/0307-4412(79)90070-0 Kinney GF, Graham KJ. (1985) Explosives shocks in air, Second edition, Springer-Verlag. https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3-642-86682-1 Munroe, C and Howell, S. (1920) Products of Detonation of TNT. Proceedings of the American Philosophical Society. Vol. 59, No. 3, pp. 195. https://www.jstor.org/stable/984499?seq=1#metadata_info_tab_contents Tinnesand, M. 'Sugar, An Unusual Explosive', Chemmatters, December 2010. https://www.acs.org/content/dam/acsorg/education/resources/highschool/chemmatters/archive/chemmatters-december-2010-sugar-an-unusual-explosive.pdf Sochet, I. (2010). Blast effects of external explosions. Eighth International Symposium on Hazards, Prevention, and Mitigation of Industrial Explosions, Yokohama, Japan. https://hal.archives-ouvertes.fr/hal-00629253

Use the promo code "minuteearth" at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth for 26% off an annual subscription to CuriosityStream, plus access to Nebula! We've all experienced thunder, but what ARE all those claps, booms, and rumbles? LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Shock wave: a sharp change of pressure in a narrow region traveling through a medium, especially air, caused by explosion or by a body moving faster than sound SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** “thunder3.ogg” by Josh74000MC of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/Josh74000MC/sounds/475094/ “Drythunder1.wav” by juskiddink of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/juskiddink/sounds/101933/ “Thunder-rain-middle-distance.wav” by ragamuffin of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/ragamuffin/sounds/197738/ “Thunder.rumble.ogg” by xUMR of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/xUMR/sounds/486557/ “Rain, moderate, b.wav” by InspectorJ of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/InspectorJ/sounds/401276/ “Electric-gas-stove-ignite.wav” by squidocto of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/Squidocto/sounds/262582/ “Breaking the sound barrier” by thenudo of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/thenudo/sounds/134829/ “Whip crack b.wav” by cetsoundcrew of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/cetsoundcrew/sounds/397662/ “Party Pack, Balloons, Popping, 02-01.wav" by InspectorJ of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/InspectorJ/sounds/484268/ OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Blanco, F., La Rocca, P., Petta, C. and Riggi, F. (2009) Modelling Digital Thunder. European Journal of Physics 30: 139–45. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0143-0807/30/1/014 Depasse, P. (1994) Lightning acoustic signature. Journal of Geophysics Research 99: 25933–25940. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/94JD01986 Jagadeesh, G. (2008) Fascinating world of shock waves. Resonance 13: 752–767. https://www.ias.ac.in/public/Volumes/reso/013/08/0752-0767.pdf Matson, W.R. (2018) Sonic Thunder: a Discussion of Natural and Artificial Shock Waves. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. Sidath, A., Bodhika, J.A.P., Mahendra, F. (2016). Frequency Analysis of Thunder Features. Proceedings of International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309982045_Frequency_Analysis_of_Thunder_Features

Use the promo code "minuteearth" at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth for 26% off an annual subscription to CuriosityStream, plus access to Nebula! We've all experienced thunder, but what ARE all those claps, booms, and rumbles? LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Shock wave: a sharp change of pressure in a narrow region traveling through a medium, especially air, caused by explosion or by a body moving faster than sound SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OTHER CREDITS ***************** “thunder3.ogg” by Josh74000MC of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/Josh74000MC/sounds/475094/ “Drythunder1.wav” by juskiddink of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/juskiddink/sounds/101933/ “Thunder-rain-middle-distance.wav” by ragamuffin of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/ragamuffin/sounds/197738/ “Thunder.rumble.ogg” by xUMR of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/xUMR/sounds/486557/ “Rain, moderate, b.wav” by InspectorJ of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/InspectorJ/sounds/401276/ “Electric-gas-stove-ignite.wav” by squidocto of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/Squidocto/sounds/262582/ “Breaking the sound barrier” by thenudo of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/thenudo/sounds/134829/ “Whip crack b.wav” by cetsoundcrew of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/cetsoundcrew/sounds/397662/ “Party Pack, Balloons, Popping, 02-01.wav" by InspectorJ of freesound.org https://freesound.org/people/InspectorJ/sounds/484268/ OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Blanco, F., La Rocca, P., Petta, C. and Riggi, F. (2009) Modelling Digital Thunder. European Journal of Physics 30: 139–45. https://iopscience.iop.org/article/10.1088/0143-0807/30/1/014 Depasse, P. (1994) Lightning acoustic signature. Journal of Geophysics Research 99: 25933–25940. https://agupubs.onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/abs/10.1029/94JD01986 Jagadeesh, G. (2008) Fascinating world of shock waves. Resonance 13: 752–767. https://www.ias.ac.in/public/Volumes/reso/013/08/0752-0767.pdf Matson, W.R. (2018) Sonic Thunder: a Discussion of Natural and Artificial Shock Waves. Morgan and Claypool Publishers. Sidath, A., Bodhika, J.A.P., Mahendra, F. (2016). Frequency Analysis of Thunder Features. Proceedings of International Conference on Lightning Protection (ICLP). https://www.researchgate.net/publication/309982045_Frequency_Analysis_of_Thunder_Features

