Podcasts about radiocarbon

Marshall Jordan joins us to talk about his upcoming talk at the Creation Science Fellowship of New Mexico on Radiocarbon dating of the Joseph Famine and the Exodus. He shares cutting-edge research on this subject and its relevance for Christians.   Creation Science Fellowship of... The post Marshall Jordan appeared first on ABQ Connect.

Oregon archaeologists have found evidence of human occupation in the state that dates back more than 18,000 years. University of Oregon students and faculty working at the Rimrock Draw Rockshelter in Harney County found stone tools and fragments of camel and bison teeth beneath a 15,000-year-old layer of volcanic ash. Radiocarbon dating of the tooth enamel revealed that the fragments were 18,250 years old. Due to their position in the ash, the tools are thought to be even older — making them some of the oldest evidence of human civilization in North America.Joining us with more details about the discovery is Pat O’Grady, a staff archaeologist at the University of Oregon Museum of Cultural and Natural History.

Wo gingen die Menschen nach dem Kollaps der Palastzentren hin? In der Submykenische Periode finden wir Antworten. Eine Übergangszeit zwischen Ende der Bronzezeit und Beginn der Eisenzeit. Blieben Paläste für immer verlassen? Wo finden wir Spuren mykenischer Flüchtlinge? Und welche Orte nutzten das Machtvakuum für sich aus?Quellen & Lektüre:Alcock/Davis, Sandy Pylos (…), 1998Boyd, Excavatians at Kavousi, Crete, in 1900 (…), 1901Cardogan, Karphi (…), 1992Coulson, The Architecture (…), 1983Coulson/Day/Gesell, Kavousi 1983-84 (…), 1986Conant/Thomas, The Trojan War, 2005Day/Dierckx/Flint-Hamilton/Gesell (…), Kavousi (…), 2016Day/Glowacki, Kavousi IIB (…), 2012Day/Klein/Turner, Kavousi IIA (…), 2009Day/Liston, Kavousi IV (…), 2023Day/Snyder, The “Big House” at Vronda and the “Great House” at Karphi (…), 2004Demand, The Mediterranean context of early Greek history, 2011Desborough, The Last Mycenaeans and their Successors, 1964Driessen/Sarris/Soetens/Topouzi, The Minoan peak sanctuary landscape through a GIS approach (…), 2002Freeman, Egypt, Greece and Rome (…), 2014Gimatzidis/Weninger, Radiocarbon dating the Greek Protogeometric and Geometric periods (…), 2020Hayward Hall, Excavations in Eastern Crete (…), 1914Jones, Peak Sanctuaries and Sacred Caves in Minoan Crete, 1999Knapp, Bronze Age Cyprus and the Aegean (…), 2022Knodell, Societies in Transition in Early Greece (…), 2021Lacy, Greek Pottery in the Bronze Age, 2015Maran, Tiryns. Mauern und Paläste für namenlose Herrscher (…), 2000Mountjoy, Mycenaean Pottery (…), 2001Nowicki, The history and setting of the town at Karphi (…), 1987Orphanides, Late Bronze Age Socio-Economic and Political Organization, and the Hellenization of Cyprus, 2017Palaima, *Themis in the Mycenaean Lexicon and the Etymology of the Place Name ti-mi-to a-ko, 2000Popham/Sackett/Themelis, Lefkandi I. Iron Age, 1979Ruthowski, The temple at Karphi (…), 1987Salavoura, New opportunities in turbulent times (…), 2021Shelmerdine, Nichoria in Context (…), 1981Stein-Hölkeskamp, Fallstudie Nichoria (…), 2015Strange, Caphtor (..), 1980Tartaron, Maritime Networks in the Mycenaean World, 2013Widmann, Ain't no mountain high enough (…), 2014Zangger, Landscape Changes around Tiryns during the Bronze Age, 1994Zeman, Differing trajectories of collapse in the Late Bronze Age Argolid (…), 2021Zöller, Die Gesellschaft der frühen “Dunklen Jahrhunderte” auf Kreta (…),2005Karphi in erseus.tufts.eduPDF Dokument Lage Vrokastro http://archiv.ub.uni-heidelberg.de/propylaeumdok/80/2/Zoeller_2.pdf#page=27Lefkandi in oxfordre.comZeit der Helden – Die “dunklen Jahrhunderte” Griechenlands 1200–700 v.Chr., 2008-2009Ausgrabungen in Nichoria PDF: https://www.ascsa.edu.gr/uploads/media/hesperia/147682.pdfArchäologisches Projekt Mitrou: https://web.archive.org/web/20080310022849/http://www.mitrou.org/http://www.cypnet.co.uk/ncyprus/city/guzelyurt/gz-pigadhes.htmhttps://www.heritagedaily.com/2024/04/excavations-of-mount-ellanio-summit-reveals-mycenaean-refuge/151328https://www.thehistoryblog.com/archives/69913http://www.digiserve.com/mentor/minoan/karphi.htmlMusic by Pixabay (ArizonaGuide)

2023 was a warm year. But let's put it into context. To do that, a 2024 study looked at temperature and tree core data to assemble summer temperatures all the way back to 1 CE. As for the result- the title speaks for itself... Sources for this episode: Bianchi, G. G., & McCave, I. N. (1999). Holocene periodicity in North Atlantic climate and deep-ocean flow south of Iceland. Nature, 397(6719): 515–517. Büntgen, U., Myglan, V. S., Ljungqvist, F. C., McCormick, M., Di Cosmo, N., Sigl, M., Jungclaus, J., Wagner, S., Krusic, P. J., Esper, J., Kaplan, J. O., de Vaan, M. A. C., Luterbacher, J., Wacker, L., Tegel, W., & Kirdyanov, A. V. (2016). Cooling and societal change during the Late Antique Little Ice Age from 536 to around 660 AD. Nature Geoscience, 9(3): 231–236. Dull, R. A., Southon, J. R., Kutterolf, S., Anchukaitis, K. J., Freundt, A., Wahl, D. B., Sheets, P., Amaroli, P., Hernandez, W., Wiemann, M. C., & Oppenheimer, C. (2019). Radiocarbon and geologic evidence reveal Ilopango volcano as source of the colossal ‘mystery' eruption of 539/40 CE. Quaternary Science Reviews, 222: 105855. Dytham, C. (2011). Choosing and Using Statistics: A Biologist's Guide (3rd ed.). Wiley-Blackwell. Esper, J., Torbenson, M. and Büntgen, U. (2024), 2023 summer warmth unparalleled over the past 2,000 years. Nature 631: 94-97. Goosse, H., Crespin, E., Dubinkina, S., Loutre, M.-F., Mann, M. E., Renssen, H., Sallaz-Damaz, Y., & Shindell, D. (2012). The role of forcing and internal dynamics in explaining the “Medieval Climate Anomaly.” Climate Dynamics, 39(12): 2847–2866. Graham, N. E., Ammann, C. M., Fleitmann, D., Cobb, K. M., & Luterbacher, J. (2011). Support for global climate reorganization during the “Medieval Climate Anomaly.” Climate Dynamics, 37(5–6): 1217–1245. Lamb, H. H. (1965). The early medieval warm epoch and its sequel. Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 1(1): 13–37. Lowe, J., & Walker, M. (2015). Reconstructing Quaternary Environments (3rd ed.). Routledge. Mann, M. E., Zhang, Z., Rutherford, S., Bradley, R. S., Hughes, M. K., Shindell, D., Ammann, C., Faluvegi, G., & Ni, F. (2009). Global Signatures and Dynamical Origins of the Little Ice Age and Medieval Climate Anomaly. Science, 326(5957): 1256–1260. Matthews, J. A., & Briffa, K. R. (2005). The ‘little ice age': re‐evaluation of an evolving concept. Geografiska Annaler: Series A, Physical Geography, 87(1): 17–36. Shi, F., Sun, C., Guion, A., Yin, Q., Zhao, S., Liu, T., & Guo, Z. (2022). Roman Warm Period and Late Antique Little Ice Age in an Earth System Model Large Ensemble. Journal of Geophysical Research: Atmospheres, 127(16): e2021JD035832.

This week we are crossing the river from Sauvie Island in Oregon to Ridgefield National Wildlife Refuge (NWR) in Washington state. The Northern tip of the island is directly across from where we are walking today: on recently restored trail in the refuge known as the Oaks to Wetland Trail. In 2019 hundreds of Douglas Fir trees were felled and removed from this area to encourage “oak release”. An oak woodland used to reign supreme here, thanks to low-level fires managed by the indigenous people, keeping the land relatively clear for game grazing and promoting berry plants.Remember how I was complaining Oregon state agencies presently provide almost nothing in terms of education and memorialization on Sauvie Island about what was once may have been the most densely populated area of Native Americans in what is now the United States? Ridgefield NWR has done something pretty remarkable in contrast, by facilitating the construction of the Cathlapotle Plankhouse. The building is based on more than a decade's worth of archaeological research at the site, which began in the 1990s where a large village of the Cathlapotle Nation once stood. It took over 100 volunteers two years to complete it, and the official opening ceremony was conducted on March 29, 2005. (nps.gov)For the past 20 years the Cathlapotle plankhouse has served the modern Chinook Tribe as the site of their annual winter gatherings. Standing up close to the structure one has to marvel at the sheer density of the plankhouse. The planks for the roof and walls are >2 inches thick, and >2 feet wide old-growth Western redcedar. Both the trees, and 3500 hours of volunteer labor were all donated. If one had to itemize the cost of the project at market prices today, it would likely have a multi-million dollar price tag. To the layperson it resembles so many old barns that dot the surrounding rural landscape, but to those with an understanding of construction materials, and the added time and cost of working in the old ways, it's truly a marvel; something the many contributors can be proud of. Our soundwalk begins more or less here, at the plankhouse among Oregon white oaks, looking out over a landscape of lakes and wetlands. Not far off the remains of Cathlapotle village (numbering fourteen houses with an estimated population of 900 in 1806) slumber in the soil, just out of sight, near the Columbia River shore.Cathlapotle was one of the largest of the Wapato Valley villages—of at least 16 villages in all—sharing a common dialect, and ways of life. Explorers Lewis & Clark put it this way:All the tribes in the neighborhood of Wapato island, we have considered as Multnomahs, not because they are in any degree subordinate to that nation; but they all seem to regard the Multnomahs as the most powerful.Multnomah, on Sauvie Island, as we discovered a few weeks ago had a population of some 2400 in 1806, diminished by the introduction of smallpox in the 1780's. In the late 1830's the village was burned to the ground following a devastating malaria epidemic that left too few survivors to tend to the dead. “River erosion, development and looting have destroyed virtually all of the Chinook town sites. But Cathlapotle was spared,” said Kenneth M. Ames, PSU professor of anthropology who lead the archeological investigation that took place in the 1990's. Ames' excavation revealed:*Radiocarbon dates on charcoal from hearths place occupation from at least 900 years ago to the 1840s.*Various pieces of evidence indicate possibly two occupations of the site, with the last one having been continuously occupied for 1,500 years by up to 1,400 people, Ames said. He believes there was an earlier occupation as far back as 2,000 years ago. (The Oregonian, Aug 7, 1994)As I walked the trail beneath a cloudy sky, I tried to imagine the area in that pre-contact state, as I usually do. I think it would have looked similar, but of course it would have sounded much different. There would have been no leaf blowers or dogs barking from the expanding residential areas over the hill. No airplanes overhead. And, perhaps most distinctly for this site, there would have been no trains rumbling past. Access to this section of the refuge requires a short walk on a pedestrian bridge over train tracks. Trains glide by frequently. My quiet to loud ratio here was about 65 / 35. As usual, I spliced together the quiet sections of my walk to create this idealized pre-industrial soundwalk soundscape. I used my binaural Sennheiser Ambeo Headset for this recording, which performs quite well in the rain, if it's not too windy. The mics were tucked into the concavity of my ears, sheltered from rain drops. The soundscape is really quiet and tranquil. Tundra Swans and Varied Thrushes sound so reverberant and sweet. My score is textural, spacious, and plaintive, I would say. It occurred to me that I could chain together the out-takes for an alternate “selectively industrialized” version. Voila: Four Trains Soundwalk was released a couple days ago as a flipside to this one. This was a surprise hit in my own listening habits. I found myself oddly soothed by the low frequency rumbles at bedtime, lulled by the anticipation of the iron beast transits.That's it for this week. Once again, thank you for indulging me, for being here, for listening. Oaks to Wetland Trail Soundwalk is available on all streaming platforms (Spotify, Apple, Tidal, Amazon, YouTube…) tomorrow, Friday, November 15th. This is a public episode. If you'd like to discuss this with other subscribers or get access to bonus episodes, visit chadcrouch.substack.com/subscribe

Our hosts Ash and Tilly face a tough quest this episode, because they've been tasking with dating zombies. Discovering how long they've been dead, that is! To do this, they discuss the different methods of dating bodies in the archaeological record, and answer all those burning questions like “what is an isotope?” “What is voodoo?” And “what would happen if you took a zombie shopping?”Links A Zombie is a Slave Forever (article by Dr Amy Wilentz) History of Zombies article Nobel prize lecture from William Libby Detailed paper on the marine reservoir effect Case study demonstrating marine reservoir effect Detailed article on the history of radiocarbon dating Paper on radiocarbon datingContact Email: andmytrowel@gmail.com Instagram: @‌and.my.trowelTranscripts For rough transcripts of this episode, go to: https://www.archpodnet.com/trowel/26ArchPodNet APN Website: https://www.archpodnet.com APN on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/archpodnet APN on Twitter: https://www.twitter.com/archpodnet APN on Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/archpodnet Tee Public Store: https://www.teepublic.com/stores/archaeology-podcast-network?ref_id=5724Affiliates Motion

It's time for the first episode of our Tea-break Time Travel training series, where we cover all of those essential theoretical and methodological backgrounds that every time traveller needs to have under their belt. This month, we're kicking things off with one of the most popular archaeological dating methods: radiocarbon dating. But what exactly is radiocarbon dating? How do you do it? And why does it matter if people in the past left a lot of fish-bones behind? Tune in to find out!Transcripts For rough transcripts of this episode go to https://www.archpodnet.com/teabreak/27Links Nobel prize lecture from William Libby Detailed paper on the marine reservoir effect Case study demonstrating marine reservoir effect Detailed article on the history of radiocarbon dating Paper on radiocarbon datingContact the Host Email: matilda@thearchaeologiststeacup.com https://www.thearchaeologiststeacup.com insta: @the_archaeologists_teacup fb: /TheArchaeologistsTeacup twitter: @ArchaeoTeacupArchPodNet APN Website: https://www.archpodnet.com APN on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/archpodnet APN on Twitter: https://www.twitter.com/archpodnet APN on Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/archpodnet Tee Public Store: https://www.teepublic.com/stores/archaeology-podcast-network?ref_id=5724Affiliates Motion

It's time for the first episode of our Tea-break Time Travel training series, where we cover all of those essential theoretical and methodological backgrounds that every time traveller needs to have under their belt. This month, we're kicking things off with one of the most popular archaeological dating methods: radiocarbon dating. But what exactly is radiocarbon dating? How do you do it? And why does it matter if people in the past left a lot of fish-bones behind? Tune in to find out!Transcripts For rough transcripts of this episode go to https://www.archpodnet.com/teabreak/27Links Nobel prize lecture from William Libby Detailed paper on the marine reservoir effect Case study demonstrating marine reservoir effect Detailed article on the history of radiocarbon dating Paper on radiocarbon datingContact the Host Email: matilda@thearchaeologiststeacup.com https://www.thearchaeologiststeacup.com insta: @the_archaeologists_teacup fb: /TheArchaeologistsTeacup twitter: @ArchaeoTeacupArchPodNet APN Website: https://www.archpodnet.com APN on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/archpodnet APN on Twitter: https://www.twitter.com/archpodnet APN on Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/archpodnet Tee Public Store: https://www.teepublic.com/stores/archaeology-podcast-network?ref_id=5724Affiliates Motion

The Black Death in the 14th century is engrained in the popular consciousness. But how familiar is the first wave of the disease that happened in the 500s? In this episode, we explore what plague is, its evolution, strains and impact on the world of the 6th century according to Procopius. Sources for this episode: Achtman, M., Zurth, K., Morelli, G., Torrea, G., Guiyoule, A. and Carniel, E. (1999), Yersinia pestis, the cause of plague, is a recently emerged clone of Yersinia pseudotuberculosis. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 96(24): 14043-14048. Dai, R., He, J., Zha, X., Wang, Y., Zhang, X., Gao, H., Yang, X., Li, J., Xin, Y., Wang, Y., Li, S., Jin, J., Zhang, Q., Bai, J., Peng, Y., Wu, H., Zhang, Q., Wei, B., Xu, J. and Li, W. (2021), A novel mechanism of streptomycin resistance in Yersinia pestis: Mutation in the rpsL gene. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15(4): e0009324. Dewing, H. B. (1960), Procopius in Seven Volumes. Volume VI: The Anecdota or Secret History. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd. Dewing, H. B. (1961), Procopius in Seven Volumes. Volume II: History of the Wars: Books III and IV. Cambridge, Massachusetts and London: Harvard University Press and William Heinemann Ltd. Dull, R. A., Southon, J. R., Kutterolf, S., Anchukaitis, K. J., Freundt, A., Wahl, D. B., Sheets, P., Amaroli, P., Hernandez, W., Wiemann, M. C. and Oppenheimer, C. (2019), Radiocarbon and geologic evidence reveal Ilopango volcano as source of the colossal ‘mystery' eruption of 539/40 CE. Quaternary Science Reviews 222: 105855. Dykhuizen, D. E. (2000), Yersinia pestis: An instant species? Trends in Microbiology 8(7): 296-298. Ke, Y., Chen, Z. and Yang, R. (2019), Yersinia pestis: mechanisms of entry into and resistance to the host cell. Frontiers in Cellular and Infection Microbiology 3(106): 1-9. Kousoulis, A. A., Karamanou, M., Tsoucalas, G., Dimitriou, T. and Androutsos, G. (2012), Alexandre Yersin's Explorations (1892-1894) in French Indochina before the Discovery of the Plague Bacillus. Acto Medico-Historica Adriatica 10(2): 303-310. Mikaty, G., Coullon, H., Fiette, L., Pizarro-Cerdá and Carniel, E. (2021), The invasive pathogen Yersinia pestis disrupts host blood vasculature to spread and provoke hemorrhages. PLOS Neglected Tropical Diseases 15(10): e0009832. Mordechai, L., Eisenberg, M., Newfield, T. P., Izdebski, A., Kay, J. E. and Poinar, H. (2019), The Justinianic Plague: An Inconsequential Pandemic? Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 116(51): 25546-25554. Moseley, J. E. (1981), Travels of Alexandre Yersin: Letters of a Pastorian in Indochina, 1890-1894. Perspectives in Biology and Medicine 24(4): 607-618. Norwich, J. J. (2013), A Short History of Byzantium. London: The Penguin Group. Procopius (1985), The Secret History (translated by Williamson, G. A.). Harmondsworth: Penguin Books Ltd. Rogers, K., Encyclopedia Britannica (2023), Yersinia pestis (online) (Accessed c.01/03/2024). Rosen, W. (2008), Justinian's Flea: Plague, Empire & the Birth of Europe. London: Pimlico. Sarris, P. (2023), Justinian: Emperor, Soldier, Saint. London: Basic Books UK. Author unknown, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (date unknown), Protect yourself from plague. Author unknown, Wikipedia (date unknown), Plague of Justinian (online) (Accessed 01/03/2024).