Thanks to OIST for sponsoring this video. To learn more, visit https://admissions.oist.jp/ The lab-on-a-stick that lets us know if we’re pregnant is a genius bit of technology that can be used to quickly determine everything from whether there are nuts in our chocolate to whether we have COVID. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Early Pregnancy Test: A simple lateral flow assay that tests for the presence of a particular hormone in urine. Lateral Flow Assay: Simple tests in which a liquid sample is run along the surface of a pad using capillary action and colored antibodies to show a visual positive or negative result. Capillary Action: The movement of water-based liquids within small tubes due to the forces of cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension. Antibody: A blood protein produced by the immune system in response to a particular antigen. Antigen: A foreign substance which produces an immune response within the body. False positive: A result produced that falsely indicates a particular antigen is present. False negative: A result produced that falsely indicates that a particular antigen is absent. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Koczula, K., and Gallotta, A. (2016) Lateral Flow Assays. Essays in Biochemistry, 60: 111-120. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC4986465/. Seo, K., Holt, P., Stone, H. and Gast, R. (2003). Simple and rapid methods for detecting Salmonella enteritidis in raw eggs. International Journal of Food Microbiology, 87: 139-144. Retrieved from: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12927716/. Bishop, J., Hsieh, H., Gasperino, D., and Weigl, B. (2019). (1997). Sensitivity enhancement in lateral flow assays: a systems perspective. Lab On A Chip, 19: 2486-2499. Retrieved from: https://pubs.rsc.org/en/content/articlelanding/2019/lc/c9lc00104b#!divAbstract. O’Farrell, B. (2008). Evolution in Lateral Flow–Based Immunoassay Systems. Nature Public Health Emergency Collection. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC7119943/ Collins, F. (2020). Charting a Rapid Course Toward Better COVID-19 Tests and Treatments. NIH Director’s Blog. Retrieved from: https://directorsblog.nih.gov/2020/08/06/charting-a-rapid-course-toward-better-covid-19-tests-and-treatments/ Shen, A. Personal Communication (2020). Director, Micro/Bio/Nanofluidics Unit at Okinawa Institute of Science and Technology. https://groups.oist.jp/mbnu