Episode 254 – Archeology and the Bible – Part 9 – As Old As the Bible Welcome to Anchored by Truth brought to you by Crystal Sea Books. In John 14:6, Jesus said, “I am the way, the truth, and the life.” The goal of Anchored by Truth is to encourage everyone to grow in the Christian faith by anchoring themselves to the secure truth found in the inspired, inerrant, and infallible word of God. Script: The LORD possessed me [wisdom] at the beginning of his work, the first of his acts of old. Ages ago I was set up, at the first, before the beginning of the earth. Proverbs, Chapter 8, verses 22 and 23, English Standard Version ******** VK: Greetings. Welcome to Anchored by Truth brought to you by Crystal Sea Books. I’m Victoria K. This is our 9th episode in a series that we are doing on archeology and the Bible. We’re 9 episodes into this brief overview of just a few of the thousands of archeological discoveries that support the accuracy of the Bible’s text. So often today we hear critics attempt to label the Bible as a book that has little connection to the real world. But when reviewed objectively it is obvious that the Bible is a book that is firmly set in time and place. And as a book set in time and place it is demonstrable that the human history that the Bible chooses to report is accurate. And archeology is very supportive of the Bible’s historical trustworthiness. That’s why we wanted to do this series. To help us continue to explore this topic, in the studio today we have RD Fierro. RD is an author and the founder of Crystal Sea Books. RD, today you said you wanted to begin to wrap up the series. So, what do you want listeners to begin to think about as we think about the series as a whole? RD: Well, before we begin our summary I’d also like to greet everyone and welcome them to Anchored by Truth. As we have stressed throughout this series archeology is the study of the past. And the vast majority of archeological interest pertains to times and dates that occurred long before anyone currently living was alive. This means that anyone attempting to glean information about the past from archeological finds and artifacts is always looking at evidence that is available in the present and interpreting it. This is going to be true whether the person making the interpretation is a Christian or non-Christian. This means that it is likely and reasonable for similarly qualified experts to disagree on what a particular find means or tells us. In other words, we cannot obtain the same degree of certainty about past events from archeological science that we can from branches of operational science where the replication of results is possible. This certainly doesn’t mean that rigor and discipline aren’t possible in archeology. They are. And it doesn’t mean that we can’t rule certain possible explanations in or out based on the application of evidence and reason. But it does mean that alternative explanations are possible in many situations and we must therefore be prepared to sort among those explanations. VK: What you’re saying is that as Christians we must always be aware that – no matter how convincing a Biblical explanation may be for a find, artifact, or site – that we must be aware that other explanations for that same evidence are possible. And we must be prepared to deal with those alternative non-Biblical explanations because the world is going to consider those explanations. Because if we can’t intelligently discuss why the Christian explanation is at least as reasonable as the non-Christian alternative we will be far less effective in our witness for Christ in the public arena. In other words, we have to know what “the other side” believes and we must be prepared to engage their arguments – kindly, compassionately, and sensibly – but firmly. RD: Right. The old saying is that “there are two sides to every story.” But, while the saying has some truth to it that does not mean that each side is equally credible or reasonable. So, one of the things we need to talk about as we wrap up our series is to give a couple of examples where there are competing explanations for archeological sites that are the subject of Biblical accounts. VK: Where do you want to start? RD: Well, we spent the last couple of episodes of Anchored by Truth talking about the city of Jericho especially about God’s miraculous intervention in the Hebrews’ conquest of it at the end of their wilderness wanderings. VK: This is the well-known story found in the book of Joshua, chapter 6. The Hebrews encountered Jericho just after crossing the Jordan River into the Promised Land. Militarily the Hebrews needed to conquer Jericho but it was a walled and heavily fortified town. And the Hebrews did not have the kind of siege equipment necessary to breach those kind of walls – at least not quickly. But, fortunately they didn’t have to. As God directed, they marched around the walls once a day for 6 days. Then, on the 7th day they marched around the walls 7 times, shouted, and the walls fell down. And, while we won’t go over the evidence that supports that account again – because we covered it in our two previous episodes – we will note that there is substantial archeological evidence that supports the Biblical account. RD: Yes. There’s an abundance of archeological evidence that Jericho was located where the Bible says it was, at one time had large and imposing walls, and that the walls did in fact “fall down flat” as the English Standard Version puts it. Several excavators have determined that most of the walls collapsed flat likely due to an earthquake. But even though these facts are well known one topic that is hotly debated is when the walls fell down. There are various dating options for when the Exodus occurred and therefore when Jericho fell to Joshua. We don’t have time to go into all the options but there are two that often talked about – to so-called late date for the exodus and the early date for the exodus. VK: So, the most commonly accepted date for the exodus in scholarly circles is the late date. That’s the dating theory that was used in Cecil B. Demille’s famous movie, The Ten Commandments, starring Charlton Heston as Moses. What time period is in view for the late date? RD: Around 1290 BC. This would be referred to as early in the 13th century BC. VK: And what time period is in view for the early date? RD: Around 1445 or 1446 BC – about a hundred years earlier. This is the date that is arrived at by calculating the time periods that are referenced in the Bible in verses such as 1 Kings, chapter 6, verse 1. VK: That verse in the English Standard Version reads: “In the four hundred and eightieth year after the people of Israel came out of the land of Egypt, in the fourth year of Solomon’s reign over Israel, in the … the second month, [Solomon] began to build the house of the LORD.” RD: Yes. We know that Solomon’s reign as king of Israel began in 970 BC. That means his 4th year would have been 966 BC. That means that 480 years earlier would have been 1446 BC. But let’s remember that the Hebrew calendar is not the same as the Gregorian calendar that we use today. So, they didn’t use a January to December year. Also, in the Bible some numbers may have been rounded off. So, allowing for those factors orthodox, conservative Christian scholars have usually placed the date for the start of the exodus between 1447 BC and 1442 BC. It’s common to refer to Joshua’s conquest of Jericho as taking place late in the 15th century BC. VK: The 15th century BC began in the year 1500 BC and ended in the year 1401 BC. RD: Right. So, while there may be agreement on the fact that at some time around in the distant past the walls of Jericho did collapse as the Bible describes, there is a very clear division of opinion on exactly when the walls fell down. VK: So, a Bible critic may acknowledge that there is archeological evidence that is consistent with major portions of chapter 6 of the book of Joshua but then immediately turn around and say the Bible still isn’t trustworthy because it got dates wrong. And as we started out saying, all any present day investigator can do is look at the available evidence and then interpret what that says about things like ancient dates. It’s not as though anybody 3,300 or 3,400 years ago chiseled dates into the sides of buildings to make it easier to assign precise dates. RD: No, they didn’t. But that doesn’t mean that we don’t have some tools that can help us resolve our dating dilemma. And while we don’t have time to discuss all the ways dating is accomplished for archeological sites let’s just mention a couple. First, we can look to see what information can be gleaned from artifacts that are found at a site. Often, even if there aren’t written records that contain helpful references there may be jewelry, coins, or other decorative items that provide clues as to when that item was being used. This is particularly true with pottery pieces or even shards. It has been common throughout human history to decorate items even ones used for practical purposes like jars or lamps. And, just as today, decorative styles come and go. And since pottery is a lot more durable that items made out of cloth or paper pottery is often present at a site even hundreds or thousands of years after it was in use. In the case of excavations at the city of Jericho over 100,000 pottery fragments have been unearthed. VK: So, what do the pottery fragments found at Jericho tell us? RD: The pottery fragments favor the early date theory. This is because there is almost no pottery fragments at Jericho that are what would be labeled Mycenaean. As we mentioned in other episodes of Anchored by Truth Mycenae is another name for the region we think of as Greece. The Mycenaeans were a sea faring people and traveled widely including to the eastern coast of the Mediterranean which is where Israel is. As a consequence their pottery is found all over the Mediterranean coastal lands. And it began to appear in Palestine from about 1400 BC onward. Therefore, if the conquest of Jericho had been around 1290 BC as the late date theory posits then there should have been plenty of Mycenaean pottery fragments present. But there aren’t. The early date theory explains this absence easily. The Hebrews conquered Jericho before Mycenaean pottery became commonplace in Palestine. By 1290 Mycenaean pottery would had been circulating in Palestine for over 100 years. So, its absence at Jericho is hard to reconcile with the late date theory. VK: How about other artifacts found at Jericho? What do they tell us about whether the late date theory or the early date theory is most likely to be correct? RD: There are other archeological findings that point strongly to the early date. For instance, Palestine in the 15th century BC was connected to Egypt. Remember that at this time Egypt was the dominant power in that region. The Egyptians had mines and other economic interests in Palestine. Trade between the two regions was extensive. One common item that circulated in those days was scarabs. VK: According to the Wikipedia entry “Scarabs are beetle-shaped amulets and impression seals which were widely popular throughout ancient Egypt. They still survive in large numbers today. Through their inscriptions and typology, they prove to be an important source of information for archaeologists and historians of the ancient world, and represent a significant body of ancient Egyptian art.” In other words, scarabs were like modern jewelry pieces. They were valuable and therefore were not thrown away or destroyed. They are frequently found in graves with their owners. Like some modern jewelry items they often contained images of royalty. Think about things like commemorative lockets made for the various milestones of Queen Elizabeth’s long reign. So, as the Wikipedia quote states, by looking at the images contained on scarabs we can get an idea about when they were produced and in circulation. What do the scarabs found at Jericho tell us? RD: One of the best known archeologists who did extensive excavations at Jericho is John Garstang. After years after his excavations of a cemetery at Jericho not a single scarab was found that could be dated later than the reign of Pharaoh Amenhotep III who reigned from 1412 BC to 1376 BC. VK: We probably should remind our listeners that in the time before the birth of Jesus the years are frequently labeled “BC” which simply means “before Christ.” Since these yearly designations get smaller as you approach the birth of Jesus the larger numbers are actually farther back in time. This is the opposite of how we assign annual dates today where it’s the smaller numbers that are older. So, for the years before Christ 1412 BC is older than 1376 BC. It can be easy to get confused. RD: That’s a good note. So, Pharaoh Amenhotep III began his reign in 1412 BC and it lasted for 36 years. That’s plenty of time in which his cartouche would have put on decorative items. VK: A cartouche is just a common graphic symbol. It’s an oval with a line at one end and it indicates that the name that is found within the oval is a royal name. RD: Right. So, the absence of any scarabs with the cartouches of any pharaohs later than Amenhotep III means that later pharaohs weren’t known or represented at that site. That would be very strange if the late date theory was correct. The late date theory says that the pharaoh at the time of the exodus was Ramses II and there were a lot of pharaohs between Amenhotep III and Ramses II. This is a strong indicator that the early date theory about the date of the exodus and the destruction of Jericho by Joshua is correct. VK: So, the really big point that we want to make by this discussion is that there may be competing explanations about how to correctly date events from the past. And even though no one living was present then we can look at the evidence available in the present and make reasoned determinations about which explanation is most likely to be true. And one way to do that is look at finds and artifacts and see what they tell us about what was going on in the world at that time. Who was in power? What trade was occurring? What building techniques were available and in use? Are there any written records from the period? Information can be gleaned from any sources. And, of course, some people will say that scientific measurements such radiocarbon dating can be helpful. Well, how about radiocarbon dating? Isn’t it frequently used to assign dates to ancient sites and artifacts? RD: It is, but there are a lot of problems with radiocarbon dating which are well known in the scientific community. Radiocarbon dating depends on determining the ratio present in a specimen between carbon-14, which is radioactive, and carbon-12 which is not. We don’t have time today to go into all of the details of how carbon-14 is formed but here are a couple of big points. Radiocarbon dating can only be used on organic residue such as wooden artifacts because it must be absorbed by a living entity to be present at all. Next, radiocarbon dating depends on certain baseline assumptions which are unprovable. Third, the rate of formation of carbon-14 is affected by the strength of the earth’s magnetic shield which is known to decline through time. As such, the farther back in time we go – especially as we get closer to the flood of Noah – the more adjustments are necessary to compensate for the stronger magnetic shield. The net result of these issues – and there are others – is that, as you said, radiocarbon dates are assigned not measured. Radiocarbon dating can be a useful tool for certain things like determining relative dates but it has limitations in assigning absolute dates. VK: In other words we simply don’t possess all of the information that would be necessary to precisely calculate a date by measuring the ratio of one substance and compare it to another. We can never be sure what the starting ratio was unless somebody had been there who reported it – which is never going to happen with archeology. We can never be sure about whether assumed formation rates are accurate or whether contamination occurred at some point. Dates assigned by measuring ratios of various elements often differ by tens of thousands or even millions of years. In such cases the scientists will often dismiss dates that don’t conform to their expectations but this just amounts to selecting data that reinforces an original hypothesis or bias. RD: Right. Radiocarbon dating can be helpful for certain purposes but it is sometimes offered as if it settles all dating questions of ancient finds. It doesn’t and can’t. It rests on unprovable assumptions. This doesn’t mean it must be dismissed. It means we should bear its limitations in mind when it is used to offer evidence. The point that we want to drive home today is Christians must be prepared to hear explanations for archeological finds that the world will tell us “disprove the Bible.” But we need not accept such claims on face value. Certainly one of the best known explorers who did excavation at Jericho was an archeologist named Kathleen Kenyon. She disagreed with Garstang’s findings about the correct dating of the ruins at Tell-el-Sultan which is normally agreed to be the site of ancient Jericho. One reason she disagreed with Garstang was that she said the pottery shards she found in the collapsed wall that is believed to belong to the Joshua conquest were not from the mid-15th century BC. VK: In ancient times, and even today, when builders are building walls they will throw scraps of unusable building material as part of fill. The builder knows the fill won’t be seen. So, it doesn’t matter whether its broken concrete, metal scraps, or old pieces of pottery. That’s a common building practice today and it was in ancient times. So, we can derive some dating information about when a structure was built if we find scraps that have some identifying information. Someone who tore down a fireplace and found a coin that had fallen into the cement would know the latest date the fireplace was built. But it seems to mean that Kenyon’s conclusion doesn’t necessarily follow her observation. There are houses in America that date from the Revolutionary War period that are still standing today 250 years later than they were built. If one of those houses fell over today it’s walls are still going to be composed of building material from 1776. The fact that the walls fell in the 21st century doesn’t change that the fallen material was from 250 years ago. RD: That’s a very good observation. And it illustrates that we have to think carefully through the conclusions that are drawn from evidence. The evidence may be consistent with multiple and varying conclusions. Then we will have to look at other evidence to see if we can determine which of those conclusions is most accurate. VK: And you say we need to be particularly vigilant when we examine conclusions about the dating of ancient ruins or artifacts. RD: Right. Here’s a simple example. If you do an internet search on the oldest buildings in the world you will find that are a few buildings dated by secular science to be several thousand years older than the date the Bible tells us the great flood occurred. Often the reason the ruins are dated older is by using radiocarbon dating. But as we just discussed radiocarbon dating has real problems for assigning absolute (not relative) dates. So, if we step back from the radiocarbon dates we find that it is at least as likely, if not more likely, that all of the ruins that are assigned these pre-flood dates were actually built after the flood. VK: In other words the question that occurs is whether the evidence from these sites is just as consistent with being built after the flood as before. RD: Yes. So, let’s think about this for a second. Some of these sites display a remarkable degree of mathematical precision in their layout and construction. Yet, conventional science says that the people at that time were all hunter-gatherers. Why would people living off hunting game and gathering food from plants that grow wild all of a sudden divert a great deal of effort into building large structures that had no relevance to how they stayed alive. Isn’t it at least just as probable that these structures were built by people who had descended from a family that possessed a sophisticated knowledge of building techniques and who were now occupying land that was completely free of groups or tribes? VK: Noah built a huge ark that survived a great flood. And we know from the Bible that Adam’s earliest descendants founded cities, worked with metal, and even made musical instruments. Said differently, rather than human beings having to learn everything by trial-and-error the human race was started with the kind of knowledge to build sophisticated structures. RD: Yes. And then there’s the whole question of why – if the modern human race had been in existence for hundreds of thousands of years – all of a sudden one day they began building these complicated buildings and complexes. Remember there is absolutely no evidence in the world of human sites that existed tens of thousands of years ago. Dinosaur bones supposedly survived intact for millions of years. So, even if humans 20,000 or 50,000 years ago had built homes or communities it seems probable that some evidence would have survived. The evidence from the most ancient structures we know about on earth fits in very well with a Biblical narrative but runs into some significant difficulties with the secular explanation. VK: And that is why we all need to know a little bit about archeology. There’s an old saying that “you better teach your kids about faith. Otherwise the only faith they will know will be what comes from the world.” Archeology may or may not interest us as a subject. But we must know enough to be able to help our kids understand and avoid the pits the world will put in their path. Knowing a little bit about archeology can help with this greater goal. God has given us ample evidence that His word is true. But He expects us to exercise our minds and wills to become familiar with the evidence and to incorporate into our lives and faith. This sounds like a time to go to God in prayer. Today let’s listen to a prayer for our nation. The Bible tells us that we are to be good citizens of the nation in which we find ourselves. And certainly part of doing that is to work for the common good, pray for our communities and states, and encourage everyone to grow in godliness. Only a Godly people will persevere and prevail in a fallen creation. ---- PRAYER FOR THE NATION VK: We’d like to remind our audience that a lot of our radio episodes are linked together in series of topics so if they missed any episodes or if they just want to hear one again, all of these episodes are available on your favorite podcast app. To find them just search on “Anchored by Truth by Crystal Sea Books.” If you’d like to hear more, try out crystalseabooks.com where “We’re not perfect but our Boss is!” (Bible Quote from the English Standard Version) Proverbs, Chapter 8, verses 22 and 23, English Standard Version Göbekli Tepe shows evidence of geometric planning (creation.com)

In this episode, we dive into the intriguing world of Shroud research with German scholar and author, Helmut Felzmann. Helmut's journey into the Shroud's history which took a remarkable turn when he embarked on a quest to revisit a pivotal moment in the relic's story.Helmut Felzmann made waves in the Shroud research community when he posed a crucial question: Could the remnants of the samples used to date the Shroud in the infamous 1988 radiocarbon dating test shed new light on this ancient mystery? To answer this question, Helmut reached out to the University of Arizona Radiocarbon Dating Laboratory in Tucson, Arizona.Intriguingly, each laboratory involved in the 1988 dating test had retained portions of their samples. Helmut, driven by his passion for the Shroud's secrets, had already initiated discussions with Dr. Timothy Jull, the current Director of the laboratory, to facilitate the imaging of these preserved samples.Join us as we explore Helmut's tireless efforts, his collaboration with fellow Shroud enthusiasts, and the remarkable journey of revisiting the past to uncover fresh insights. Discover the dedication and collective spirit behind this project, as Helmut, Dr. Charles Mader, and Holger Kersten generously contributed to fund the endeavor, making it an official project of STERA, Inc.Subscribe to our podcast for more insightful interviews and engaging discussions on faith, history, and the intriguing mysteries of the Shroud of Turin. Want to learn more about author Guy R. Powell? Check out the socials below:Website: www.guypowell.comInstagram: @guy.r.powellFacebook: @AHistoryOfTheShroudOfTurinBook Link: https://www.amazon.com/Only-Witness-H...Connect today to unlock the mysteries of the Shroud of Turin.

Episode 247 – Archeology and the Bible – Part 3 – Archeological Axioms Welcome to Anchored by Truth brought to you by Crystal Sea Books. In John 14:6, Jesus said, “I am the way, the truth, and the life.” The goal of Anchored by Truth is to encourage everyone to grow in the Christian faith by anchoring themselves to the secure truth found in the inspired, inerrant, and infallible word of God. Script: Noah was 600 years old when he went into the boat to escape the flood, and he did everything the LORD had told him to do. His wife, his sons, and his daughters-in-law all went inside with him. Genesis, Chapter 7, verses 5 through 7, Contemporary English Version ******** VK: Hello! Welcome to Anchored by Truth brought to you by Crystal Sea Books. I’m Victoria K. Today we’re going to be doing the third episode in a new series that we are calling “Archeology and the Bible.” Some scholars estimate that there are over 4,000 different religions in the world. With that many religions out there it’s reasonable to ask whether we can be sure which of those religions, if any, is true. The good news is that we can reasonably differentiate among the competing truth claims made by the various religions using logic, reason, and evidence. And one source of evidence that demonstrates that the Bible is the inspired, inerrant, and infallible Word of God is archeology. Archeology helps us to show an unbelieving world that that the Bible contains a large body of reliable history. So, to help us continue our discussion today in the studio we have RD Fierro, who is an author and the founder of Crystal Sea Books. RD, one of the big points that we are trying to make in this that archeological finds can be a valuable source of support for the accuracy of the history that the Bible reports. In fact, the Bible’s history has been shown to be accurate even when doubted by secular historians and we talked about that in our last episode of Anchored by Truth, right? RD: Right. But before I get to a reminder of what we discussed last time I would also like to say “hi” to everyone and welcome them to Anchored by Truth. At Anchored by Truth we often say that there are four lines of evidence, at a minimum, that will help people understand that the Bible may be differentiated from all other books that claim to be the word of God. Those four lines of evidence are reliable history, remarkable unity, fulfilled prophecies, and redeemed destinies. And one way we can show that the Bible’s historical reports are accurate is through archeological finds. And there have been some pretty graphic examples of the Bible getting history right even when skeptics for centuries dismissed the Bible’s report. A case in point is the Bible’s report on the existence of the ancient kingdom of Assyria and its famous capital city, Nineveh. Nineveh and the Assyrian Empire literally disappeared beneath the sands of time in the 6th century BC and for over 2,000 years physical evidence of the once-mighty empire was missing. VK: Nineveh disappeared so completely that a Greek writer, Lucian of Samosata ([who lived from] A.D. 120-180), once lamented: "Nineveh has perished. No trace of it remains. No one can say where once it existed" ... This lack of visible evidence caused many scholars and historians as late as the 19th century to doubt that the Assyrian Empire even existed, much less was once the dominant military power on earth. RD: Yes. But then all that changed. The online Encyclopedia Britannica has this to say about the rediscovery of Nineveh. “The first person to survey and map Nineveh was the archaeologist Claudius J. Rich in 1820, a work later completed by Felix Jones and published by him in 1854. … Sir Henry Layard during 1845–51 discovered the palace of Sennacherib and took back to England an unrivalled collection of stone bas-reliefs together with thousands of tablets inscribed in cuneiform from the great library of Ashurbanipal.” VK: But while secular history had lost sight of Nineveh and the Assyrians the one witness to their existence that never wavered was the Bible. The Old Testament books of Kings, Chronicles, Isaiah, Nahum, and Jonah always contained a clear record of the existence of the Assyrians even preserving names of some of its rulers and officials, the name of its capital, and even records of its conquests. Once the clay tablets were recovered from the great library by Henry Layard the Bible’s accounts were vindicated. RD: Right. No serious historian today doubts that the Assyrian Empire at one time dominated the Mideast, was a very successful military power, and posed a grave and mortal threat to kingdoms of Israel and Judah. The Bible always contained a plain record of those facts and today scholars worldwide accept those facts. So, one subject I want to discuss today is why – at one time – there was so much doubt about the Bible’s reports about Assyria and Nineveh despite the fact that the Bible record was true and accurate. VK: Well, I suppose many, maybe most people, would say “before Rich, Layard, and the others who unearthed the ruins of Nineveh from the Iraqi desert there wasn’t any evidence that the Bible’s account was accurate.” RD: I think you’re quite right –. VK: Thank you. RD: - And that’s what I want to talk about. Why do so many people doubt the Bible until one of the Bible’s accounts is confirmed by an extra Biblical source? The Bible is an ancient record – but there are a lot of ancient records from about that same time period. The Greeks in particular had some well-known historians such as Herodotus and Xenophon. The Romans had historians such as Tacitus and Pliny. The Jews had a particularly well-known historian called Josephus. But when secular scholars read those ancient historians they don’t automatically doubt their accounts unless another source or archeological find confirms it. But all too many people automatically doubt the Bible’s records unless there is an extra-Biblical source that comes along and shows the Bible is right. VK: Oh. I see the point you’re making. Even before Rich and Layard discovered the physical remains of Nineveh and the Assyrians there was in fact very good evidence of their existence - because the Bible contained a record of their existence. But today the tendency is to discount the Bible’s record as having evidentiary value unless another source is available to confirm what the Bible says. Your point is that among a lot of scholars today there seems to be an anti-Biblical bias that says, in effect, “Sure it’s in the Bible. But how do we know the Bible is true.” Yet, those same scholars don’t bring that same attitude to other historical records from the Biblical times. The way the academic community, the journalists, and the media treat the Bible is exactly the opposite of the way they treat other ancient sources. The skeptics and critics will regard other records as being accurate on their face but they regard the Bible as being inaccurate unless confirmed. This is either ironic because, in fact, the Bible is what inspired many, if not most, of those early Middle Eastern archeologists to go on their expeditions. They saw Bible as being true so they were willing to stake time and money to look for the ancient cities the Bible said had been there. If they had had the same attitude as many people today have they would never have set on their expeditions. RD: Right. A belief in the Bible’s accuracy inspired much, if not most, of the early archeological exploration in Egypt, Israel, Iraq, Jordan, etc. Some of the greatest finds in archeological history, such as the rediscovery of the city of Petra in modern day Jordan, might never have been brought to light if it weren’t for the fact that explorers knew it must be there because the Bible said it was. Petra in Greek means “rock like” or “stony” and it is, quite literally, a city carved out of rock. In the Bible that location is identified with Edom. The Edomites were the descendants of Esau, who was the brother of the patriarch Jacob (also known as Israel). Esau was red haired and the city occupied by his descendants was known for the distinctly red color of the stone in that area. So, it is interesting that when it was rediscovered so much of the Bible’s text was vividly confirmed. At any rate, the point is that there is often the tendency to doubt the Bible unless confirmed, whereas the opposite attitude is taken with respect to other ancient documents. The histories compiled by Herodotus, Xenophon, etc. are accepted as being generally reliable until inaccuracies are shown. VK: Well, as you say that wasn’t the case a hundred years ago or maybe even thirty or forty years ago. So, why is it that way now. RD: In my opinion it’s because of the concerted pushback that has been occurring against Christianity and the Bible in recent decades in the west. Christianity’s values and ethics have been under attack in the western societies for a wide variety of reasons. But to effectively dispense with Christianity’s values you must dispense with the source of those values: the Bible. So, there has been a concerted effort in academia, the media, and popular culture to characterize the Bible as being filled with myth and fairy tale. Once that idea is established, whether it is true or not, much of the Bible’s magisterial authority has been eliminated. VK: This is not only sad, it is dangerous. The Bible contains the special revelation that God has given to mankind. We can no more dispense with that revelation safely and without danger than the patient can ignore the mechanic who has just told him that he has an issue with his car or truck which he should attend to. The driver can ignore the mechanic’s advice but not without risking catastrophe. With respect to ignoring the Bible it’s even more dangerous. Mechanics are human. They can be wrong. The Bible was inspired by God and God is never wrong. RD: Well said. What people need to realize is that all people, all of us, approach our lives using a set of axioms. These axioms form a lens through which we see the world. Sometimes these axioms are obvious and reasonable. Most of us tend to see the advice given to us by professionals as being useful and helpful. This means we will accept and follow the advice. But not all people operate by this axiom. VK: Recent events in America and other western nations have unfortunately caused previous trusting people to begin to doubt the advice they previously wouldn’t have questioned. This may be medical advice, advice about nutrition and health, or prescriptions involving social, political, or cultural norms. Hmmm. I see why we need to talk about this. The widespread confusion over the virus and how to deal with it has caused a lot of people to no longer trust medical advice they once would have never questioned. And sadly, tragically, something similar has happened in our culture with respect to the Bible. 20, 30, or 40 years ago you could have settled a discussion by quoting the Bible. Today, if you quote the Bible people are quite likely to say “so what?” RD: Right. We all view life through a set of axioms. Quite often those axioms have put into our lives by our families or cultures and we don’t even question them. The set of axioms that surround us tend to shape what many scholars or theologians will call our worldview. I don’t want to spend too much time on worldview today - because that would be the subject for a whole show or even series. But the collection and aggregation of our foundational axioms form our worldview. For most of us the ideas that form our worldview are unspoken and un-thought-of. Most of them seem almost self-evident. Well, interestingly enough these unseen, unspoken axioms can have a powerful role in areas of study like archeology. VK: What are you thinking about? RD: Let’s take a specific example. Chapters 6 through 9 of the book of Genesis clearly describe a worldwide flood. Despite the attempts of some critics to say that this flood was a localized, limited flood, the Genesis language is pretty clear. The flood endured by Noah and his family was worldwide and essentially reshaped the entire surface of the earth. And based on the time periods that we can derive by studying the genealogies elsewhere in Genesis we can confidently say that this worldwide flood occurred about 4,500 years ago. VK: The Amplified Bible, Genesis, chapter 7, verses 19 and 20 say this: “The waters prevailed so greatly and were so mighty and overwhelming on the earth, so that all the high mountains everywhere under the heavens were covered. [In fact] the waters became fifteen cubits higher [than the highest ground], and the mountains were covered.” RD: Yes. That’s pretty clear language. But, of course, despite the clarity of the language today there are a great many people, including scientists, who deny that such a flood ever happened. Deep time, uniformitarianism, and evolutionary thought rule the halls of academia, the discussions at most so-called science institutions, and popular thought. Thus, it has become a widely accepted axiom in archeological thought that the flood never happened. So, let’s think about this. If there was a worldwide flood about 4,500 years ago that reshaped the earth’s surface and deposited huge amounts of sedimentary material all of the earth then no structures that we can find on the earth today would be older than 4,500 years. VK: It’s not impossible that some artifacts or parts of buildings might be found in one of the layers deposited by all the water moving around – but with the kind of flood described in the Bible nothing would have survived intact. RD: Right. So, an archeologist who accepts the Bible’s flood account as being historical will rarely, if ever, be tempted to assign a date to ruins or an artifact older than 2,500 BC. One of the axioms which would form a part of their approach to their craft would include the presence of the flood in ancient history. They wouldn’t have any reason to try to put a date on an artifact earlier than 2,500 BC. But an archeologist who denies the historicity of the Bible’s flood account has no problem dating ruins or artifacts as being much older than 2,500 BC. And there are a number of sites around the world that have been assigned dates older than 2,500 BC. And similar older dates would be assigned to artifacts found in those ruins. Bible denying archeologists have an axiom in their worldview that says people have been around for hundreds of thousands of years and therefore ruins as old as 5,000 or 10,000 BC (or even older) are possible. The difference in the starting axioms between these two groups is going to lead to widely differing possibilities in assigning dates to ancient ruins, artifacts, or civilizations. VK: Let’s remind our listeners of something that we’ve talked about before. Historical science is not the same as operational science. In operational science hypotheses can be tested and results of experiments repeated and affirmed or refuted. One scientist boils water at sea level at 212 degrees Fahrenheit and other scientists around the world can replicate those results. That’s operational science. But that is not true for historical sciences like archeology, cosmology, paleontology, or the certain elements of geology that pertain to age. All any scientist can do is look at evidence available in the present and attempt to provide an explanation for what that evidence says about the past. And there is just about no way to dispositively confirm that explanation. The best scientists can do is provide explanations that can be tested against the evidence and determine whether that explanation is consistent or inconsistent with the evidence. RD: Agreed. Historical science can never reach the same level of certainty as operational science. Moreover – and this is really important – the number of scientists, historians, or archeologists who may accept a particular explanation does not determine the truth of that proposed explanation. VK: Or, said slightly differently, truth is not determined by majority opinion. We’ve talked before on Anchored by Truth that today geologists acknowledge that many of the great river valleys all over the world were created by truly epic floods. David R. Montgomery, a geology professor at the University of Washington, labeled the floods that created these river valleys “Noah-like” in a 2012 article for Discover magazine. But in that same article Montgomery noted that the first geologist to propose that the river valleys of eastern Washington were caused by such floods was J. Harlan Bretz. But when Bretz initially proposed his explanation in the 1920’s he was met with widespread. Yet the recognition that Bretz was correct is so widespread today that, at the age of 97, Bretz was awarded the Geological Society of America’s highest honor. When Bretz first proposed his explanation for the origin of river valleys in eastern Washington he was a minority of one. But today it is widely acknowledged that Bretz was right. RD: Exactly. And that same thing can be true for the axioms that archeologists or other scientists bring into their profession. Just because one, many, or most archeologists believe that there has never been a worldwide flood has no bearing on the truth of whether a flood actually occurred. What is important for listeners to note is that this rejection of the flood of Noah will greatly affect many of the explanations that flood-deniers offer. A specific instance of this that we will cover in greater depth is the ruins at Göbekli Tepe in south eastern Turkey. Secular archeologists date these ruins to about 11,000 – 12,000 years BC. Their assigned dating is largely due to the results of radiocarbon dating. VK: But there are well known problems with the accuracy of radiocarbon dating. Creation Ministries International has several excellent articles on their website that discuss these problems. So, we won’t go into them today, but we will mention one. Radiocarbon dating depends on a comparison between the amount of carbon-14 present in a sample such as a wood fragment with the amount of carbon-14 that is assumed to have been present when the sample was first formed. One basic problem is that we have no idea how much carbon-14 was originally present. The starting value to which the current amount is present is always an assumption. There is no way to know for sure what that starting value was. That’s one reason we say that dates to artifacts or ruins are always “assigned” not discovered. There is never any way to prove that assumptions that went into the assigned date are accurate. And it is quite common for different dating methods to differ widely in the assigned dates. RD: Yes. So, largely based on radiocarbon dating the ruins at Göbekli Tepe have been dated far older than possible when considering the date for the Noahic flood. This points out the importance of the date assigners underlying set of starting axioms. VK: So, how can we know who and what to believe? RD: By doing what we always recommend – consider the evidence and apply logic and reason. In the case of whether the Genesis flood occurred there is an abundance of scientific and historical evidence that it did. And we have covered that evidence in depth a couple of times on Anchored by Truth. And the series that discuss the flood of Noah are available from our website: crystalseabooks.com. In the case of the dating of the ruins of Göbekli Tepe one simple question to ask is whether the ruins are more consistent with a hunter-gatherer society (which is what secular archeologists tell us existed at that time) or a society that possessed some level of mathematical and construction sophistication. In the case of the ruins we now know that they were laid out with a level of mathematical precision that would be inconsistent with a society that had not supposedly even entered a settle agricultural phase. But they are consistent with a community that possessed the kind of technological sophistication described in Genesis chapters 4 through 6. VK: Let’s remember that in chapter 1 of the book of Genesis the Bible tells us that Adam was created with a sophisticated knowledge of many subjects. He possessed language, a knowledge of biology and botany, and the ability to reason and analyze comparative attributes. And, of course, Noah in the pre-flood environment was able to undertake a large naval architecture project. So, his descendants after the flood would have retained much of this knowledge. By contrast an evolutionary viewpoint says that man’s predecessors knew nothing of math and technology and had to discover everything? So, in this case what we know from the ruins is more consistent with a Biblical explanation than the alternative RD: Exactly. This line of reasoning cannot reach the level of absolute certainty but following it, in the case of the ruins at Göbekli Tepe we can make the case that the Biblical explanation for their existence and dating is at least as compelling as the flood-denying alternative. And that is what we wanted to point out in this episode. When people see reports of new and sensational archeological discoveries in the news or on the internet – that purportedly show how the Bible is wrong - they need to stop and think. They need to examine the worldview and axioms of the group making the discovery and they need to research and consider the Biblical alternative. When they do they are going to find out that the Bible holds its own in every situation. VK: Well, This sounds like a great time to pray. Today let’s listen to a prayer that all of us would receive the ability to discern truth from the Holy Spirit who is the only One that can truly illuminate the human mind. God created the human mind and it would be far better for us to receive the least little bit of his infinite wisdom to guide our lives than anything that world can provide. ---- PRAYER FOR ILLUMINATION OF THE HOLY SPIRIT VK: We’d like to remind our audience that a lot of our radio episodes are linked together in series of topics so if they missed any episodes or if they just want to hear one again, all of these episodes are available on your favorite podcast app. To find them just search on “Anchored by Truth by Crystal Sea Books.” If you’d like to hear more, try out crystalseabooks.com where “We’re not perfect but our Boss is!” (Bible Quotes from the Contemporary English Version) Genesis, Chapter 7, verses 5 through 7, Contemporary English Version

Woolly mammoths are an iconic feature of the Ice Age in popular imagination. However, on today's episode, we will also see that they are the basis of a fun fact that may change your perception of the past... Sources for this episode: Ashman, D., Nature (2000), The sky was the limit for the Pyramid builders (online) [Accessed 10/10/2023]. Bartlett, C. (2014), The Design of the Great Pyramid of Khufu. Nexus Network Journal 16: 299-311. Clayton, P. A. and Price, M. J. (eds.) (2002), The Seven Wonders of the Ancient World. London and New York: Routledge. The Editors, Encyclopedia Britannica (2023), Pyramid (online) [Accessed 10/10/2023]. Fernie, J. D. (2004), Marginalia: Astronomy and the Great Pyramid. American Scientist 92(5): 406-409. Foster, K. P. (2014), The Hanging Gardens of Nineveh. IRAQ 66: 207-220. Haynes, G. (2002), The catastrophic extinction of North American mammoths and mastodons. World Archaeology 33(3): 391-416. Hofreiter, M. and Lister, A. (2006), Mammoths. Current Biology 16(10): R347-R348. Miller, J. H. and Simpson, C. (2022), When did mammoths go extinct? Nature 612: E1-E3. Spence, K. (2000), Ancient Egyptian chronology and the astronomical orientation of the pyramids. Nature 408: 320-324. Vartanyan, S., Arslanov, K., Karhu, J., Possnert, G., & Sulerzhitsky, L. (2008), Collection of radiocarbon dates on the mammoths (Mammuthus Primigenius) and other genera of Wrangel Island, northeast Siberia, Russia. Quaternary Research, 70(1), 51-59. Wee, Y. K., World Atlas (2019), Did Cleopatra Really Live Closer In Time To The First Lunar Landing Than The Great Pyramids? (online) [Accessed 10/10/2023]. Author unknown, Wikipedia (date unknown), Radiocarbon dating (online) [Accessed 10/10/2023].

REPLAY: The Outer Realm Welcomes Dennis Stone Discussion: America's Stonehenge!! Dennis Stone, owner of the enigmatic America's Stonehenge, located in southeastern New Hampshire. Dennis Stone is the president of America's Stonehenge. He graduated from Daniel Webster College in 1977 with a degree in Aviation Management, and was a full-time commercial pilot for over 35 years before his retirement in 2016. America's Stonehenge was opened to the public in 1958 by Dennis's father, Robert Stone. Dennis has been involved with America's Stonehenge for most of his life and has always had a fascination with archaeology and archaeoastronomy. Since retiring, Dennis has found many serpentine walls and spirit windows throughout the site, among other new discoveries. He has taken numerous courses and traveled extensively to ancient sites both in the U.S. and internationally. His family includes his wife Pat, his son Kelsey, and his daughter-in-law Katherine. His hobbies include traveling, boating, and classic cars The Site: Was this about the first place in the Americas where Native peoples engineered stone chambers and walls, or were they built by people from the Old World? Radiocarbon dating and students from Harvard and Penn State's astronomy depts confirm that the ceremonial centre and alignments were built about 2000 BC. This is long before Columbus so were people from the Old World sailing to America? There is evidence: the ibex petroglyph looks more like an African antelope than a North American white tailed deer. The corbelled ceiling is similar to Ireland's Newgrange and Scotland's Maes Howe tumuli. Why does it seem like the site was suddenly abandoned? There is almost no evidence of it being used as a necropolis. What was its function? What role do the alpacas play at the site? This site was featured on the inaugural season of Scott Wolter's "America Unearthed." Since then, it was covered by "Ancient Aliens" and on "The Holtzer Files."

The Outer Realm Welcomes Dennis Stone Discussion: America's Stonehenge!! Dennis Stone, owner of the enigmatic America's Stonehenge, located in southeastern New Hampshire. Dennis Stone is the president of America's Stonehenge. He graduated from Daniel Webster College in 1977 with a degree in Aviation Management, and was a full-time commercial pilot for over 35 years before his retirement in 2016. America's Stonehenge was opened to the public in 1958 by Dennis's father, Robert Stone. Dennis has been involved with America's Stonehenge for most of his life and has always had a fascination with archaeology and archaeoastronomy. Since retiring, Dennis has found many serpentine walls and spirit windows throughout the site, among other new discoveries. He has taken numerous courses and traveled extensively to ancient sites both in the U.S. and internationally. His family includes his wife Pat, his son Kelsey, and his daughter-in-law Katherine. His hobbies include traveling, boating, and classic cars The Site: Was this about the first place in the Americas where Native peoples engineered stone chambers and walls, or were they built by people from the Old World? Radiocarbon dating and students from Harvard and Penn State's astronomy depts confirm that the ceremonial centre and alignments were built about 2000 BC. This is long before Columbus so were people from the Old World sailing to America? There is evidence: the ibex petroglyph looks more like an African antelope than a North American white tailed deer. The corbelled ceiling is similar to Ireland's Newgrange and Scotland's Maes Howe tumuli. Why does it seem like the site was suddenly abandoned? There is almost no evidence of it being used as a necropolis. What was its function? What role do the alpacas play at the site? This site was featured on the inaugural season of Scott Wolter's "America Unearthed." Since then, it was covered by "Ancient Aliens" and on "The Holtzer Files." "The X-Files" did a show based on America's Stonehenge. It is believed that Lovecraft's "The Dunwich Horror" is also based on Dennis' property. There are a variety of ways to go with this subject. Links: WEBSITES http://www.stonehengeusa.com/ http://stonehengeusa.com/ Social Media: http://www.facebook.com/StonehengeUSA Media: We have been on many shows starting with 1970s " The UnXplained " on NBC with Rod Serling and Arthur C Clark, 1976 "In Search of " on ABC with Leonard Nimoy and Hans Holtzer ( directed this episode), 1988 A&E show with Edward Mulhare, 1996 C span Yellow Schoolbus, 2001 History Channel "Secret Passages " , 2001 History Channel " History's Mysteries " with Arthur Kent, 2001 Travel Channels Wierd Places, 2010 Travel Channel ,Wierd or What" with William Shatner, 2013 History Channel "America Unearthed" with Scott Wolter, 2020 Travel Channel " The Holtzer FIles " eith David Schrader, and most recently 2021 Science Channel " The Holtzer FIles ". The last on Science Channel was " What on Earth ".

Nancy Joie Wilkie worked for over thirty years in both the biotechnology industry and as part of the Federal Government's biodefense effort. Nancy is now retired and explores many creative pursuits including writing, composing original music, playing a variety of instruments, and is recording many of her compositions. Nancy has a BA degree in Biology and a MS degree in Bio-Chemistry.What do we talk about in this episode?Nancy recently published a book "Faraway and Forever", a collection of 5 novelettes combining STEM, science fiction, and faith. Nancy shares how she brings together her STEM career, music, writing, and art into her life in retirement. She shares how she got into biochemistry in the late 1970s and her successes and challenges.How Nancy weaves art, music, and writing into her life now that she is retired.How her grandfather influenced her which led to her becoming a biochemist.Her experience working at NIH and developing the second known small pox vaccination.Faith and science. One does not preclude the other.Music used in the podcast: Higher Up, Silverman Sound StudioYou can support my podcast on Patreon here: https://patreon.com/user?u=72701887Resourceshttp://www.mindsights.net - Nancy's website featuring her art, music, and writings."Faraway and Forever" by Nancy Joie Wilkie. A collection of 5 novellas.Radiocarbon dating, or carbon-14 dating, is a scientific method that can accurately determine the age of organic materials as old as approximately 60,000 years. First developed in the late 1940s at the University of Chicago by Willard Libby, the technique is based on the decay of the carbon-14 isotope. (news.uchicago.edu).

Oregon archaeologists have found evidence of human occupation in the state that dates back more than 18,000 years. University of Oregon students and faculty working at the Rimrock Draw Rockshelter in Harney County found stone tools and fragments of camel and bison teeth beneath a 15,000-year-old layer of volcanic ash. Radiocarbon dating of the tooth enamel revealed that the fragments were 18,250 years old. Due to their position in the ash, the tools are thought to be even older — making them some of the oldest evidence of human civilization in North America.Joining us with more details about the discovery is Pat O’Grady, a staff archaeologist at the University of Oregon Museum of Cultural and Natural History.

Episode 2253: Our featured article of the day is Radiocarbon dating.