Use the promo code "minuteearth" at https://curiositystream.com/minuteearth for 26% off an annual subscription to CuriosityStream, plus access to Nebula! Not all hardwood trees have hard wood and softwoods soft wood, because these terms denote their taxonomic ancestry, not the wood's actual hardness. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Angiosperm: a plant that has flowers and produces seeds enclosed within a carpel. Gymnosperm: a plant that has seeds unprotected by an ovary or fruit. SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* Julián Gustavo Gómez | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Josh Taira | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Ever Salazar | Audio Editing Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Ansell, M. P. "Wood microstructure–A cellular composite." Wood Composites. Woodhead Publishing, 2015. 3-26. https://doi.org/10.1016/B978-1-78242-454-3.00001-9 Bjurhager, Ingela. Effects of Cell Wall Structure on Tensile Properties of Hardwood: Effect of down-regulation of lignin on mechanical performance of transgenic hybrid aspen. Diss. KTH Royal Institute of Technology, 2011. https://www.diva-portal.org/smash/get/diva2:409533/FULLTEXT02.pdf Botes, Christo, Steven D. Johnson, and Richard M. Cowling. "The birds and the bees: using selective exclusion to identify effective pollinators of African tree aloes." International Journal of Plant Sciences 170.2 (2009): 151-156. Butterfield B.G. (1993) The structure of wood: an overview. In: Primary Wood Processing. Springer, Dordrecht. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-015-8110-3_1 Chilson-Parks, Laura. "Wood in the Middle Ages." Perspectives (2015). https://risdmuseum.org/art-design/projects-publications/articles/wood-middle-ages Cywa, K. Trees and shrubs used in medieval Poland for making everyday objects. Veget Hist Archaeobot 27, 111–136 (2018). https://doi.org/10.1007/s00334-017-0644-9 Laboratory, Forest Products. Wood Handbook: Wood As an Engineering Material. United States, CreateSpace Independent Publishing Platform, 2013. Meier, Eric. “Hardwood Anatomy.” The Wood Database, https://www.wood-database.com/wood-articles/hardwood-anatomy/. Minea, Vasile. Industrial Heat Pump-Assisted Wood Drying. United States, CRC Press, 2018. Plomion, Christophe, Grégoire Leprovost, and Alexia Stokes. "Wood formation in trees." Plant physiology 127.4 (2001): 1513-1523. Ramage, Michael H., et al. "The wood from the trees: The use of timber in construction." Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 68 (2017): 333-359. Simm, Jonathan, and Crossman, Matt. Manual on the Use of Timber in Coastal and River Engineering. United Kingdom, Thomas Telford, 2004. Wei-Dan Ding , Ahmed Koubaa , et al. (2008) Relationship between wood porosity, wood density and methyl methacrylate impregnation rate, Wood Material Science & Engineering, 3:1-2, 62-70, http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/17480270802607947 Wiedenhoeft, Alex. "Structure and function of wood." Wood handbook: wood as an engineering material: chapter 3. Centennial ed. General technical report FPL; GTR-190. Madison, WI: US Dept. of Agriculture, Forest Service, Forest Products Laboratory, 2010: p. 3.1-3.18. 190 (2010): 3-1. https://www.fpl.fs.fed.us/documnts/fplgtr/fplgtr190/chapter_03.pdf WOOD Magazine Staff. “What Is the World's Hardest Wood?” WOOD Magazine, WOOD Magazine, 17 Jan. 2019, https://www.woodmagazine.com/wood-supplies/wood-species/what-is-the-worlds-hardest-wood.

Use the discount code “MINUTEEARTH” to get 10% off your game of Telestrations at https://theop.games/minuteearth Here’s what happened when more than a dozen of our favorite channels got together to blindly make a video with one another. 0:00 - Intro 1:14 - Kate & Ever | MinuteEarth 1:49 - Henry | MinuteEarth | MinutePhysics https://youtube.com/MinutePhysics 2:30 - Sarah | MinuteEarth 3:11 - Arcadi | MinuteEarth | Gastrofísica https://youtube.com/tippetopphysics 3:56 - Grant | 3Blue1Brown https://youtube.com/3blue1brown 4:42 - Dianna | Physics Girl https://youtube.com/PhysicsGirl 5:22 - Osmosis https://youtube.com/Osmosis 6:03 - Tom Scott https://youtube.com/TomScottGo 6:40 - Scishow https://youtube.com/SciShow 7:17 - Mithuna | Looking Glass Universe https://youtube.com/LookingGlassUniverse 7:47 - Stephen | Welch Labs https://youtube.com/WelchLabsVideo 8:17 - Vanessa | BrainCraft https://youtube.com/BrainCraftVideo 8:48 - Patch | TierZoo https://youtube.com/TierZoo 9:21 - Jabril | Jabrils https://youtube.com/Jabrils 10:03 - Danielle | Animalogic https://youtube.com/Animalogic 10:45 - Joe | It's Okay to be Smart https://youtube.com/itsokaytobesmart 11:17 - About Telestrations 11:52 - Our Favorite Reactions 14:49 - Outro SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* This video was produced by: David Goldenberg | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman and Ever Salazar | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176

Thanks to CTBTO for sponsoring this video: https://www.ctbto.org Sounds in the ocean can travel more than 10,000 miles - that's halfway around the world! Here's how. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Refraction: the bending of a sound wave based on changes in the wave's speed SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* This video was produced by: Kate Yoshida | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Arcadi Garcia Rius | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info OUR STAFF ************ Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Heaney, K.D., Kuperman, W.A., and McDonald, B. E. (1960). Perth-Bermuda sound propagation: Adiabatic mode interpretation. Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 90, 2586–2594, 1991. https://asa.scitation.org/doi/10.1121/1.402062 Munk, W.H, Spindel, R.C., Baggeroer, A., Birdsall, T. G. (1994). The Heard Island Feasibility Test, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 96, 2330–2342. https://asa.scitation.org/doi/10.1121/1.410105 Payne, R. S., and Webb, D. (1971). Orientation by means of long range acoustic signaling in baleen whales. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences 188:110–141. https://www.thecre.com/sefReports/wp-content/uploads/2012/12/Payne-R.-Webb-D.-1971.-Orientation.pdf Shockley, R. C., Northrop, J., Hansen, P. G. Hartdegen, C. (1982) SOFAR propagation paths from Australia to Bermuda: Comparision of signal speed algorithms and experiments, Journal of the Acoustical Society of America, 71, 51–60. https://asa.scitation.org/doi/10.1121/1.387250