Anchoring radiocarbon dates to cosmic events, why hibernating bears don't get blood clots, and kicking off a book series on sex, gender, and science   First up this week, upping the precision of radiocarbon dating by linking cosmic rays to isotopes in wood. Producer Meagan Cantwell talks with Online News Editor Michael Price about how spikes in cosmic rays—called Miyake events—are helping archaeologists peg the age of wooden artifacts to a year rather than a decade or century.   Next on the show, we have a segment on why bears can safely sleep during hibernation without worrying about getting clots in their blood. Unlike bears, when people spend too much time immobilized, such as sitting for a long time on a flight, we risk getting deep vein thrombosis—or a blood clot. Johannes Müller-Reif of the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry talks with host Sarah Crespi about what we can learn from bears about how and why our bodies decide to make these clots and what we can do to prevent them.   Stay tuned for an introduction to our new six-part series on books exploring science, sex, and gender. Guest host Angela Saini talks with scholar Anne Fausto-Sterling about the books in this year's lineup and how they were selected.   We've been nominated for a Webby! Please support the show and vote for us by 20 April.   This week's episode was produced with help from Podigy.   About the Science Podcast   [Image: Thomas Zsebok/iStock/Getty; Music: Jeffrey Cook]   [alt: brown bear lying in a cave with podcast overlay]   Authors: Sarah Crespi; Meagan Cantwell; Mike Price; Angela Saini   Episode page: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adi2236See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Anchoring radiocarbon dates to cosmic events, why hibernating bears don't get blood clots, and kicking off a book series on sex, gender, and science   First up this week, upping the precision of radiocarbon dating by linking cosmic rays to isotopes in wood. Producer Meagan Cantwell talks with Online News Editor Michael Price about how spikes in cosmic rays—called Miyake events—are helping archaeologists peg the age of wooden artifacts to a year rather than a decade or century.   Next on the show, we have a segment on why bears can safely sleep during hibernation without worrying about getting clots in their blood. Unlike bears, when people spend too much time immobilized, such as sitting for a long time on a flight, we risk getting deep vein thrombosis—or a blood clot. Johannes Müller-Reif of the Max Planck Institute of Biochemistry talks with host Sarah Crespi about what we can learn from bears about how and why our bodies decide to make these clots and what we can do to prevent them.   Stay tuned for an introduction to our new six-part series on books exploring science, sex, and gender. Guest host Angela Saini talks with scholar Anne Fausto-Sterling about the books in this year's lineup and how they were selected.   We've been nominated for a Webby! Please support the show and vote for us by 20 April.   This week's episode was produced with help from Podigy.   About the Science Podcast   [Image: Thomas Zsebok/iStock/Getty; Music: Jeffrey Cook]   [alt: brown bear lying in a cave with podcast overlay]   Authors: Sarah Crespi; Meagan Cantwell; Mike Price; Angela Saini   Episode page: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adi2236See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

A.R.O.G (2008), the sequel to G.O.R.A (2004), is the story of a Turkish rug salesman who is sent a million years back in time by an old intergalactic foe, and must help his newfound stone-age friends progress through the technological ages to… eventually invent a time machine to return? That, or win a football match… The logic of it is unclear, but it is very funny and certainly film-literate (if not science-literate). Get in touch with us! Twitter: @SotSA_Podcast Facebook: @SotSAPodcast Letterboxd: https://letterboxd.com/sotsa/ Email: screensofthestoneage@gmail.com In this episode: Watch A.R.O.G on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xr828yRNAu4 Is bee venom acidic and wasp venom basic? Truth vs. Myths: https://chemistryhall.com/bee-wasp-sting-venom/ Just in case the Zoomers don't know what a Betamax is: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betamax Miller et al. (2006) Public Acceptance of Evolution: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1126746 The Atlas of Creation (pdf warning): https://orthodox-institute.org/files/Islam/Atlas_of_Creation_v1_e13.pdf A fly fishing lure was mistakenly published as a real insect in an early edition of The Atlas of Creation: https://www.grahamowengallery.com/fishing/Atlas_of_Creation.html Turkey stopped teaching evolution in schools in 2017: https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2017/08/20/540965889/in-turkey-schools-will-stop-teaching-evolution-this-fall How can we date cave paintings? https://sruk.org.uk/the-dating-game-how-do-we-know-the-age-of-palaeolithic-cave-art/ Radiocarbon dating and bomb carbon: https://www.radiocarbon.com/carbon-dating-bomb-carbon.htm

A.R.O.G (2008), the sequel to G.O.R.A (2004), is the story of a Turkish rug salesman who is sent a million years back in time by an old intergalactic foe, and must help his newfound stone-age friends progress through the technological ages to… eventually invent a time machine to return? That, or win a football match… The logic of it is unclear, but it is very funny and certainly film-literate (if not science-literate). Get in touch with us!Twitter: @SotSA_Podcast Facebook: @SotSAPodcastLetterboxd: https://letterboxd.com/sotsa/ Email: screensofthestoneage@gmail.com In this episode: Watch A.R.O.G on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xr828yRNAu4 Is bee venom acidic and wasp venom basic? Truth vs. Myths: https://chemistryhall.com/bee-wasp-sting-venom/ Just in case the Zoomers don't know what a Betamax is: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Betamax Miller et al. (2006) Public Acceptance of Evolution: https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.1126746 The Atlas of Creation (pdf warning): https://orthodox-institute.org/files/Islam/Atlas_of_Creation_v1_e13.pdf A fly fishing lure was mistakenly published as a real insect in an early edition of The Atlas of Creation: https://www.grahamowengallery.com/fishing/Atlas_of_Creation.html Turkey stopped teaching evolution in schools in 2017: https://www.npr.org/sections/parallels/2017/08/20/540965889/in-turkey-schools-will-stop-teaching-evolution-this-fall How can we date cave paintings? https://sruk.org.uk/the-dating-game-how-do-we-know-the-age-of-palaeolithic-cave-art/Radiocarbon dating and bomb carbon: https://www.radiocarbon.com/carbon-dating-bomb-carbon.htm

In this episode of the Seven Ages Audio Journal, the team begins with the latest news from the world of archaeology. Micah covers the story of crab-roasting Neanderthals, after which Jason presents the discovery of a 7.5-foot Japanese sword in a burial mound outside of Nara, Japan. Then, James rounds out the news portion with the discovery of a Roman dodecahedron by a metal detector in Belgium.  The team then welcomes Oregon State University Professor Dr. Loren Davis to the program, who discusses his work at Idaho's enigmatic Cooper's Ferry Site, home to a large concentration of western stemmed points thought to pre-date Clovis projectile points by at least 1,500 years or more. Radiocarbon dates on the charcoal and bone are as old as 15,500 years. In North America, few tree ring records can precisely calibrate such early radiocarbon dates, but a state-of-the-art probabilistic model placed the start of the occupation at between 16,560 and 15,280 years.  Twitter  Instagram  Facebook   Seven Ages Official Site  Seven Ages Patreon  Seven Ages Youtube 

Was this about the first place in the Americas where Native peoples engineered stone chambers and walls, or were they built by people from the Old World? Radiocarbon dating and students from Harvard and Penn State's astronomy depts confirm that the ceremonial centre and alignments were built about 2000 BC. This is long before Columbus so were people from the Old World sailing to America? There is evidence: the ibex petroglyph looks more like an African antelope than a North American white tailed deer. The corbelled ceiling is similar to Ireland's Newgrange and Scotland's Maes Howe tumuli. Why does it seem like the site was suddenly abandoned? There is almost no evidence of it being used as a necropolis. What was its function? What role do the alpacas play at the site? This site was featured on the inaugural season of Scott Wolter's "America Unearthed." Since then, it was covered by "Ancient Aliens" and on "The Holtzer Files." "The X-Files" did a show based on America's Stonehenge. It is believed that Lovecraft's "The Dunwich Horror" is also based on Dennis' property. There are a variety of ways to go with this subject. Links: WEBSITES http://www.stonehengeusa.com/ http://stonehengeusa.com/ Social Media: http://www.facebook.com/StonehengeUSA Media: We have been on many shows starting with 1970s " The UnXplained " on NBC with Rod Serling and Arthur C Clark, 1976 "In Search of " on ABC with Leonard Nimoy and Hans Holtzer ( directed this episode), 1988 A&E show with Edward Mulhare, 1996 C span Yellow Schoolbus, 2001 History Channel "Secret Passages " , 2001 History Channel " History's Mysteries " with Arthur Kent, 2001 Travel Channels Wierd Places, 2010 Travel Channel ,Wierd or What" with William Shatner, 2013 History Channel "America Unearthed" with Scott Wolter, 2020 Travel Channel " The Holtzer FIles " eith David Schrader, and most recently 2021 Science Channel " The Holtzer FIles ". The last on Science Channel was " What on Earth ".

So far we've considered physics and biology in our exploration of scripture and science. Today we begin to consider how earth science and the bible fit together. This becomes particularly significant when considering interpretations for Noah's flood. We'll get to that next time. But, for today, our teacher will lay out the basics of geology and earth science to give us a good overview. He'll also cover radiometric dating, which has a bearing on how scientists determine the age of the earth. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8VzgrLAFXfg&embeds_euri=https%3A%2F%2Flhim.org%2F&feature=emb_imp_woyt See below for notes. —— Links —— We are doing follow-up discussions to these episodes on YouTube. Check them out! See other episodes in this Scripture and Science Class Check out Barlow's previous podcast episodes Learn more about and support the church Barlow and his team are starting in Louisville, KY, called Compass Christian Church Find more articles and audios by Barlow on his website: Study Driven Faith Support Restitutio by donating here Designate Restitutio as your charity of choice for Amazon purchases Join our Restitutio Facebook Group and follow Sean Finnegan on Twitter @RestitutioSF Leave a voice message via SpeakPipe with questions or comments and we may play them out on the air Intro music: Good Vibes by MBB Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported (CC BY-SA 3.0) Free Download / Stream: Music promoted by Audio Library. Who is Sean Finnegan?  Read his bio here —— Notes —— Geology, Earth Science, and Atmospheric Science • Geology• Important cycles• Plate tectonics Geology • Types of rocks/rock cycle• Geological principles• Dating methods• Structure of the Earth What is Geology? Geology is the study of the Earth and the processes related to the Earth. • Geologists study rocks (and the rock cycle)• Subfields include atmospheric studies (meteorology), volcanology (studying volcanos), and mineralogy (study of minerals) Types of Rocks There are three major categories of rocks: • Sedimentary - formed by pressure acting on sediment• Igneous - formed by lava• Metamorphic - formed by extreme pressure and heat The Rock Cycle Since wind and water are constantly affecting change, there is a rock cycle. Geological Principles There are several main principles of geology: • Superposition• Cross-cutting relationships• Uniformitarianism Dating Methods There are major types of dating: • Absolute dating• Relative dating Absolute Dating Absolute dating is based on radioactive decay. What is radioactive decay? • Some forms of certain elements are (by nature) unstable• Over time, these elements change on the atomic level (sometimes losing protons and neutrons; sometimes exchanging protons and neutrons, etc.) Carbon Dating Carbon dating uses the decay of Carbon - 14 • Carbon - 12 has 6 neutrons and 6 protons• Carbon - 13 has 7 neutrons and 6 protons• Carbon - 14 has 8 neutrons and 6 protons What happens when Carbon - 14 decays? • Carbon - 14 exchanges a neutron for a proton• This changes the element from carbon to nitrogen• The reaction also produces an electron and an antineutrino So, how does this tell us anything about dating? • Radioactive decay is a process that is well understood• The half-life for carbon - 14 is ~5,700 years• This means, that it takes 5,700 years for the amount of carbon -14 in a sample to cut in half Is carbon dating exact? • No - it's a statistical process• However, there is a range of probable dates given Relative Dating What is relative dating? • Relative dating uses the geological principles of superposition and cross-cutting relationships to provide estimates on how old certain features are• Example: dating a rock layer based on the age of another layer (dated using radiometric dating) Structure of the Earth How do scientists know about the structure of the Earth? • Scientists understand what waves do when they hit various materials (ex: ultrasound imaging)• Seismological data from earthquakes has given us insight into the structure of the Earth The Water Cycle The water cycle is the process by which water goes through the phases of liquid, gas, and solid. • The water cycle helps moderate temperatures on Earth• The water cycle also supports life through crops and drinking water Carbon and Nitrogen Cycles Carbon and nitrogen also experience cycles of solid, liquid, and gas. • The carbon cycle is important for the support of life.• Disruption of the carbon cycle is one of the biggest fears of those promoting climate change. Plate Tectonics History of plate tectonics • Ancients did not believe in tectonic separation• In 1620, Sir Francis Bacon noted that Africa and South America looked like they could have fit together• Similar animal fossils and other pieces of evidence started getting scientists' attention• In 1925, Alfred Wegener formally proposed plate tectonic theory and was ridiculed.• In 1930, Wegener died while on expedition in Greenland, trying to find evidence for his theory.• In the late 1960s, almost overnight, the theory of plate tectonics reached scientific mainstream. Evidence for plate tectonics: • Paleomagnetic data• Similar rock outcroppings• Fossil evidence• Spreading of the sea floor• Direct evidence - we can observe the movement! Challenges to plate tectonics: • Where is the energy coming from?• Why are the continental plates moving like they are? “Even today, many questions pertaining to plate tectonics remain unanswered. Many exceptions to rigid rules have been found throughout the world. Although classical plate tectonic theory works well for oceanic crust, it has a difficult time explaining the motion of the continents”— Jon Erickson, Plate Tectonics, page 259. Challenges for Geology There are several concerns with geology as a science: • The principle of uniformitarianism is impossible to prove and so it's an assumption• Relative dating techniques can use circular logic at times

Valentine's Day is upon us, and love is in the air-- love for relative and absolute dating methods, that is! Anna brings the science with C14 dating and its gang of radiometric friends, boggles minds with flipped magnetic poles and the last time archaeological material saw the sun, and finds some hot tree-ring takes in California. Meanwhile, Amber goes on a bit of a jag about ancient imperialism, makes a lot of jokes that even she hates, embraces the nihilism of climate change, and attempts to explain the law of superposition via cake. So, the usual— but that's why you love us!Dating in Archaeology (The Canadian Encyclopedia)10 Chronometric Methods in Paleoanthropology (Handbook of Paleoanthropology, downloaded via ResearchGate)Everything Worth Knowing About ... Scientific Dating Methods (Discover)Redwood Cross-Section of Time (Roadside America) more like RUDE-side America, amirite?Explainer: what is radiocarbon dating and how does it work? (The Conversation)What is OSL? (Utah State University)K-12 Resources about Radiocarbon Dating (C14Dating.com)Research illuminates inaccuracies in radiocarbon dating (Phys.org)Radiocarbon, The Calibration Curve and Scythian Chronology (Impact of the Environment on Human Migration in Eurasia, downloaded via Wayback Machine)Correlating the Ancient Maya and Modern European Calendars with High-Precision AMS 14C Dating (Scientific Reports)The bible and radiocarbon dating: Archaeology, text and science (via ResearchGate)The Iron Age Architecture at Hasanlu: An Essay (Expedition)East of Assyria? Hasanlu and the problem of Assyrianization, in Imperial Peripheries in the Neo-Assyrian Period (via Academia.edu)

For this weeks video I am joined by Robert A. Rucker (Bob) who earned an MS degree in nuclear engineering from the University of Michigan. He has worked for 38 years in the nuclear industry doing nuclear reactor design, criticality safety for nuclear fuel production, and nondestructive testing (NDT) or assay (NDA) of fissile material in containers. He published 41 documents with US Government agencies. He has been researching the Shroud of Turin since 2013 including application of nuclear analysis computer calculations to solve the carbon dating problem for the Shroud. Extensive information on the Shroud can be found on his website https://www.shroudresearch.net/, including his 32 papers that are on the research page of his website. For more information head over to https://guypowell.com/interview-guy-p....Subscribe to the channel to listen each week. New episodes are uploaded every Thursday-Friday.Want to learn more about author Guy R. Powell? Check out the socials below:Website: www.guypowell.comInstagram: @guy.r.powellFacebook: @AHistoryOfTheShroudOfTurinEmail List: https://guypowell.us6.list-manage.com/subscribe?u=27f4c87d37aa36fffdca695f3&id=6857bf7051Connect today.

Podcast jest dostępny także w formie newslettera: https://ainewsletter.integratedaisolutions.com/ Choroba Parkinsona jest bardzo trudna do zdiagnozowania, ponieważ polega głównie na pojawieniu się objawów ruchowych, takich jak drżenie, sztywność i spowolnienie, ale objawy te często pojawiają się kilka lat po wystąpieniu choroby. https://news.mit.edu/2022/artificial-intelligence-can-detect-parkinsons-from-breathing-patterns-0822 Przy całej politycznej urazie, która stała się częścią naszej codziennej rzeczywistości, może nadszedł czas, aby przyznać, że ludzie mogą nie być najlepsi w zawieraniu umów. https://interestingengineering.com/culture/ai-party-2023-can-it-succeed Międzynarodowy zespół badawczy kierowany przez Uniwersytet w Lund w Szwecji stworzył metodę, która umożliwia precyzyjne datowanie szczątków ludzkich do dziesięciu tysięcy lat poprzez badanie DNA przy użyciu sztucznej inteligencji (AI). https://www.azorobotics.com/News.aspx?newsID=13177 Na początku tego roku Google Research zaprezentowało swoją pracę nad RawNeRF z „NeRF in the Dark: High Dynamic Range View Synthesis from Noisy Raw Images” na konferencji CVPR (Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition) 2022. RawNeRF, który wykorzystuje obrazy RAW, bardzo dobrze usuwa szum. https://9to5google.com/2022/08/24/google-research-rawnerf/ Startup z Doliny Krzemowej wykorzystuje algorytmy oparte na sztucznej inteligencji, aby pracownicy zagranicznych call center brzmiały biało i amerykańsko podczas rozmów telefonicznych. https://www.pcmag.com/news/ai-startup-wants-to-make-foreign-call-center-employees-sound-white Odwiedź www.integratedaisolutions.com

Die Parkinson-Krankheit ist notorisch schwer zu diagnostizieren, da sie hauptsächlich auf dem Auftreten motorischer Symptome wie Zittern, Steifheit und Langsamkeit beruht, aber diese Symptome treten oft erst mehrere Jahre nach Ausbruch der Krankheit auf. https://news.mit.edu/2022/artificial-intelligence-can-detect-parkinsons-from-breathing-patterns-0822 Bei all dem politischen Groll, der zu einem Teil unserer alltäglichen Realität geworden ist, ist es vielleicht an der Zeit zuzugeben, dass Menschen vielleicht nicht die besten sind, wenn es darum geht, Vereinbarungen zu treffen. https://interestingengineering.com/culture/ai-party-2023-can-it-succeed Ein internationales Forschungsteam unter der Leitung der Universität Lund in Schweden hat eine Methode entwickelt, die bis zu zehntausend Jahre alte menschliche Überreste genau datieren kann, indem es DNA mit Hilfe von künstlicher Intelligenz (KI) untersucht. https://www.azorobotics.com/News.aspx?newsID=13177 Anfang dieses Jahres präsentierte Google Research seine Arbeit zu RawNeRF mit „NeRF in the Dark: https://9to5google.com/2022/08/24/google-research-rawnerf/ Ein Startup aus dem Silicon Valley verwendet KI-gestützte Algorithmen, um ausländische Callcenter-Mitarbeiter bei Telefongesprächen weiß und amerikanisch klingen zu lassen. https://www.pcmag.com/news/ai-startup-wants-to-make-foreign-call-center-employees-sound-white Visit www.integratedaisolutions.com

Parkinson's disease is notoriously difficult to diagnose because it mainly relies on the onset of motor symptoms such as tremors, stiffness and slowness, but these symptoms often don't appear until several years after the onset of the disease. https://news.mit.edu/2022/artificial-intelligence-can-detect-parkinsons-from-breathing-patterns-0822 With all the political grudges that have become a part of our everyday reality, maybe it's time to admit that people might not be the best at making agreements. https://interestingengineering.com/culture/ai-party-2023-can-it-succeed An international research team led by Lund University in Sweden has developed a method that can accurately date human remains up to ten thousand years old by examining DNA using artificial intelligence (AI). https://www.azorobotics.com/News.aspx?newsID=13177 Earlier this year, Google Research presented its work on RawNeRF with "NeRF in the Dark: High Dynamic Range View Synthesis from Noisy Raw Images" at the CVPR (Computer Vision and Pattern Recognition) 2022 conference. https://9to5google.com/2022/08/24/google-research-rawnerf/ A Silicon Valley startup uses AI-powered algorithms to make foreign call center agents sound white and American on phone calls. https://www.pcmag.com/news/ai-startup-wants-to-make-foreign-call-center-employees-sound-white Visit www.integratedaisolutions.com

Welcome to episode three of a miniseries focusing on the zooarchaeology of various world regions. This episode is centred around Asian zooarchaeology, focusing on the natural history and anatomy of the most prominent wild and domesticated species found throughout the continent. Tune in to learn how pandas were mistaken for tapirs, grunting oxen and oracle bones. Interested in sponsoring this show or podcast ads for your business? Zencastr makes it really easy! Click this message for more info. Start your own podcast with Zencastr and get 30% off your first three months with code ANIMALS. Click this message for more information. Transcripts For rough transcripts go to https://www.archpodnet.com/animals/48 Links Ameri, M. (2018). Letting the Pictures Speak: An Image-Based Approach to the Mythological and Narrative Imagery of the Harappan World. Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia, 144. Bose, S. (2020). Mega Mammals in Ancient India: Rhinos, Tigers, and Elephants. Oxford University Press. d'Alpoim Guedes, J., & Aldenderfer, M. (2020). The archaeology of the Early Tibetan Plateau: New research on the initial peopling through the Early Bronze Age. Journal of Archaeological Research, 28(3), 339-392. Harper, D. (2013). The cultural history of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in early China. Early China, 35(36), 2012-13. Kumar, S., Ali, M., & Khoso, P. A. (2020). Emergence and Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan. Global Sociological Review, 2, 9-22. Liu, K. et al. (2021). Radiocarbon dating of oracle bones of late Shang period in ancient China. Radiocarbon, 63(1), 155-175. Liu, Y. C. et al. (2018). Genome-wide evolutionary analysis of natural history and adaptation in the world's tigers. Current Biology, 28(23), 3840-3849. Mohamad, K. et al. (2009). On the origin of Indonesian cattle. PLoS One, 4(5), e5490. Uzzaman, M. R. et al. (2014). Semi-domesticated and Irreplaceable genetic resource gayal (Bos frontalis) needs effective genetic conservation in Bangladesh: a review. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 27(9), 1368. Yang, D.Y. et al. (2008). Wild or domesticated: DNA analysis of ancient water buffalo remains from north China. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35(10), pp.2778-2785. http://trowelblazers.com/zheng-zhenxiang/ Contact Alex FitzpatrickTwitter: @archaeologyfitz Simona FalangaTwitter: @CrazyBoneLady Alex's Blog: Animal Archaeology Music "Coconut - (dyalla remix)" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_2UiKoouqaY Affiliates Wildnote TeePublic Timeular Motion

Welcome to episode three of a miniseries focusing on the zooarchaeology of various world regions. This episode is centred around Asian zooarchaeology, focusing on the natural history and anatomy of the most prominent wild and domesticated species found throughout the continent. Tune in to learn how pandas were mistaken for tapirs, grunting oxen and oracle bones. Interested in sponsoring this show or podcast ads for your business? Zencastr makes it really easy! Click this message for more info. Start your own podcast with Zencastr and get 30% off your first three months with code ANIMALS. Click this message for more information. Transcripts For rough transcripts of this episode go to https://www.archpodnet.com/animals/48 Links Ameri, M. (2018). Letting the Pictures Speak: An Image-Based Approach to the Mythological and Narrative Imagery of the Harappan World. Seals and Sealing in the Ancient World: Case Studies from the Near East, Egypt, the Aegean, and South Asia, 144. Bose, S. (2020). Mega Mammals in Ancient India: Rhinos, Tigers, and Elephants. Oxford University Press. d'Alpoim Guedes, J., & Aldenderfer, M. (2020). The archaeology of the Early Tibetan Plateau: New research on the initial peopling through the Early Bronze Age. Journal of Archaeological Research, 28(3), 339-392. Harper, D. (2013). The cultural history of the giant panda (Ailuropoda melanoleuca) in early China. Early China, 35(36), 2012-13. Kumar, S., Ali, M., & Khoso, P. A. (2020). Emergence and Decline of the Indus Valley Civilization in Pakistan. Global Sociological Review, 2, 9-22. Liu, K. et al. (2021). Radiocarbon dating of oracle bones of late Shang period in ancient China. Radiocarbon, 63(1), 155-175. Liu, Y. C. et al. (2018). Genome-wide evolutionary analysis of natural history and adaptation in the world's tigers. Current Biology, 28(23), 3840-3849. Mohamad, K. et al. (2009). On the origin of Indonesian cattle. PLoS One, 4(5), e5490. Uzzaman, M. R. et al. (2014). Semi-domesticated and Irreplaceable genetic resource gayal (Bos frontalis) needs effective genetic conservation in Bangladesh: a review. Asian-Australasian Journal of Animal Sciences, 27(9), 1368. Yang, D.Y. et al. (2008). Wild or domesticated: DNA analysis of ancient water buffalo remains from north China. Journal of Archaeological Science, 35(10), pp.2778-2785. http://trowelblazers.com/zheng-zhenxiang/ Contact Alex FitzpatrickTwitter: @archaeologyfitz Simona FalangaTwitter: @CrazyBoneLady Alex's Blog: Animal Archaeology Music "Coconut - (dyalla remix)" https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_2UiKoouqaY Affiliates Wildnote TeePublic Timeular Motion

You've probably heard of Carbon Dating, but how are Astronomy, Biology, and Nuclear Physics involved? What are the problems with having babies in space, and how many animals have had babies in space? (surprisingly more than you'd think!) And what is the history of nail polish, and more importantly, our relationship with painting nails? Videos we talk about: - Mice in Space Support us on Patreon! Join our Discord! We also learn about: counting the rings in a carbon atom, Dendrochronology, Space & Life & Radioactivity, unstable tennis balls, a surprise callback to last episode, shoutout to baltimore! oh shit we can carbon date anything!! Ella is good at guessing, a rewrite of history??? OES, the real carbon dating was friendship, definitely points, what do you name a space baby? the ISS is not a safe form of contraception, sea urchin space sex, freeze dried mouse sperm resembling instant coffee, space sushi, space babies look cuter, jellyfish that don't know the right way up, but snails do! how humans might evolve in space, Disney's Moon Mouse Colony, what the moon teaches about Earth, Polish vs Varnish, our favorite color, fashion always goes in cycles, mummified pharaohs with nail polish, Van Gogh wasn't color blind, he just had cheap paints, Mary Cobb was a girl boss if you will, car paint gave us nail polish, wear nail polish if you want to! Sources: --- History of Radiocarbon Dating Radiocarbon Revolution Janet Ambers on Chronological Methods Dendrochronology Fritz Schweingruber on Dendrochronology Cosmic Rays and Carbon Dating Libby's Nobel Address Libby Carbon Dates Everything Carbon Dating going 75,00 years Back Overly Dramatic Carbon Dating Error Article OES (Ostritrch Egg Shell) Carbon Dating gets Updated IntCal20 Calibration Curve Emilie Jager on Geochronology --- Fertilization in Microgravity Sea Urchin Space Sperm Freeze Dried Mouse Sperm Sperm Count in Space Rats Mouse Space Baby Development Jellyfish in Space Snails in Space Dizzy Space Rats Space and Bone Density Space Adaptations Russian Space Cockroach Mice Adapting to Microgravity --- The History of Nail Polish Cleopatra and Nailpolish Nail Polish History How Stuff Works Nail Polish Hagley History of Nailpolish History of Cosmetics Nail Polish Trends

Episode 465. Topic: Radiocarbon dating. Theme: Atomic physics. What are isotopes? What are the common isotopes of carbon and how do they form? How is carbon-14 used to date organic material? What are the limits to radiocarbon dating? How are billion-year-old objects dated?Twitter: @3minutelesson  Email: 3minutelesson@gmail.com  Instagram: 3minutelesson  Facebook: 3minutelesson  New episode every Monday, Wednesday, and Friday! Find us everywhere podcasts are found.

People often wonder, why can't we date diamonds?  Today, we answer that! Here, we talk through the basics of Carbon Dating, also called RadioCarbon Dating!  Radiocarbon is an awesome technique that also has some really common misconceptions about it.  We go through the basics of this amazing method, with great analogies as usual, and we cover all those misconceptions!Carbon dating is a great tool for dating things that were once alive.  However, the half-life of Carbon-14 is 5,730 years.  This means that after something has been dead for over 50,000 years, there is virtually no Carbon-14 left to date.  This is why Carbon dating can't be used on dinosaurs (or diamonds) - no Carbon-14 remains.  Also, Carbon dating is not an appropriate tool for dating most rocks for two reasons.  First, most rocks don't have abundant Carbon-14 when they formed.  Second, most rocks are very, very old.  Fortunately, there are many other appropriate tools that scientists can use to date rocks.  Jesse is definitely the expert in the room in this discussion.  His research involves different dating methods that he's been using for years.  We hope you enjoy the discussion.——————————————————Instagram: @planetgeocastTwitter: @planetgeocastFacebook: @planetgeocastEmail: planetgeocast@gmail.comWebsite: https://planetgeocast.com/

Radiocarbon dating is a method of dating biological samples and this episode will discuss the recent revelations that it brought to the history of the human migration! Music by: Brian Mylls Guest: Tori Bybee

Soft and stretchy blood vessels, intact cells, animal protein, and even DNA have been found in dinosaur bones. How could they have lasted 66 million years? This episode features Joel Tay and Dr Jonathan Sarfati. Creation.com Talk is produced by Joseph Darnell out of the CMI-USA studios. Become a monthly contributor at our site. You can also help out by telling your family and friends to check out Creation Talk. Links and Show Notes Challenging evolution with science Double-decade dinosaur disquiet DNA and bone cells found in dinosaur bone Could iron preserve dinosaur soft tissue Dino proteins and blood vessels: are they a big deal? How long can proteins last? Triceratops soft tissue DNA detected in duckbilled dino Radiocarbon in dino bones List of Biomaterial Fossil Papers Helpful Resources The Greatest Hoax on Earth? Dire Dragons Evolution: Good Science? Dinosaurs & The Bible FOLLOW US (if you want) ► Facebook ► Twitter ► Instagram ► Our site Thanks for the photo by Lucas George Wendt Thanks for watching Creation.com Talk!

Script: Carbon-14 has been described as one of the most important isotopes and has revolutionized science. These claims of Carobn-14 were made by Martin Kamen in 1939, during the time of his unslept weeklong experiment. Kamen worked day and night with no sleep conducting an experiment where he had bombarded a piece of graphite with subatomic particles to try and find new forms of carbon, forms of carbon that could have particular uses. He indeed did discover carbon- 14. Generally, carbon has a average atomic mass of 12.0107 u and carries 6 neutrons, 6 protons, and 6 electrons. Carbon 14 carries 8 neutrons, 6 protons, 6 electrons, and has a half life of 5,730 years, +/- 40 years. It decays from carbon 14 to nitrogen 14 due to beta negative decay. Carbon-14 is sourced naturally primarily from cosmic ray action on nitrogen in the atmosphere and is often found in atmospheric carbon dioxide because it is being constantly produced in the atmosphere. The reason why Martin Kamen said that carbon-14 could be one of the most important isotopes, is because of its main application- dating, measuring the age of plants, animals, and other certain archaeological artifacts. Radiocarbon is present in molecules of atmospheric carbon dioxide and enters the biological carbon cycle. It is absorbed from the air by green plants and then passed on to animals through the food chain. Radiocarbon decays slowly in a living organism, and the amount lost is continually replenished as long as the organism takes in air or food. Once the organism dies, however, it ceases to absorb carbon-14, so that the amount of the radiocarbon in its tissues steadily decreases. Because carbon-14 decays at this constant rate, an estimate of the date at which an organism died can be made by measuring the amount of its residual radiocarbon. The discovery of radiocarbon dating was made by Willard Libby and was awarded the Nobel prize in 1960 for his contribution to revolutionizing science. But another revolution is needed. Due to the burning of fossil fuels, tests of nuclear bombs, and other global issues such as climate change, the amount of carbon- 14 in the air has been altered greatly. As a result, conversion tables are needed that match up calendar dates with radiocarbon dates in different regions.

Some 80 countries around the world add folic acid to their food supply to prevent birth defects that might happen because of a lack of the B vitamin—even among people too early in their pregnancies to know they are pregnant. This year, the United Kingdom decided to add the supplement to white flour. But it took almost 10 years of debate, and no countries in the European Union joined them in the change. Staff Writer Meredith Wadman joins host Sarah Crespi to discuss the ongoing folate debate. Last year, a highly anticipated tool for dating ancient materials was released: a new updated radiocarbon calibration curve. The curve, which describes how much carbon-14 was in the atmosphere at different times in the past 55,000 years, is essential to figuring out the age of organic materials such as wood or leather. Sarah talks with Tim Heaton, senior lecturer in the School of Mathematics and Statistics at the University of Sheffield, and Edouard Bard, a professor at the College of France, about how the curve was redrawn and what it means, both for archaeology and for our understanding of the processes that create radiocarbon in the first place—like solar flares and Earth's magnetic fields. This week's episode was produced with help from Podigy. [Image: Andrew Shiva/Wikipedia; Music: Jeffrey Cook] [Alt text: close-up photograph of layers in volcanic tephra] Authors: Sarah Crespi; Meredith Wadman See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Some 80 countries around the world add folic acid to their food supply to prevent birth defects that might happen because of a lack of the B vitamin—even among people too early in their pregnancies to know they are pregnant. This year, the United Kingdom decided to add the supplement to white flour. But it took almost 10 years of debate, and no countries in the European Union joined them in the change. Staff Writer Meredith Wadman joins host Sarah Crespi to discuss the ongoing folate debate. Last year, a highly anticipated tool for dating ancient materials was released: a new updated radiocarbon calibration curve. The curve, which describes how much carbon-14 was in the atmosphere at different times in the past 55,000 years, is essential to figuring out the age of organic materials such as wood or leather. Sarah talks with Tim Heaton, senior lecturer in the School of Mathematics and Statistics at the University of Sheffield, and Edouard Bard, a professor at the College of France, about how the curve was redrawn and what it means, both for archaeology and for our understanding of the processes that create radiocarbon in the first place—like solar flares and Earth's magnetic fields. This week's episode was produced with help from Podigy. [Image: Andrew Shiva/Wikipedia; Music: Jeffrey Cook] [Alt text: close-up photograph of layers in volcanic tephra] Authors: Sarah Crespi; Meredith Wadman See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

Camel shadows from overhead. Used by permission (c) George Steinmetz Hello to the Bob Enyart Live family. It is with a heavy heart that we announce, as some of you may have heard, that Bob went to be with the Lord on Sunday Sept 12th, 2021. If you'd like to celebrate Bob's life, you're welcome to join his family at the memorial service on Saturday Oct 2nd, at Applewood Baptist Church in Wheat Ridge Colorado. Doors will be opening at 9:00 a.m. If you'd like to support the family, please pray for comfort and healing. And if you'd like to help financially, please donate at kgov.com/store.  We'll be back with more news about the future of Bob Enyart Live soon. For now, enjoy this rerun of a recent episode. God bless. Press release: Pastor Bob Enyart, Known for His Unwavering Pro-Life Work, Daily Radio Show, and Christian Ministry Has Gone To Be With the Lord at the Age of 62 FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE ARVADA, Colorado, September 14, 2021 – Following a week of caring for his wife Cheryl's COVID-19 symptoms, Bob Enyart checked into Lutheran Medical Center in Wheat Ridge, Colorado on August 28, 2021. While in the hospital, his condition declined and he was eventually moved to the ICU with pneumonia on September 1. Despite the efforts of the hospital staff, his health continued to deteriorate and he eventually died on Sunday, September 12 at 3:00 p.m. Pastor Bob became a follower of Jesus in his youth and his most enduring legacy will be those he led to Christ. Teaching the truth of God's Word was Bob's foremost dedication. As pastor of Denver Bible Church, he would sometimes say, “If I could ask God any question and receive a response, I'd ask, ‘which of my teachings are wrong?'” He loved to study and debate theology. To Bob, ascertaining truth was paramount.  He garnered nationwide recognition with his television show “Bob Enyart Live,” which ran from 1994 until 1999. Though his program later shifted to radio, Bob's unique style and extraordinary message remained the same. He tirelessly shared the message that this generation is dying in sin and needs the Savior, abortion is murder, and that people should flee government schools, abandon immorality, abhor what is evil, and love one another. Over the years, Bob was often asked to participate on other programs including Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher, where he jumped at the opportunity to mock Jimmy Kimmel, Larry Flynt and others to their faces. He was a tireless worker, and despite the importance of his work, would often drop everything at a moment's notice to help someone in need. Still, his proudest achievement was that of his role as husband and father. He is survived by his wife Cheryl, their seven sons, three daughters-in-law, seven grandchildren, his mother, two brothers, one sister, and countless nieces, nephews, and extended family. He was surrounded by his loved ones who fought his illness with him until the very end. Read more about Bob here, from his favorite news site, LifeSiteNews.com! *Today we present the return of a classic show. Update: ICR's Acts & Facts gives a shout out to RSR in their current March 2019 issue where Brian Thomas writes about our online spreadsheet, List of Biomaterial Fossil Papers (maintained), "Real Science Radio host Bob Enyart and I continue to curate that growing list online." Thank you Brian, Henry Morris III, and everyone at the Institute for Creation Research!   Back when Real Science Radio needed to correct National Geographic's fake news story that camels had not yet been domesticated in the time of Abraham (rsr.org/camels), we turned to Archaeologist Titus Kennedy. Tonight Dr. Kennedy will speak at our Rocky Mountain Creation Fellowship (7 p.m. at Littleton Baptist Church at 1400 W. Caley Avenue) on the archaeology of the Exodus. On today's program, Bob Enyart asks Titus about the historicity of the Gospels; the earliest ancient fragments; the Roman Empire's habit of taking a census by requiring citizens to travel to their hometowns; the accusation that Bethlehem wasn't inhabited back then, around, say, the year 0; the historic significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls; whether Herod's reputation challenges Luke's record of the massacre of the innocents; Newseek's Nina Burleigh and her admission that bias against the Bible could blind archaeologists to the evidence; the pros and cons of Constantine's mother Helena, not unlike a guy named Ron Wyatt, who seemed to find everything she went looking for. * Carbon dating the Isaiah Scroll: Was it written approximately 300 BC or even 330 BC? See Wikipedia and then a paper in the journal Radiocarbon titled, Radiocarbon Dating of Scrolls and Linen Fragments from the Judean Desert.

Camel shadows from overhead. Used by permission (c) George Steinmetz Hello to the Bob Enyart Live family. It is with a heavy heart that we announce, as some of you may have heard, that Bob went to be with the Lord on Sunday Sept 12th, 2021. If you'd like to celebrate Bob's life, you're welcome to join his family at the memorial service on Saturday Oct 2nd, at Applewood Baptist Church in Wheat Ridge Colorado. Doors will be opening at 9:00 a.m. If you'd like to support the family, please pray for comfort and healing. And if you'd like to help financially, please donate at kgov.com/store.  We'll be back with more news about the future of Bob Enyart Live soon. For now, enjoy this rerun of a recent episode. God bless. Press release: Pastor Bob Enyart, Known for His Unwavering Pro-Life Work, Daily Radio Show, and Christian Ministry Has Gone To Be With the Lord at the Age of 62 FOR IMMEDIATE RELEASE ARVADA, Colorado, September 14, 2021 – Following a week of caring for his wife Cheryl's COVID-19 symptoms, Bob Enyart checked into Lutheran Medical Center in Wheat Ridge, Colorado on August 28, 2021. While in the hospital, his condition declined and he was eventually moved to the ICU with pneumonia on September 1. Despite the efforts of the hospital staff, his health continued to deteriorate and he eventually died on Sunday, September 12 at 3:00 p.m. Pastor Bob became a follower of Jesus in his youth and his most enduring legacy will be those he led to Christ. Teaching the truth of God's Word was Bob's foremost dedication. As pastor of Denver Bible Church, he would sometimes say, “If I could ask God any question and receive a response, I'd ask, ‘which of my teachings are wrong?'” He loved to study and debate theology. To Bob, ascertaining truth was paramount.  He garnered nationwide recognition with his television show “Bob Enyart Live,” which ran from 1994 until 1999. Though his program later shifted to radio, Bob's unique style and extraordinary message remained the same. He tirelessly shared the message that this generation is dying in sin and needs the Savior, abortion is murder, and that people should flee government schools, abandon immorality, abhor what is evil, and love one another. Over the years, Bob was often asked to participate on other programs including Politically Incorrect with Bill Maher, where he jumped at the opportunity to mock Jimmy Kimmel, Larry Flynt and others to their faces. He was a tireless worker, and despite the importance of his work, would often drop everything at a moment's notice to help someone in need. Still, his proudest achievement was that of his role as husband and father. He is survived by his wife Cheryl, their seven sons, three daughters-in-law, seven grandchildren, his mother, two brothers, one sister, and countless nieces, nephews, and extended family. He was surrounded by his loved ones who fought his illness with him until the very end. Read more about Bob here, from his favorite news site, LifeSiteNews.com! *Today we present the return of a classic show. Update: ICR's Acts & Facts gives a shout out to RSR in their current March 2019 issue where Brian Thomas writes about our online spreadsheet, List of Biomaterial Fossil Papers (maintained), "Real Science Radio host Bob Enyart and I continue to curate that growing list online." Thank you Brian, Henry Morris III, and everyone at the Institute for Creation Research!   Back when Real Science Radio needed to correct National Geographic's fake news story that camels had not yet been domesticated in the time of Abraham (rsr.org/camels), we turned to Archaeologist Titus Kennedy. Tonight Dr. Kennedy will speak at our Rocky Mountain Creation Fellowship (7 p.m. at Littleton Baptist Church at 1400 W. Caley Avenue) on the archaeology of the Exodus. On today's program, Bob Enyart asks Titus about the historicity of the Gospels; the earliest ancient fragments; the Roman Empire's habit of taking a census by requiring citizens to travel to their hometowns; the accusation that Bethlehem wasn't inhabited back then, around, say, the year 0; the historic significance of the Dead Sea Scrolls; whether Herod's reputation challenges Luke's record of the massacre of the innocents; Newseek's Nina Burleigh and her admission that bias against the Bible could blind archaeologists to the evidence; the pros and cons of Constantine's mother Helena, not unlike a guy named Ron Wyatt, who seemed to find everything she went looking for. * Carbon dating the Isaiah Scroll: Was it written approximately 300 BC or even 330 BC? See Wikipedia and then a paper in the journal Radiocarbon titled, Radiocarbon Dating of Scrolls and Linen Fragments from the Judean Desert.