To start using Tab for a Cause, go to: http://tabforacause.org/minuteearth2 There’s a huge seasonal difference in death rates that is propelled by a variety of factors including pathogen behavior and anatomical response to temperature changes. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Crude Death Rate: The number of people in a population of a 1,000 who die every year. The 2020 rate for the entire world is roughly 8. If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: CGP Grey takes you through the first half of Death's day: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QMNGEY8OZqo SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* This video was produced by: David Goldenberg | Script Writer Julián Gustavo Gómez | Narrator Irene Crisologo | Illustrator Ever Salazar | Animator and Director Nathaniel Schroeder | Music Feedback on drafts by: Julián Gustavo Gómez, Alex Reich, Henry Reich, Peter Reich, Ever Salazar and Kate Yoshida MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info Sarah Berman • Arcadi Garcia Rius David Goldenberg • Julián Gustavo Gómez Melissa Hayes • Alex Reich • Henry Reich Peter Reich • Ever Salazar • Kate Yoshida OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Robbie M Parks, James E Bennett, Kyle J Foreman, Ralf Toumi, Majid Ezzati (2018). National and regional seasonal dynamics of all-cause and cause-specific mortality in the USA from 1980 to 2016. eLife 2018;7:e35500. Retrieved from: https://elifesciences.org/articles/35500. Roland Rau, Christina Bohk-Ewald, Magdalena M. Muszyńska, James W. Vaupel (2017). Seasonality of Causes of Death. Chapter in: Visualizing Mortality Dynamics in the Lexis Diagram. Retrieved from: https://link.springer.com/chapter/10.1007/978-3-319-64820-0_9. Dimitrios Seretakis; Pagona Lagiou, MD; Loren Lipworth, DSc; et al (1997). Changing Seasonality of Mortality From Coronary Heart Disease. JAMA, 278(12):1012-1014. Retrieved from: https://jamanetwork.com/journals/jama/article-abstract/418241. W. R. Keatinge (2002) Winter mortality and its causes, International Journal of Circumpolar Health, 61:4, 292-299. Retrieved from: https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.3402/ijch.v61i4.17477 Average Daily Number of Deaths,* by Month — United States, 2017. Retrieved from: https://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/volumes/68/wr/mm6826a5.htm.

Check out Brilliant (and get 20% off) here: https://brilliant.org/MinuteEarth/ Some aquarium hobbyists will pay $10,000 or more for a single shrimp because of the rarity of their colors or patterns. LEARN MORE ************** To learn more about this topic, start your googling with these keywords: Chromatophores: pigment-containing cells in the deeper layers of the skin of animals like shrimp Restricted availability theory: a commodity is available or perceived to be available only for certain individuals Reactance theory: unavailability of a commodity is perceived as a threat to an individual’s freedom to posses that commodity, making it more desirable. Scarcity heuristic: a mental shortcut that places value on items based on how easy it is to miss out on them. If you liked this week’s video, you might also like: Check out this Taiwanese news broadcast about fancy shrimp breeding: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KxjUEhryDEA SUPPORT MINUTEEARTH ************************** If you like what we do, you can help us!: - Become our patron: https://patreon.com/MinuteEarth - Share this video with your friends and family - Leave us a comment (we read them!) CREDITS ********* This video was produced by: Julián Gustavo Gómez (@thejuliangomez) | Script Writer, Narrator and Director Sarah Berman (@sarahjberman) | Illustration, Video Editing and Animation Nathaniel Schroeder | Music Feedback on drafts by: David Goldenberg, Alex Reich, Henry Reich, Peter Reich, Ever Salazar and Kate Yoshida MinuteEarth is produced by Neptune Studios LLC https://neptunestudios.info Henry Reich | Executive Producer David Goldenberg | Production Manager Melissa Hayes | Business & Legal Counsel Kate Yoshida | Chief Editor Ever Salazar | Creative Director Julián Gustavo Gómez | Community Manager OTHER CREDITS ***************** White Painted (Kai Bai) Shrimp photo by Demin Wong Blue Bolt Shrimp photo by Jeffrey Kelley OUR LINKS ************ Youtube | https://youtube.com/MinuteEarth TikTok | https://tiktok.com/@minuteearth Twitter | https://twitter.com/MinuteEarth Instagram | https://instagram.com/minute_earth Facebook | https://facebook.com/Minuteearth Website | https://minuteearth.com Apple Podcasts| https://podcasts.apple.com/us/podcast/minuteearth/id649211176 REFERENCES ************** Bauer, R. T. "Color patterns of the shrimps Heptacarpus pictus and H. paludicola (Caridea: Hippolytidae)." Marine Biology 64.2 (1981): 141-152. John, Maria, et al. "The preference for scarcity: A developmental and comparative perspective." Psychology & Marketing 35.8 (2018): 603-615. Lukhaup, Chris. “Freshwater Shrimps: The next Generation.” Practical Fishkeeping, 14 May 2019, www.practicalfishkeeping.co.uk/features/freshwater-shrimps-the-next-generation/. Lynn, Michael. "The psychology of unavailability: Explaining scarcity and cost effects on value." Basic and Applied Social Psychology 13.1 (1992): 3-7. Verhallen, Theo MM, and Henry SJ Robben. "Unavailability and the evaluation of goods." KYKLOS-BERNE- 48 (1995): 369-369.