Episode: Chris McKinny and Mary Buck discuss the archaeology and architecture of Iron Age Jerusalem.  Hosts: Mary Buck (Shepherd's Seminary) and Chris McKinny (Gesher Media) Summary: In this episode, Mary and Chris discuss the following: - The topography of ancient Jerusalem. - The history of research related to the “Millo” in Jerusalem (Judg 9:6, 20; 2 Sam 5:9; 1 Kgs 9:15, 24; 11:27; 2 Kgs 12:20; 1 Chr 11:8; 2 Chr 32:5). - The archaeology of the City of David and the Spring Tower. - The identification of the Millo/House of Millo with the Spring Tower fortifications based on a new suggestion by Chris McKinny, Aharon Tavger, Nahshon Szanton, and Joe Uziel. - The narrative implications of the Gihon Spring (1 Kgs 1:33, 38, 45), ṣinnor (2 Sam 5:8), and the Millo/Spring Tower being the same location. Additional Resources: Haaretz article on the Radiocarbon project of Uziel and Gadot; BiblePlaces “Warren's Shaft”  Photo by Yoav Dothan - Own work, Public Domain, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=8255891 Give: Help support OnScript's Biblical World as we grow and develop. Click HERE.

In this final episode of this series, we will continue our examination of evolution and the theories of man and compare it to what the Bible says about the origin of the universe, man, etc. We will be considering: Dating methods used to date formerly living matter through Radiocarbon dating  The Fossil Record, Dinosaurs and Man What does the Bible teach? We answer questions submitted on this subject biblequestions.org

This week we discuss three interesting archaeology stories in the news. First, new dating techniques are used to date Laos' field of jars. Then, we discuss the oldest known homo sapien burial found in Africa. Finally, excavations of mustatils in Saudi Arabia shed some light on what these structures were used for. Links Archaeologists finally uncovered some of the mystery behind Laos's Plain of Jars Dating the megalithic culture of laos: Radiocarbon, optically stimulated luminescence and U/Pb zircon results Africa's Oldest Human Burial Site These mysterious stone structures in Saudi Arabia are older than the pyramids The mustatils: cult and monumentality in Neolithic north-western Arabia Contact Chris Webster chris@archaeologypodcastnetwork.com Please Visit Our Sponsors! Archaeology Southwest Cafe: https://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/things-to-do/cafe/ Affiliates Wildnote TeePublic Timeular

This week we discuss three interesting archaeology stories in the news. First, new dating techniques are used to date Laos' field of jars. Then, we discuss the oldest known homo sapien burial found in Africa. Finally, excavations of mustatils in Saudi Arabia shed some light on what these structures were used for. Links Archaeologists finally uncovered some of the mystery behind Laos's Plain of Jars Dating the megalithic culture of laos: Radiocarbon, optically stimulated luminescence and U/Pb zircon results Africa's Oldest Human Burial Site These mysterious stone structures in Saudi Arabia are older than the pyramids The mustatils: cult and monumentality in Neolithic north-western Arabia Contact Chris Webster chris@archaeologypodcastnetwork.com Please Visit Our Sponsors! Archaeology Southwest Cafe: https://www.archaeologysouthwest.org/things-to-do/cafe/ Affiliates Wildnote TeePublic Timeular

Carbon-14 doesn't lie. It only lasts thousands of years and yet is plentiful in fossils and diamonds claimed to be millions and billions of years old. Real Science Radio hosts Bob Enyart and Fred Williams continue their discussion of Carbon-14 by adding to 14c factoids, presenting our List of Carbon-14 Everywhere It's Not Supposed to Be, and then they take neutron capture and knock it out of the ball park (specifically, out of Denver's Coors Field)! Telethon: The guys ask for help with their telethon goal of $50,000. If you can, please check out kgov.com/store or call us at 1-800-8Enyart (836-9278) to purchase our science resources, sign up for a subscription, or to make a one-time or monthly donation. And btw, we have a $750 matching offer, so you can double your gift if you'd like to be the one to match that! Thanks so much! Correction: The discoverer of carbon dating is Willard, not John, Libby. * Video Subscription: To order a monthly video subscription, just call 800-8Enyart or click here to receive our monthly: - Topical Videos - Sermon Videos - Bible Study Videos - BEL Televised Classics * 14c Factoids: - Our atmosphere has one carbon-14 atom for every one trillion carbon atoms. (one in a trillion) - 21 pounds of 14c are produced in the atmosphere every year! - Unstable radiocarbon decays with a half-life of 5,730 years. (half-life symbol = t1/2) - A solid ball of 14c the size of the Earth would all decay into nitrogen in less than a million years. - A gram of carbon has about 50 sextillion carbon atoms. (50,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) - RSR co-host Fred has about 10 octillion total atoms in his body. (one octillion of carbon) - Fred, a big guy, carries around about 50 billion radiocarbon atoms! (50,000,000,000) - Fred's body experiences about 2,500 decays of 14c to nitrogen every second. (Don't tell Sandy!) - One 14c atom in a trillion carbon atoms is referred to as 100 percent modern carbon. (100 pMC) - Likewise, 100 14c atoms in a 100 trillion is referred to as 100 percent modern carbon. (100 pMC) - So 50 14c atoms in a 100 trillion carbon atoms is referred to as 50 percent modern carbon. (50 pMC) - Fifty percent modern carbon is interpreted as 5,730 years before present. (about 6,000 years BP) - The best AMS labs accurately count 14c atoms to even 0.001 of a percent modern carbon. (100th to a 1000th pMC) - Published lab measurements show processing introduces 1/10th to 3/10ths of a percent contamination. (~0.2 pMC) - So lab contamination adds one 14c atom to 250 in 500 trillion carbon atoms. (Yielding 251 of 500 trillion or 50.2 pMC.) - 14c "ages" get progressively significantly inflated as with bones from 873 AD dated to 200 years earlier.  - Pompeii, destroyed in 79 AD, was expected to give appropriate ages but gave 2400 to 5800 years BP. - Old 14c "dates" are progressively too old and there's far too much C-14 in diamonds, etc., to be contamination! See more at rsr.org/14c.

Carbon-14 doesn't lie. It only lasts thousands of years and yet is plentiful in fossils and diamonds claimed to be millions and billions of years old. Real Science Radio hosts Bob Enyart and Fred Williams continue their discussion of Carbon-14 by adding to 14c factoids, presenting our List of Carbon-14 Everywhere It's Not Supposed to Be, and then they take neutron capture and knock it out of the ball park (specifically, out of Denver's Coors Field)! Telethon: The guys ask for help with their telethon goal of $50,000. If you can, please check out kgov.com/store or call us at 1-800-8Enyart (836-9278) to purchase our science resources, sign up for a subscription, or to make a one-time or monthly donation. And btw, we have a $750 matching offer, so you can double your gift if you'd like to be the one to match that! Thanks so much! Correction: The discoverer of carbon dating is Willard, not John, Libby. * Video Subscription: To order a monthly video subscription, just call 800-8Enyart or click here to receive our monthly: - Topical Videos - Sermon Videos - Bible Study Videos - BEL Televised Classics * 14c Factoids: - Our atmosphere has one carbon-14 atom for every one trillion carbon atoms. (one in a trillion) - 21 pounds of 14c are produced in the atmosphere every year! - Unstable radiocarbon decays with a half-life of 5,730 years. (half-life symbol = t1/2) - A solid ball of 14c the size of the Earth would all decay into nitrogen in less than a million years. - A gram of carbon has about 50 sextillion carbon atoms. (50,000,000,000,000,000,000,000) - RSR co-host Fred has about 10 octillion total atoms in his body. (one octillion of carbon) - Fred, a big guy, carries around about 50 billion radiocarbon atoms! (50,000,000,000) - Fred's body experiences about 2,500 decays of 14c to nitrogen every second. (Don't tell Sandy!) - One 14c atom in a trillion carbon atoms is referred to as 100 percent modern carbon. (100 pMC) - Likewise, 100 14c atoms in a 100 trillion is referred to as 100 percent modern carbon. (100 pMC) - So 50 14c atoms in a 100 trillion carbon atoms is referred to as 50 percent modern carbon. (50 pMC) - Fifty percent modern carbon is interpreted as 5,730 years before present. (about 6,000 years BP) - The best AMS labs accurately count 14c atoms to even 0.001 of a percent modern carbon. (100th to a 1000th pMC) - Published lab measurements show processing introduces 1/10th to 3/10ths of a percent contamination. (~0.2 pMC) - So lab contamination adds one 14c atom to 250 in 500 trillion carbon atoms. (Yielding 251 of 500 trillion or 50.2 pMC.) - 14c "ages" get progressively significantly inflated as with bones from 873 AD dated to 200 years earlier.  - Pompeii, destroyed in 79 AD, was expected to give appropriate ages but gave 2400 to 5800 years BP. - Old 14c "dates" are progressively too old and there's far too much C-14 in diamonds, etc., to be contamination! See more at rsr.org/14c.

Welcome to Times Will Tell, the weekly podcast from The Times of Israel. This week we have two really interesting, really nerdy, interviews with two of Israel's leading archaeological scholars. First, we'll speak with Tel Aviv University Prof. Erez Ben-Yosef, who since 2013 has led the excavations at Timna on the site of the fabled King Solomon Copper Mines and their surroundings. As you'll hear, the excavation is currently concentrating on the Iron Age activities of the nomadic Edomite kingdom. The team has uncovered all sorts of 3,000-year-old artifacts, including three super rare textiles that are dyed with the precious argaman or true purple that is mentioned in the Bible. Based on these findings and others, Ben-Yosef has developed a truly fascinating take on the early biblical United Monarchy. Read more here: https://www.timesofisrael.com/ancient-cloths-with-royal-purple-dye-found-in-israel-dated-to-king-davids-time/ The second half of our program is devoted to an interview with Weizmann Institute of Science Prof. Elisabetta Boaretto, an internationally recognized leading expert in radiocarbon dating. Boaretto generously explained to this science dummy the basics of radiocarbon dating. Part of what makes the work done in Boaretto's lab so noteworthy is that unlike most pure scientists, she and her team are regularly out in the field, collected secure samples, and working alongside the archaeologists. We delve into an aspect of a new study looking at an old find — an almost 4,000-year-old olive branch — which is the only remaining organic sample from the pivotal volcanic eruption on the Greek island of Santorini. Through new experiments on 70-year-old olive branches, Boaretto offers a new resolution to an ongoing debate over the timing of the eruption. PHOTO: Fragment of the rare purple fabric from 1,000 BCE excavated in the Timna Valley. (Dafna Gazit, Israel Antiquities Authority) See omnystudio.com/listener for privacy information.

GNS Science is measuring how much carbon dioxide we're producing in different towns as part of the Carbon Watch NZ project.

GNS Science is measuring how much carbon dioxide we're producing in different towns as part of the Carbon Watch NZ project.

When is the present? Radiocarbon dating and our planet.

Tommy discusses the process of Radiocarbon Dating.

The astronomy, technology and space science news podcast.SpaceTime with Stuart Gary Series 23 Episode 54*The brightest explosions in the universeMystery still surrounds events known as superluminous supernovae -- which are the brightest explosions in the universe.*The mysterious X-37B Space Shuttle launches on another classified missionThe United States Space Force has launched one of its mysterious X-37 B space shuttles on another classified orbital mission.*Virgin Orbit crash and burns on its maiden flightVirgin Orbit’s new LauncherOne rocket launch system has a failure during its maiden flight.*The Science ReportUnsuccessful trials for a new HIV-AIDS based combination treatment for COVID-19.Reducing weight regain in patients after gastric bypass surgery.Radiocarbon dating – long used to determine the precise age of ancient artifacts – is being recalibrated.Why it’s so hard to wake up and get out of bed on a cold winter's morning. For more SpaceTime visit www.spacetimewithstuartgary.com (mobile friendly). For enhanced Show Notes including photos to accompany this episode, visit: http://www.bitesz.com/spacetimeshownotesGet immediate access to over 180 commercial-free, double episode editions of SpaceTime plus extended interview bonus content. Subscribe via Patreon or Supercast....and share in the rewards. Details at www.patreon.com/spacetimewithstuartgary or Supercast - https://bitesznetwork.supercast.tech/RSS feed: https://rss.acast.com/spacetime Email: SpaceTime@bitesz.comTo receive the Astronomy Daily Newsletter free, direct to your inbox...just join our mailing list at www.bitesz.com/mailinglist or visit https://www.bitesz.com/astronomy-dailyHelp support SpaceTime: The SpaceTime with Stuart Gary merchandise shop. Get your T-Shirts, Coffee Cups, badges, tote bag + more and help support the show. Check out the range: http://www.cafepress.com/spacetime Thank you. Support this show http://supporter.acast.com/spacetime. See acast.com/privacy for privacy and opt-out information.

Stonehenge, London podcast by Morgan Rees (2m-15s - 540p) The perfect length for listening on your mobile Smart device. Stonehenge is a prehistoric stone circle monument, cemetery, and archaeological site in Wiltshire, England, two miles west of Amesbury. It consists of a ring of standing stones, each around 13 feet (4.0 m) high, seven feet (2.1 m) wide, and weighing around 25 tons. The stones are set within earthworks in the middle of the most dense complex of Neolithic and Bronze Age monuments in England, including several hundred tumuli (burial mounds). Archaeologists believe it was constructed from 3000 BC to 2000 BC. The surrounding circular earth bank and ditch, which constitute the earliest phase of the monument, have been dated to about 3100 BC. Radiocarbon dating suggests that the first bluestones were raised between 2400 and 2200 BC, although they may have been at the site as early as 3000 BC. Visit the World Without Traveling™ This is part of a continuing series of Videos and Blogs. Episodes visit such notable cities as: London, Paris, Las Vegas, San Francisco, Israel, Napa Valley, Nashville, Monterey and including interesting locations such as: Stonehenge, Eiffel Tower, Changing the Guard, Tower of London - Crown Jewels, Windsor Castle, the Roman baths, the Senine River cruise, Champs-Élysées, Arc de Triomphe, Notre Dame Cathedral, France’s oldest perfume houses, The Louvre Paris Museum, Royal Estate of Versailles, Moulin Rouge, Claude Monet and more. If you are planning on traveling these video/podcasts are a good primer with useful travel information Listen and Watch Anytime, Anywhere http://www.morganrees.com/podcasts#Stonehenge http://www.morganrees.com/videos#Stonehenge www.morganrees.com/videos www.morganrees.com/podcasts www.morganrees.com

Jessica Spitz, writing recently for NBCNews.com, basically asserts that science has proven - again and again - that The Shroud of Turin is conclusively a fake. The centerpiece of her argument is the carbon dating of The Shroud. She writes:  Forensic scientists have once again concluded that the Shroud of Turin, supposedly the burial cloth Jesus was wrapped in after his crucifixion, was artificially created. The Shroud, which is kept in the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Turin, Italy, has long been a subject of controversy within the Catholic community. Believers say its stains are the blood of Jesus, while others have questioned whether the stains are even blood at all. The new research is in line with numerous previous studies that have concluded that the Shroud is not authentic. Earlier carbon dating work has determined that it dates to 1260 to 1390; Jesus is generally believed to have died in the year 33. And a blue ribbon panel called the Turin Commission concluded in 1979 that stains on the garment are likely pigments, not blood, while textiles experts and art historians have suggested that the materials and images are not from the right era.  SOURCE  Reading the article, it sounds very, very definitive. Science has CERTAINLY concluded in many ways that The Shroud is a fake, and this new study just adds more evidence. So - let's take a look at some of these definite proofs and consider whether or not they can convince us that The Shroud is a forgery. Spitz summarizes how this particular 2018 scientific inquiry ‘proved' the Shroud of Turin false in this way:  In the most recent study, forensic scientists used blood pattern analysis to investigate the arm and body position necessary to yield the pattern seen on the Shroud. Using a living volunteer and a mannequin to model several positions, researchers determined that the patterns were consistent with multiple poses, which contradicts with the theory that Jesus was buried in the cloth lying down. In other words, reading between the lines, the researchers concluded that the blood splatter pattern on The Shroud conclusively could NOT have come from a victim that was lying still, but one that was moved about some. Think about it for a moment. Does the fact that the figure on The Shroud shows evidence of being moved AFTER being wrapped in the burial cloth indicate that The Shroud itself must be a forgery? I'm not sure how one could come to that conclusion - especially considering the Biblical testimony that the followers of Jesus took steps to prepare the body of Jesus for permanent burial. As well, we see clear evidence in Matthew that the body of Jesus was wrapped in linen AND THEN MOVED into the tomb. Surely such a thing could account for “multiple poses.” Consider:  So Joseph took the body, wrapped it in clean, fine linen, 60 and placed it in his new tomb, which he had cut into the rock. He left after rolling a great stone against the entrance of the tomb. 61 Mary Magdalene and the other Mary were seated there, facing the tomb. (Matthew 27:59-61) So - does the fact that the Shroud Figure had “multiple poses” conclusively prove that The Shroud is a fake? Of course not - Scripture is clear the body of Jesus was moved, which could certainly account for those multiple poses. But don't take my word for it. Victor Weedn, chairman of forensic sciences as George Washington University in Washington, D.C., said in an interview that while the experimental approach seemed to make sense, he was "skeptical of this analysis," saying there was no reason to believe that the body could not have been moved while being transported. "We're not dealing with things we really know about," Weedn said. "We just don't know if this cloth was laid on someone who just laid there or was wrapped around the body or moved some before being put in a particular place." Weedn is an Ivy League professor with a Juris doctorate and a Medical doctorate - a brilliant man. I think we can consider this particular scientific study conclusively debunked. As a side note, I believe these passages about the burial of Jesus and the preparation of His body in particular are quite interesting relative to the resurrection of Jesus, and I've written about it fairly extensively in my book on the resurrection Easter: Fact or Fiction. We often assume the ancient followers of Jesus were quite gullible and not at all sophisticated - that they would have glibly accepted the  idea of a person coming back to life because they would not have understood it to be scientifically impossible. However, biblical evidence clearly contradicts this - the disciples of Jesus DID NOT expect Him to return. They hid out and mourned. An expensive linen cloth was used to wrap the body of Jesus - strange behavior if one expected him to return in a few short days - why waste the cloth? The female followers of Jesus DID NOT expect Him to rise from the dead - they came to prepare His body for permanent entombment. Even Mary Magdalene, upon seeing the open tomb of Jesus did not assume resurrection, but asked where His lifeless body had been moved to. The followers of Jesus did not expect the resurrection, despite Jesus' claims that He would return from the dead.  Probably the biggest single evidence against the authenticity of The Shroud - at least in most people's mind - is the results of the 1988 radiocarbon dating, which concluded that the fabric was from the 1300s, give or take 200 years. If that conclusion was accurate, then The Shroud would very obviously be a medieval forgery of some sort. I believe that the number of congruences between the figure in The Shroud and the biblical account of the passion, suffering and crucifixion of Jesus are too numerous for one to assume that the figure in The Shroud is anyone but Jesus, and thus - if the cloth is from the 1300s, then The Shroud is an intentional forgery meant to mislead. The trouble is, that there is much debate - scientific, theological, and philosophical - about that carbon dating figure. In one of the groups mentioned above, we can see the two polarizing opinions that people have adopted based on this carbon dating:  N.S:  “No one has been able to replicate how it was made, which is fascinating. And one of the fiber samples taken for carbon dating turns out to have been a repaired section so that accounts toward the dating inconsistencies. I've always been interested in the Shroud and it's physical characteristics. On the other hand, A.M. wrote: I feel like the “carbon dating was from a repaired section” thing has been taken as gospel (no pun intended) without looking at the evidence against that theory; among them the fact that the weaving is not typical of judaean fabrics of the early first century CE, and that several experts including a textile restoration specialist have said that the section from which the sample is taken is microscopically indistinguishable from the rest of the cloth, which is simply not possibly if the repair were undertaken in the time to which the sample dates. There have been many, MANY attempts to prove the 14th century origin date wrong, and all of them have been failures or have been ginned up with test results that were not able to be duplicated and independently verified.  A survey of headlines on major websites shows a similar pattern: Confident and contradictory claims that appear to be irrefutable. For instance:  Life Site News: Scientists debunk theory that Shroud of Turin is medieval ‘hoax' NBC News:  Forensic research (once again) suggests the Shroud of Turin is fake.  BBC News: Turin Shroud Older than Thought. Independent.Co.Uk: 628-year-old fake news: Scientists prove Turin Shroud not genuine (again) USA Today: New Test Dates Shroud of Turin to Era of Christ. Reuters: New Forensic Tests Suggest Shroud of Turin is a Fake.  History.com: Shroud of Turin Isn't Jesus' Burial Cloth, Claims Forensic Study Phys.org - Study of Data from 1988 Shroud of Turin testing suggests mistakes.  Dozens - or more - studies have sought to undermine the 1988 C14 tests. Some have been quite convincing...other, a bit less so. For instance, from a Churchmilitant.com article:  “A theory surfaced in 2014 that the earthquake when Our Lord died on the Cross might have impacted the Shroud's radiocarbon results.  Radiocarbon dating is based on measuring radioactive decay, the process by which atoms lose neutrons. The group of scientists in Italy made the case that the tremors on Good Friday possibly caused emissions of neutrons from the earth's crust, impacting atoms in the Shroud's fibers. If atoms in the Shroud were affected by neutron emissions, this would massively skew the results of radiocarbon dating.” Source   Are you confused yet? I sure am. I think it is obvious that scientific consensus isn't 100 percent behind the hoax or genuine side of The Shroud debate. So - what's the story on that C-14 dating that conclusively and supposedly proved The Shroud was faked? Here's what happened: (FROM WIKIPEDIA SO AS TO BE NEUTRAL)  On April 17, 1988, ten years after the S.T.U.R.P. project had been initiated, British Museum scientific director Michael Tite published in Nature[31] the "final" protocol: the laboratories at Oxford, Zürich, and Tucson would perform the test; they would each receive one sample weighing 40 mg., sampled from a single portion of weave; the laboratories would each receive two control samples, clearly distinguishable from the shroud sample; samples would be delivered to the laboratories' representatives in Turin; each test would be filmed; there would be no comparison of results (nor communication) between laboratories until the results be certified as definitive, univocal, and complete; Samples were taken on April 21, 1988, in the Cathedral by Franco Testore, an expert on weaves and fabrics, and by Giovanni Riggi di Numana. Testore performed the weighting operations while Riggi made the actual cut. Also present were Cardinal Ballestrero, four priests, archdiocese spokesperson Luigi Gonella, photographers, a camera operator, Michael Tite of the British Museum, and the labs' representatives. As a precautionary measure, a piece twice as big as the one required by the protocol was cut from the Shroud; it measured 81 mm × 21 mm (3.19 in × 0.83 in). An outer strip showing coloured filaments of uncertain origin was discarded.[37] The remaining sample, measuring 81 mm × 16 mm (3.19 in × 0.63 in) and weighing 300 mg, was first divided in two equal parts, one of which was preserved in a sealed container, in the custody of the Vatican, in case of future need. The other half was cut into three segments, and packaged for the labs in a separate room by Tite and the archbishop. The lab representatives were not present at this packaging process, in accordance with the protocol. The labs were also each given three control samples.  In a well-attended press conference on October 13, Cardinal Ballestrero announced the official results, i.e. that radio-carbon testing dated the shroud to a date of 1260-1390 AD, with 95% confidence.  (SOURCE: Wikipedia)  So - that's that, right? 95 percent confidence by three different labs that The Shroud was from the 12-1300s. End of story. The radiocarbon dating slammed the door on The Shroud's authenticity for many, many people. One of the foremost Shroud researchers and proponents, who was himself a member of the original STURP team of scientists who studied the Turin Shroud in the late 1970s, is a man named Barrie Schwortz. He runs Shroud.com, which is probably the most visited site devoted to the TS on the internet. In commenting on the results of the dating, Schortz describes the reaction by Shroud devotees:  “As soon as the dating results were leaked to the press, the world of the Shroud came to a complete and sudden halt. Many researchers took this as the final word and disengaged completely. The years of hard work by the STURP team and the many papers they published in the peer-reviewed scientific literature was immediately disregarded and ultimately, forgotten. These were indeed the bleak years of Shroud research.” (SOURCE)  Except, there were objections raised about the radiocarbon testing almost from the beginning. Actually, to be fair, there were objections raised YEARS before the testing actually took place. Professor William Meacham is an archaeologist who writes articles with titles like, “High-throughput field phenotyping using hyperspectral reflectance and partial least squares regression (PLSR) reveals genetic modifications to photosynthetic capacity” and “Determination of the original firing temperature of ceramics from Non Nok Tha and Phimai, Thailand” Before The Shroud was carbon-dated, Meacham cautioned against letting the results be the end-all determinant of the authenticity or lack thereof of Shroud. In 1986, he wrote:  “In recent discussions on the possible authenticity of the Turin Shroud, the question of the value of C-14 dating persistently recurs. Virtually all researchers agree that the test should be performed; sufficiently small samples can now be measured so that the appearance of the relic is not altered. Several C-14 dating proposals are now under consideration by the Archbishop of Turin. In contrast to these positive developments, however, there appears to be an unhealthy consensus approaching the level of dogma among both scientific and lay commentators, that C-14 dating will "settle the issue once and for all time." This attitude sharply contradicts the general perspective of field archaeologists and geologists, who view possible contamination as a very serious problem in interpreting the results of radiocarbon measurement. In this paper I shall examine the issue of the reliability of C-14 testing to produce an "absolute date" on the linen sheet known as the Holy Shroud of Turin and believed by some to be the gravecloth of Christ...Reviewing recent Shroud literature of all persuasions, I find little awareness of the limitations of the C-14 method, an urge to "date first and ask questions later," and a general disregard for the close collaboration between field and laboratory personnel which is the ideal in archaeometric projects. Regarding the Shroud, consultations should take place among archeologists, historians, conservationists, cellulose chemists and of course radiocarbon scientists in order to formulate a specific C-14 sampling and dating procedure. As I shall endeavor to demonstrate below, the radiocarbon measurement of the Shroud is a complex issue, and the inclusion of all relevant expertise is highly important.”  Later, Dr. Meacham concludes his long and excellent paper on this issue, “My own tentative proposal for dating the Shroud is that at least five samples be taken: 1) a single thread from the middle of the cloth, between dorsal and ventral images; 2) a small piece cut just in from the edge next to the site of Raes' piece I; 3) a piece of the charred cloth; 4) a piece cut from the side strip next to the site of Raes' 11; 5) a piece of the backing cloth sewn on in 1534. The principal samples would be 1 and 2, with 3 possibly confirmatory; 4 would hopefully clarify the question of an added side strip: 5 would be a control for modern contamination. All samples would be subjected to elaborate pretreatment, SEM screening and testing (microchemical, mass spectrometry, micro-Raman) for impurities or intrusive substances such as higher order hydrocarbons, inorganic and organic carbonates. Samples 2-5 would be measured by both gas proportional and accelerator counting. Samples of a least 3sq. cm each would be required for intensive pretreatment (likely to sacrifice a portion of the sample), measurement of fractions, and controls for micro-testing. A total of 12 sq. cm. or so of the relic itself would thus be required. Selvage edges would be avoided, as in the British Museum inter-comparison experiment (Burleigh et al 1985:3). In view of the myriad contamination possibilities, at least two fractions of each sample should be measured, by each counting method, if possible. In the end, with luck, we would have at least two or three radiocarbon ages in good agreement and possibly, quite possibly, indicative of the true calendrical age of the Shroud linen. That is all we would be justified in claiming.  The existence of significant indeterminant errors can never be excluded from any age determination. No method is immune from giving grossly incorrect datings when there are non-apparent problems with the samples originating in the field. The results illustrated [in this paper] show that this situation occurs frequently. Regardless of the C-14 result, evidence from other sources would of course remain of considerable importance in the overall evaluation of the age and origin of the relic. A C-14 age later than the first century would not of course constitute scientific proof of the inauthenticity of the Shroud, since radiocarbon dating is a based on a number of unverifiable assumptions -- the most important in this context being that the carbon extracted from the sample is indeed identical with the carbon absorbed from the environment when the sample was alive. But of course C-14 measurement does usually provide a reliable indication of true calendrical age.”  SOURCE (CLICK HERE) Over the years, many have raised objections to the method and conclusions of the test, which most certainly did not follow the protocols that Professor Meacham called for. The main objections raised included the possibility of contamination of the sample (due to more than one fire that The Shroud was exposed to - as well as the touch of hundreds/thousands of medieval hand), as well as the location of the sample being near the edge of the garment - an area some have thought to be part of a medieval repair.  Think of it like this: Have you heard of the Ship of Theseus?  It's one of the more fascinating thought experiments and it has been around for thousands of years, at least since 500 years before the time of Jesus. So - who was Theseus? He was the possibly mythical founding king of Athens. The thought experiment goes like this: Let's say Theseus had a great battle ship that he won some big battles in. Over the years, the ship has to be repaired some planks are damaged, the mast is broken, rot sets in, etc. After a few decades, due to the nature of wood, fabric and rope (and the corrosive effect of salty winds and oceans) - all of the original parts of Theseus' ship has been replaced. Not all at once, of course - but over the years, bit by bit. The philosophical question is this: Is it still Theseus' ship despite the fact that there is not a single original part left??  The second part of the thought experiment is to consider another hypothetical. What if Theseus kept in a storehouse EVERY single part of his boat that was replaced. Further still, what if somebody was able to restore and repair every single former part of the ship, and then completely rebuilt it - using the original parts and to the exact specifications of the original. Which of the two boats is more the original ship of Theseus?? Well, that's not the Bible mystery we are here to solve today, but it does serve as an oblique introduction to one of the major issues with testing The Shroud.  - What if The Ship of Theseus - or a similar ship - was somehow in service for hundreds of years - dating back to an indeterminate time. Perhaps some modern scientists would want to radiocarbon date the ship to test how old it was. That test would only be accurate if one took a sample from an original plank on the ship. If the ship was originally built in 1525, but then repaired in multiple places in 1875, and the sample taken for the carbon test was from a repaired plank, then one could quickly see how the c14 test would fail to ascertain the real age of the ship, right? Well, that is exactly what many claim has happened with the 1988 radiocarbon dating of The Shroud. Many claim that the sample tested was either from a section subject to some unknown medieval era repairs, or it was tainted by a medieval fire, or medieval hands, etc. This is why professor Meacham argued in 1986 that radiocarbon dating should not be the only way that the date of The Shroud was determined.  A 2000 study by Joseph Marino and his wife Sue Benford found interesting results based on x-ray analysis of the TS sample sites. They found what they believe to be a seam in the sampled area of the fabric which is indicative of a repair made much later than when the cloth was originally made. The seam they found is diagonal and runs through the entire strip of the piece of fabric that was divided into three parts and sent to three different labs. Marino and Benford indicate that the variance of roughly 200 years found in the c14 dating of Arizona, Zurich and Oxford seems to correspond to the location of this diagonal seam, which caused the researchers to theorize that the repair was skewing the results of the dating test, and causing the three results to fall outside of the bounds of date agreement that statistical analysis would expect for three tests of the same exact cloth. Interestingly, after my first episode on the T.S., Mr Marino contacted me and sent some very helpful research my way.  Raymond Rogers was a chemist and thermal analysis expert who served for nearly 40 years at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. He was a high ranking military analyst as well, and wrote and edited numerous scientific journal articles. Rogers was the head of chemical analysis for the original STURP team that studied The Shroud. After the 1988 c14 testing, Rogers was initially convinced for years by the results of the test, but began to reconsider those results after reviewing the paper mentioned previously by Joe Marino and Sue Benford. Rogers reexamined some fiber samples from the Turin Shroud in order to debunk the debunkers. He was surprised to find clear microscopic evidence that a cotton patch had been skillfully weaved into the original linen of the tested part of the Turin Shroud. Rogers also noted that x-ray fluorescent photography done of The Shroud demonstrated that the part of the cloth where the sample was taken glowed a different color than the rest of the cloth, which would likely be an indicator that different fabric was contained in the tested sample. In 2005, shortly before his death from cancer, Rogers wrote a scientific paper on The Shroud for the chemistry journal Thermochimica Acta that contained a detailed chemical analysis of The Shroud fibers, (with pictures) and a discussion of the likely contamination of the sampled section of the cloth. The paper concludes: “If the shroud had been produced between a.d. 1260 and 1390, as indicated by the radiocarbon analyses, lignin should be easy to detect. A linen produced in a.d. 1260 would have retained about 37% of its vanillin in 1978. The Raes threads, the Holland cloth, and all other medieval linens gave the test for vanillin wherever lignin could be observed on growth nodes. The disappearance of all traces of vanillin from the lignin in the shroud indicates a much older age than the radiocarbon laboratories reported...Because the shroud and other very old linens do not give the vanillin test, the cloth must be quite old. It is thus very unlikely that the linen was produced during medieval times...The combined evidence from chemical kinetics, analytical chemistry, cotton content, and pyrolysis proves that the material from the radiocarbon area of the shroud is significantly different from that of the main cloth. The radiocarbon sample was thus not part of the original cloth and is invalid for determining the age of the shroud. Because the storage conditions through the centuries are unknown, a more accurate age determination will require new radiocarbon analyses with several fully characterized and carefully prepared samples” SOURCE More recently, Summer of 2019, a peer reviewed academic journal called Archaeometry, produced by The University of Oxford, published a very interesting article that called into question the results of the c14 dating of The Shroud. If you aren't familiar, Archaeometry “is an international research journal covering the application of the physical and biological sciences to archaeology and the history of art. The topics covered include dating methods, artifact studies, mathematical methods, remote sensing techniques, conservation science, environmental reconstruction, biological anthropology and archaeological theory.” An international team of researchers led by French researcher Tristan Casabianca obtained the raw results from the original 1988 radiocarbon testing and did some significant statistical analysis of those results, and also looked for other possible issues. In a recent interview with the French magazine L'Homme Nouveau (The New Man), Casabianca summarized the findings of his team's study:  “In 1989, the results of the shroud dating were published in the prestigious journal Nature: between 1260 and 1390 with 95% certainty. But for thirty years, researchers have asked the laboratories for raw data. These have always refused to provide them. In 2017, I submitted a legal request to the British Museum, which supervised the laboratories. Thus, I had access to hundreds of unpublished pages, which include these raw data. With my team, we conducted their analysis. Our statistical analysis shows that the 1988 carbon 14 dating was unreliable: the tested samples are obviously heterogeneous, [showing many different dates], and there is no guarantee that all these samples, taken from one end of the sheet, are representative of the whole fabric. It is therefore impossible to conclude that the shroud of Turin dates from the Middle Ages.”  The paper itself is incredibly complex, and very heavy on a type of statistical analysis that is well over my head in most places. I've read and reread portions of that paper, though, and I feel like I understand it well enough to note that it raises some very troubling concerns about the results of the 1988 dating. Some of those concerns include:  Significant contamination of various pieces of the very small Shroud samples sent to each laboratory. The paper notes: “ Despite the close visual inspection of the TS by textile experts and the loss of weight of approximately 25% after the cutting (FOIA 2017, 162), Oxford found and removed several textile fibres of different colours, including one identified by a textile laboratory to be cotton, ‘possibly of Egyptian origin and quite old' (Anonymous 1988; FOIA 2017, 104). Oxford mentions that in one subsample there may have been ‘glass', perhaps sodium Radiocarbon dating of the Turin Shroud 7 © 2019 University of Oxford, Archaeometry ••, •• (2019) ••–•• chloride crystals (Wilson 1995, 18; FOIA 2017, 103). In the original draft, Arizona indicated that ‘a red thread and three blue threads' were removed from one of their subsamples (Turin Shroud Archive). In 2010, Arizona recognized that they had kept one piece of an undated TS subsample. On this subsample, the authors identified foreign material invisible to the naked eye, including a blue substance described as ‘apparently wax' (Freer-Waters and Jull 2010, 1522) and some cotton fibres. Zürich may have found an assortment of debris (Marinelli 2012, 26).” 2. Significant statistical differences between the raw dates obtained by the three labs that each tested a similar sample of the Turin Shroud. Recall that a very small piece of the TS was cut off and sent to three different labs. One in Arizona, one in Zurich and one in Oxford. Supposedly all three labs returned the same results for the dating of the TS, but according to Casabianca's statistical survey of the raw results, that claim is not true. He shows that there was significant statistical variance between the results obtained by the three labs, especially the Arizona lab. Now, I'm going to read a part of the paper where Casabianca's team makes this claim, but I do not claim to fully understand what's going on here: The analysis of the Arizona counts showed further interesting aspects. The eight counts of the Arizona data were categorized into four groups (A1 and A2, A3 and A4, A5 and A6, and A7 and A8) because they were executed on the same day using the same standards. The non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test (Table 5; see also Table S10 for the assumptions) shows highly statistically significant differences even if we consider the eight counts both separately and gathered (p-values < 0.0001). The results show that the different assessments produced by the same laboratory (raw vs. Nature) are not statistically significant, whereas the analysis of the raw radiocarbon dates confirmed that the different laboratories produced different assessments and that these differences are, in most cases, statistically significant. That might be the most understandable section out of the paper's discussion of the statistical anomalies between the dates obtained by the three labs. Ultimately, I take it that Casabianca's work is demonstrating that the lab results are different enough that something must account for the difference - contamination, medieval repairs, botched handling, etc. 3. The dates obtained by the labs on the small samples they were given, appear to vary throughout the length of the sample, rather than remain the same. In other words, different parts of the small sample size tested by each lab test out with a statistically significant different date, a result which could be explained by contamination, and many other factors. The paper makes this claim about the non-homogenous results: Moreover, our statistical analysis of the raw data supports the conclusion of Riani et al. (2013). They used the known locations of the tested samples in each laboratory and showed a significant decrease in the radiocarbon age as one gets closer to the centre of the sheet (in length, from the tested corner). This variability of the Nature radiocarbon dates in a few centimetres, if linearly extrapolated to the opposite side of the TS, would lead to a dating in the future. So - those are some significant scientific issues raised with the 1988 dating in this paper, and many other scientific studies are cited which reveal similar problems with the dating. Casabianca's paper concludes this way: “The discussed statistical analysis reinforced the argument against the goodness of the radiocarbon dating of the TS, suggesting the presence of serious incongruities among the raw measurements. Our results, which are compatible with those previously reported by many other authors (Brunati 1996; Van Haelst 1997, 2002; Riani et al. 2013), strongly suggest that homogeneity is lacking in the data. The measurements made by the three laboratories on the TS sample suffer from a lack of precision which seriously affects the reliability of the 95% AD 1260–1390 interval. The statistical analyses, supported by the foreign material found by the laboratories, show the necessity of a new radiocarbon dating to compute a new reliable interval. This new test requires, in an interdisciplinary research, a robust protocol. Without this re-analysis, it is not possible to affirm that the 1988 radiocarbon dating offers ‘conclusive evidence' that the calendar age range is accurate and representative of the whole cloth. This is not a lightweight attack on the credibility of the 1988 radiocarbon dating of The Shroud. If you are a committed and convinced Shroud-skeptic, then I have no beef with you, since I am currently a Shroud-agnostic. However, if you have based your assured skepticism primarily on the radiocarbon dating of The Shroud, then I would encourage you to sit down and try to read Casabianca's paper. It's not an easy read in the least, and you might need some Tylenol, but i believe it does poke significant holes in the credibility of that 1988 test - enough holes that I believe that the test represents minor evidence - at best - against the genuineness of The Shroud, rather than conclusive evidence. So - has 1988 radiocarbon dating conclusively shown that The Shroud was a medieval hoax? I believe that scientists (textile experts, statisticians, chemists, historians and archaeologists) have raised enough objections with the method and the conclusions of the original 1988 test to say, ‘no.' This, of course, does NOT prove that The Shroud is the original burial cloth of Jesus, nor does it prove that The Shroud was produced originally in the first century. What it does suggest - strongly, I'd say - is that we need an updated radiocarbon testing of The Shroud. One that utilizes fabric far closer to the middle of The Shroud, and one that uses fabric that is checked and rechecked for contaminants, repairs and reweaves prior to the testing. What does The Vatican have to lose here? I realize that they want to preserve the Turin Shroud as well as possible - it is a priceless artifact whether it is genuine or not. However, I believe the loss of a small portion of the middle, non-imprinted section of The Shroud is an acceptable loss, and a worthwhile risk. If the updated testing again shows a medieval date, then nothing significant has been lost, considering that The Shroud already bears the scars of years of use and fire damage, and considering that The Vatican has never officially vouched for the authenticity of the cloth. If, however, the test comes back as dating to near the time of Christ, then imagine the clamor and positive publicity over such a finding? It would be immense, and clearly worth the risk. Worth the risk, of course, if The Vatican truly believes The Shroud could be authentic. Next episode we will consider to what degree The Vatican really does esteem The Shroud, and maybe bust a few more myths along the way. 