Find out more about our sewers from the In Deep podcast at https://www.indeep.org. The old combined sewer systems of many major cities are no match for modern storms and impermeable surfaces. Thanks also to our Patreon patrons https://www.patreon.com/MinuteEarth and our YouTube members. ___________________________________________ To learn more, start your googling with these keywords: Combined Sewer System: Sewers designed to collect domestic sewage and storm runoff in the same wastewater pipe. Wastewater Treatment Plant: A facility that filters and cleans wastewater before sending it into nearby waterways. Combined Sewer Overflow: When the wastewater in a combined sewer system exceeds a certain limit, it bypasses the wastewater treatment plant and goes directly into nearby waterways. Extreme Rainfall: Storms that cause the wettest days of the year in a particular geographic area. Invasive Species: Any kind of organism that gets introduced to a new environment and causes harm. Deep Tunnel Project: A $3 billion civil engineering megaproject designed to reduce flooding in the metropolitan Chicago area. _________________________________________ Subscribe to MinuteEarth on YouTube: http://goo.gl/EpIDGd Support us on Patreon: https://goo.gl/ZVgLQZ And visit our website: https://www.minuteearth.com/ Say hello on Facebook: http://goo.gl/FpAvo6 And Twitter: http://goo.gl/Y1aWVC And download our videos on itunes: https://goo.gl/sfwS6n ___________________________________________ Credits (and Twitter handles): Script Writer, Narrator, and Video Director: David Goldenberg (@dgoldenberg) Video Illustrator: Arcadi Garcia Rius (@garirius) With Contributions From: Henry Reich, Alex Reich, Ever Salazar, Peter Reich, Julián Gómez, Kate Yoshida, Sarah Berman Music by: Nathaniel Schroeder: http://www.soundcloud.com/drschroeder ___________________________________________ References: Tibbets, J. (2005). Combined Sewer Systems: Down, Dirty, and Out of Date. Environmental Health Perspectives. 113(7): A464–A467. Retrieved from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1257666/. Olds HT, Corsi SR, Dila DK, Halmo KM, Bootsma MJ, McLellan SL. (2018). High levels of sewage contamination released from urban areas after storm events: A quantitative survey with sewage specific bacterial indicators. PLoS Med. 15(7): e1002614. Retrieved from: https://doi.org/10.1371/journal.pmed.1002614. Walsh, J., D. Wuebbles, K. Hayhoe, J. Kossin, K. Kunkel, G. Stephens, P. Thorne, R. Vose, M. Wehner, J. Willis, D. Anderson, S. Doney, R. Feely, P. Hennon, V. Kharin, T. Knutson, F. Landerer, T. Lenton, J. Kennedy, and R. Somerville. (2014) Ch. 2: Our Changing Climate. Climate Change Impacts in the United States: The Third National Climate Assessment, J. M. Melillo, Terese (T.C.) Richmond, and G. W. Yohe, Eds., U.S. Global Change Research Program, 19-67. Retrieved from: https://nca2014.globalchange.gov/report/our-changing-climate/heavy-downpours-increasing Melosi, Martin. (2000). The Sanitary City: Urban Infrastructure in America from Colonial Times to the Present. Johns Hopkins University Press. Grabar, Henry. (2019). Tunnel Vision. Slate. Retrieved from: https://slate.com/business/2019/01/chicagos-deep-tunnel-is-it-the-solution-to-urban-flooding-or-a-cautionary-tale.html