Jessica Spitz, writing recently for NBCNews.com, basically asserts that science has proven - again and again - that The Shroud of Turin is conclusively a fake. The centerpiece of her argument is the carbon dating of The Shroud. She writes:  Forensic scientists have once again concluded that the Shroud of Turin, supposedly the burial cloth Jesus was wrapped in after his crucifixion, was artificially created. The Shroud, which is kept in the Cathedral of St. John the Baptist in Turin, Italy, has long been a subject of controversy within the Catholic community. Believers say its stains are the blood of Jesus, while others have questioned whether the stains are even blood at all. The new research is in line with numerous previous studies that have concluded that the Shroud is not authentic. Earlier carbon dating work has determined that it dates to 1260 to 1390; Jesus is generally believed to have died in the year 33. And a blue ribbon panel called the Turin Commission concluded in 1979 that stains on the garment are likely pigments, not blood, while textiles experts and art historians have suggested that the materials and images are not from the right era.  SOURCE  Reading the article, it sounds very, very definitive. Science has CERTAINLY concluded in many ways that The Shroud is a fake, and this new study just adds more evidence. So - let's take a look at some of these definite proofs and consider whether or not they can convince us that The Shroud is a forgery. Spitz summarizes how this particular 2018 scientific inquiry ‘proved' the Shroud of Turin false in this way:  In the most recent study, forensic scientists used blood pattern analysis to investigate the arm and body position necessary to yield the pattern seen on the Shroud. Using a living volunteer and a mannequin to model several positions, researchers determined that the patterns were consistent with multiple poses, which contradicts with the theory that Jesus was buried in the cloth lying down. In other words, reading between the lines, the researchers concluded that the blood splatter pattern on The Shroud conclusively could NOT have come from a victim that was lying still, but one that was moved about some. Think about it for a moment. Does the fact that the figure on The Shroud shows evidence of being moved AFTER being wrapped in the burial cloth indicate that The Shroud itself must be a forgery? I'm not sure how one could come to that conclusion - especially considering the Biblical testimony that the followers of Jesus took steps to prepare the body of Jesus for permanent burial. As well, we see clear evidence in Matthew that the body of Jesus was wrapped in linen AND THEN MOVED into the tomb. Surely such a thing could account for “multiple poses.” Consider:  So Joseph took the body, wrapped it in clean, fine linen, 60 and placed it in his new tomb, which he had cut into the rock. He left after rolling a great stone against the entrance of the tomb. 61 Mary Magdalene and the other Mary were seated there, facing the tomb. (Matthew 27:59-61) So - does the fact that the Shroud Figure had “multiple poses” conclusively prove that The Shroud is a fake? Of course not - Scripture is clear the body of Jesus was moved, which could certainly account for those multiple poses. But don't take my word for it. Victor Weedn, chairman of forensic sciences as George Washington University in Washington, D.C., said in an interview that while the experimental approach seemed to make sense, he was "skeptical of this analysis," saying there was no reason to believe that the body could not have been moved while being transported. "We're not dealing with things we really know about," Weedn said. "We just don't know if this cloth was laid on someone who just laid there or was wrapped around the body or moved some before being put in a particular place." Weedn is an Ivy League professor with a Juris doctorate and a Medical doctorate - a brilliant man. I think we can consider this particular scientific study conclusively debunked. As a side note, I believe these passages about the burial of Jesus and the preparation of His body in particular are quite interesting relative to the resurrection of Jesus, and I've written about it fairly extensively in my book on the resurrection Easter: Fact or Fiction. We often assume the ancient followers of Jesus were quite gullible and not at all sophisticated - that they would have glibly accepted the  idea of a person coming back to life because they would not have understood it to be scientifically impossible. However, biblical evidence clearly contradicts this - the disciples of Jesus DID NOT expect Him to return. They hid out and mourned. An expensive linen cloth was used to wrap the body of Jesus - strange behavior if one expected him to return in a few short days - why waste the cloth? The female followers of Jesus DID NOT expect Him to rise from the dead - they came to prepare His body for permanent entombment. Even Mary Magdalene, upon seeing the open tomb of Jesus did not assume resurrection, but asked where His lifeless body had been moved to. The followers of Jesus did not expect the resurrection, despite Jesus' claims that He would return from the dead.  Probably the biggest single evidence against the authenticity of The Shroud - at least in most people's mind - is the results of the 1988 radiocarbon dating, which concluded that the fabric was from the 1300s, give or take 200 years. If that conclusion was accurate, then The Shroud would very obviously be a medieval forgery of some sort. I believe that the number of congruences between the figure in The Shroud and the biblical account of the passion, suffering and crucifixion of Jesus are too numerous for one to assume that the figure in The Shroud is anyone but Jesus, and thus - if the cloth is from the 1300s, then The Shroud is an intentional forgery meant to mislead. The trouble is, that there is much debate - scientific, theological, and philosophical - about that carbon dating figure. In one of the groups mentioned above, we can see the two polarizing opinions that people have adopted based on this carbon dating:  N.S:  “No one has been able to replicate how it was made, which is fascinating. And one of the fiber samples taken for carbon dating turns out to have been a repaired section so that accounts toward the dating inconsistencies. I've always been interested in the Shroud and it's physical characteristics. On the other hand, A.M. wrote: I feel like the “carbon dating was from a repaired section” thing has been taken as gospel (no pun intended) without looking at the evidence against that theory; among them the fact that the weaving is not typical of judaean fabrics of the early first century CE, and that several experts including a textile restoration specialist have said that the section from which the sample is taken is microscopically indistinguishable from the rest of the cloth, which is simply not possibly if the repair were undertaken in the time to which the sample dates. There have been many, MANY attempts to prove the 14th century origin date wrong, and all of them have been failures or have been ginned up with test results that were not able to be duplicated and independently verified.  A survey of headlines on major websites shows a similar pattern: Confident and contradictory claims that appear to be irrefutable. For instance:  Life Site News: Scientists debunk theory that Shroud of Turin is medieval ‘hoax' NBC News:  Forensic research (once again) suggests the Shroud of Turin is fake.  BBC News: Turin Shroud Older than Thought. Independent.Co.Uk: 628-year-old fake news: Scientists prove Turin Shroud not genuine (again) USA Today: New Test Dates Shroud of Turin to Era of Christ. Reuters: New Forensic Tests Suggest Shroud of Turin is a Fake.  History.com: Shroud of Turin Isn't Jesus' Burial Cloth, Claims Forensic Study Phys.org - Study of Data from 1988 Shroud of Turin testing suggests mistakes.  Dozens - or more - studies have sought to undermine the 1988 C14 tests. Some have been quite convincing...other, a bit less so. For instance, from a Churchmilitant.com article:  “A theory surfaced in 2014 that the earthquake when Our Lord died on the Cross might have impacted the Shroud's radiocarbon results.  Radiocarbon dating is based on measuring radioactive decay, the process by which atoms lose neutrons. The group of scientists in Italy made the case that the tremors on Good Friday possibly caused emissions of neutrons from the earth's crust, impacting atoms in the Shroud's fibers. If atoms in the Shroud were affected by neutron emissions, this would massively skew the results of radiocarbon dating.” Source   Are you confused yet? I sure am. I think it is obvious that scientific consensus isn't 100 percent behind the hoax or genuine side of The Shroud debate. So - what's the story on that C-14 dating that conclusively and supposedly proved The Shroud was faked? Here's what happened: (FROM WIKIPEDIA SO AS TO BE NEUTRAL)  On April 17, 1988, ten years after the S.T.U.R.P. project had been initiated, British Museum scientific director Michael Tite published in Nature[31] the "final" protocol: the laboratories at Oxford, Zürich, and Tucson would perform the test; they would each receive one sample weighing 40 mg., sampled from a single portion of weave; the laboratories would each receive two control samples, clearly distinguishable from the shroud sample; samples would be delivered to the laboratories' representatives in Turin; each test would be filmed; there would be no comparison of results (nor communication) between laboratories until the results be certified as definitive, univocal, and complete; Samples were taken on April 21, 1988, in the Cathedral by Franco Testore, an expert on weaves and fabrics, and by Giovanni Riggi di Numana. Testore performed the weighting operations while Riggi made the actual cut. Also present were Cardinal Ballestrero, four priests, archdiocese spokesperson Luigi Gonella, photographers, a camera operator, Michael Tite of the British Museum, and the labs' representatives. As a precautionary measure, a piece twice as big as the one required by the protocol was cut from the Shroud; it measured 81 mm × 21 mm (3.19 in × 0.83 in). An outer strip showing coloured filaments of uncertain origin was discarded.[37] The remaining sample, measuring 81 mm × 16 mm (3.19 in × 0.63 in) and weighing 300 mg, was first divided in two equal parts, one of which was preserved in a sealed container, in the custody of the Vatican, in case of future need. The other half was cut into three segments, and packaged for the labs in a separate room by Tite and the archbishop. The lab representatives were not present at this packaging process, in accordance with the protocol. The labs were also each given three control samples.  In a well-attended press conference on October 13, Cardinal Ballestrero announced the official results, i.e. that radio-carbon testing dated the shroud to a date of 1260-1390 AD, with 95% confidence.  (SOURCE: Wikipedia)  So - that's that, right? 95 percent confidence by three different labs that The Shroud was from the 12-1300s. End of story. The radiocarbon dating slammed the door on The Shroud's authenticity for many, many people. One of the foremost Shroud researchers and proponents, who was himself a member of the original STURP team of scientists who studied the Turin Shroud in the late 1970s, is a man named Barrie Schwortz. He runs Shroud.com, which is probably the most visited site devoted to the TS on the internet. In commenting on the results of the dating, Schortz describes the reaction by Shroud devotees:  “As soon as the dating results were leaked to the press, the world of the Shroud came to a complete and sudden halt. Many researchers took this as the final word and disengaged completely. The years of hard work by the STURP team and the many papers they published in the peer-reviewed scientific literature was immediately disregarded and ultimately, forgotten. These were indeed the bleak years of Shroud research.” (SOURCE)  Except, there were objections raised about the radiocarbon testing almost from the beginning. Actually, to be fair, there were objections raised YEARS before the testing actually took place. Professor William Meacham is an archaeologist who writes articles with titles like, “High-throughput field phenotyping using hyperspectral reflectance and partial least squares regression (PLSR) reveals genetic modifications to photosynthetic capacity” and “Determination of the original firing temperature of ceramics from Non Nok Tha and Phimai, Thailand” Before The Shroud was carbon-dated, Meacham cautioned against letting the results be the end-all determinant of the authenticity or lack thereof of Shroud. In 1986, he wrote:  “In recent discussions on the possible authenticity of the Turin Shroud, the question of the value of C-14 dating persistently recurs. Virtually all researchers agree that the test should be performed; sufficiently small samples can now be measured so that the appearance of the relic is not altered. Several C-14 dating proposals are now under consideration by the Archbishop of Turin. In contrast to these positive developments, however, there appears to be an unhealthy consensus approaching the level of dogma among both scientific and lay commentators, that C-14 dating will "settle the issue once and for all time." This attitude sharply contradicts the general perspective of field archaeologists and geologists, who view possible contamination as a very serious problem in interpreting the results of radiocarbon measurement. In this paper I shall examine the issue of the reliability of C-14 testing to produce an "absolute date" on the linen sheet known as the Holy Shroud of Turin and believed by some to be the gravecloth of Christ...Reviewing recent Shroud literature of all persuasions, I find little awareness of the limitations of the C-14 method, an urge to "date first and ask questions later," and a general disregard for the close collaboration between field and laboratory personnel which is the ideal in archaeometric projects. Regarding the Shroud, consultations should take place among archeologists, historians, conservationists, cellulose chemists and of course radiocarbon scientists in order to formulate a specific C-14 sampling and dating procedure. As I shall endeavor to demonstrate below, the radiocarbon measurement of the Shroud is a complex issue, and the inclusion of all relevant expertise is highly important.”  Later, Dr. Meacham concludes his long and excellent paper on this issue, “My own tentative proposal for dating the Shroud is that at least five samples be taken: 1) a single thread from the middle of the cloth, between dorsal and ventral images; 2) a small piece cut just in from the edge next to the site of Raes' piece I; 3) a piece of the charred cloth; 4) a piece cut from the side strip next to the site of Raes' 11; 5) a piece of the backing cloth sewn on in 1534. The principal samples would be 1 and 2, with 3 possibly confirmatory; 4 would hopefully clarify the question of an added side strip: 5 would be a control for modern contamination. All samples would be subjected to elaborate pretreatment, SEM screening and testing (microchemical, mass spectrometry, micro-Raman) for impurities or intrusive substances such as higher order hydrocarbons, inorganic and organic carbonates. Samples 2-5 would be measured by both gas proportional and accelerator counting. Samples of a least 3sq. cm each would be required for intensive pretreatment (likely to sacrifice a portion of the sample), measurement of fractions, and controls for micro-testing. A total of 12 sq. cm. or so of the relic itself would thus be required. Selvage edges would be avoided, as in the British Museum inter-comparison experiment (Burleigh et al 1985:3). In view of the myriad contamination possibilities, at least two fractions of each sample should be measured, by each counting method, if possible. In the end, with luck, we would have at least two or three radiocarbon ages in good agreement and possibly, quite possibly, indicative of the true calendrical age of the Shroud linen. That is all we would be justified in claiming.  The existence of significant indeterminant errors can never be excluded from any age determination. No method is immune from giving grossly incorrect datings when there are non-apparent problems with the samples originating in the field. The results illustrated [in this paper] show that this situation occurs frequently. Regardless of the C-14 result, evidence from other sources would of course remain of considerable importance in the overall evaluation of the age and origin of the relic. A C-14 age later than the first century would not of course constitute scientific proof of the inauthenticity of the Shroud, since radiocarbon dating is a based on a number of unverifiable assumptions -- the most important in this context being that the carbon extracted from the sample is indeed identical with the carbon absorbed from the environment when the sample was alive. But of course C-14 measurement does usually provide a reliable indication of true calendrical age.”  SOURCE (CLICK HERE) Over the years, many have raised objections to the method and conclusions of the test, which most certainly did not follow the protocols that Professor Meacham called for. The main objections raised included the possibility of contamination of the sample (due to more than one fire that The Shroud was exposed to - as well as the touch of hundreds/thousands of medieval hand), as well as the location of the sample being near the edge of the garment - an area some have thought to be part of a medieval repair.  Think of it like this: Have you heard of the Ship of Theseus?  It's one of the more fascinating thought experiments and it has been around for thousands of years, at least since 500 years before the time of Jesus. So - who was Theseus? He was the possibly mythical founding king of Athens. The thought experiment goes like this: Let's say Theseus had a great battle ship that he won some big battles in. Over the years, the ship has to be repaired some planks are damaged, the mast is broken, rot sets in, etc. After a few decades, due to the nature of wood, fabric and rope (and the corrosive effect of salty winds and oceans) - all of the original parts of Theseus' ship has been replaced. Not all at once, of course - but over the years, bit by bit. The philosophical question is this: Is it still Theseus' ship despite the fact that there is not a single original part left??  The second part of the thought experiment is to consider another hypothetical. What if Theseus kept in a storehouse EVERY single part of his boat that was replaced. Further still, what if somebody was able to restore and repair every single former part of the ship, and then completely rebuilt it - using the original parts and to the exact specifications of the original. Which of the two boats is more the original ship of Theseus?? Well, that's not the Bible mystery we are here to solve today, but it does serve as an oblique introduction to one of the major issues with testing The Shroud.  - What if The Ship of Theseus - or a similar ship - was somehow in service for hundreds of years - dating back to an indeterminate time. Perhaps some modern scientists would want to radiocarbon date the ship to test how old it was. That test would only be accurate if one took a sample from an original plank on the ship. If the ship was originally built in 1525, but then repaired in multiple places in 1875, and the sample taken for the carbon test was from a repaired plank, then one could quickly see how the c14 test would fail to ascertain the real age of the ship, right? Well, that is exactly what many claim has happened with the 1988 radiocarbon dating of The Shroud. Many claim that the sample tested was either from a section subject to some unknown medieval era repairs, or it was tainted by a medieval fire, or medieval hands, etc. This is why professor Meacham argued in 1986 that radiocarbon dating should not be the only way that the date of The Shroud was determined.  A 2000 study by Joseph Marino and his wife Sue Benford found interesting results based on x-ray analysis of the TS sample sites. They found what they believe to be a seam in the sampled area of the fabric which is indicative of a repair made much later than when the cloth was originally made. The seam they found is diagonal and runs through the entire strip of the piece of fabric that was divided into three parts and sent to three different labs. Marino and Benford indicate that the variance of roughly 200 years found in the c14 dating of Arizona, Zurich and Oxford seems to correspond to the location of this diagonal seam, which caused the researchers to theorize that the repair was skewing the results of the dating test, and causing the three results to fall outside of the bounds of date agreement that statistical analysis would expect for three tests of the same exact cloth. Interestingly, after my first episode on the T.S., Mr Marino contacted me and sent some very helpful research my way.  Raymond Rogers was a chemist and thermal analysis expert who served for nearly 40 years at the Los Alamos National Laboratory. He was a high ranking military analyst as well, and wrote and edited numerous scientific journal articles. Rogers was the head of chemical analysis for the original STURP team that studied The Shroud. After the 1988 c14 testing, Rogers was initially convinced for years by the results of the test, but began to reconsider those results after reviewing the paper mentioned previously by Joe Marino and Sue Benford. Rogers reexamined some fiber samples from the Turin Shroud in order to debunk the debunkers. He was surprised to find clear microscopic evidence that a cotton patch had been skillfully weaved into the original linen of the tested part of the Turin Shroud. Rogers also noted that x-ray fluorescent photography done of The Shroud demonstrated that the part of the cloth where the sample was taken glowed a different color than the rest of the cloth, which would likely be an indicator that different fabric was contained in the tested sample. In 2005, shortly before his death from cancer, Rogers wrote a scientific paper on The Shroud for the chemistry journal Thermochimica Acta that contained a detailed chemical analysis of The Shroud fibers, (with pictures) and a discussion of the likely contamination of the sampled section of the cloth. The paper concludes: “If the shroud had been produced between a.d. 1260 and 1390, as indicated by the radiocarbon analyses, lignin should be easy to detect. A linen produced in a.d. 1260 would have retained about 37% of its vanillin in 1978. The Raes threads, the Holland cloth, and all other medieval linens gave the test for vanillin wherever lignin could be observed on growth nodes. The disappearance of all traces of vanillin from the lignin in the shroud indicates a much older age than the radiocarbon laboratories reported...Because the shroud and other very old linens do not give the vanillin test, the cloth must be quite old. It is thus very unlikely that the linen was produced during medieval times...The combined evidence from chemical kinetics, analytical chemistry, cotton content, and pyrolysis proves that the material from the radiocarbon area of the shroud is significantly different from that of the main cloth. The radiocarbon sample was thus not part of the original cloth and is invalid for determining the age of the shroud. Because the storage conditions through the centuries are unknown, a more accurate age determination will require new radiocarbon analyses with several fully characterized and carefully prepared samples” SOURCE More recently, Summer of 2019, a peer reviewed academic journal called Archaeometry, produced by The University of Oxford, published a very interesting article that called into question the results of the c14 dating of The Shroud. If you aren't familiar, Archaeometry “is an international research journal covering the application of the physical and biological sciences to archaeology and the history of art. The topics covered include dating methods, artifact studies, mathematical methods, remote sensing techniques, conservation science, environmental reconstruction, biological anthropology and archaeological theory.” An international team of researchers led by French researcher Tristan Casabianca obtained the raw results from the original 1988 radiocarbon testing and did some significant statistical analysis of those results, and also looked for other possible issues. In a recent interview with the French magazine L'Homme Nouveau (The New Man), Casabianca summarized the findings of his team's study:  “In 1989, the results of the shroud dating were published in the prestigious journal Nature: between 1260 and 1390 with 95% certainty. But for thirty years, researchers have asked the laboratories for raw data. These have always refused to provide them. In 2017, I submitted a legal request to the British Museum, which supervised the laboratories. Thus, I had access to hundreds of unpublished pages, which include these raw data. With my team, we conducted their analysis. Our statistical analysis shows that the 1988 carbon 14 dating was unreliable: the tested samples are obviously heterogeneous, [showing many different dates], and there is no guarantee that all these samples, taken from one end of the sheet, are representative of the whole fabric. It is therefore impossible to conclude that the shroud of Turin dates from the Middle Ages.”  The paper itself is incredibly complex, and very heavy on a type of statistical analysis that is well over my head in most places. I've read and reread portions of that paper, though, and I feel like I understand it well enough to note that it raises some very troubling concerns about the results of the 1988 dating. Some of those concerns include:  Significant contamination of various pieces of the very small Shroud samples sent to each laboratory. The paper notes: “ Despite the close visual inspection of the TS by textile experts and the loss of weight of approximately 25% after the cutting (FOIA 2017, 162), Oxford found and removed several textile fibres of different colours, including one identified by a textile laboratory to be cotton, ‘possibly of Egyptian origin and quite old' (Anonymous 1988; FOIA 2017, 104). Oxford mentions that in one subsample there may have been ‘glass', perhaps sodium Radiocarbon dating of the Turin Shroud 7 © 2019 University of Oxford, Archaeometry ••, •• (2019) ••–•• chloride crystals (Wilson 1995, 18; FOIA 2017, 103). In the original draft, Arizona indicated that ‘a red thread and three blue threads' were removed from one of their subsamples (Turin Shroud Archive). In 2010, Arizona recognized that they had kept one piece of an undated TS subsample. On this subsample, the authors identified foreign material invisible to the naked eye, including a blue substance described as ‘apparently wax' (Freer-Waters and Jull 2010, 1522) and some cotton fibres. Zürich may have found an assortment of debris (Marinelli 2012, 26).” 2. Significant statistical differences between the raw dates obtained by the three labs that each tested a similar sample of the Turin Shroud. Recall that a very small piece of the TS was cut off and sent to three different labs. One in Arizona, one in Zurich and one in Oxford. Supposedly all three labs returned the same results for the dating of the TS, but according to Casabianca's statistical survey of the raw results, that claim is not true. He shows that there was significant statistical variance between the results obtained by the three labs, especially the Arizona lab. Now, I'm going to read a part of the paper where Casabianca's team makes this claim, but I do not claim to fully understand what's going on here: The analysis of the Arizona counts showed further interesting aspects. The eight counts of the Arizona data were categorized into four groups (A1 and A2, A3 and A4, A5 and A6, and A7 and A8) because they were executed on the same day using the same standards. The non-parametric Kruskal–Wallis test (Table 5; see also Table S10 for the assumptions) shows highly statistically significant differences even if we consider the eight counts both separately and gathered (p-values < 0.0001). The results show that the different assessments produced by the same laboratory (raw vs. Nature) are not statistically significant, whereas the analysis of the raw radiocarbon dates confirmed that the different laboratories produced different assessments and that these differences are, in most cases, statistically significant. That might be the most understandable section out of the paper's discussion of the statistical anomalies between the dates obtained by the three labs. Ultimately, I take it that Casabianca's work is demonstrating that the lab results are different enough that something must account for the difference - contamination, medieval repairs, botched handling, etc. 3. The dates obtained by the labs on the small samples they were given, appear to vary throughout the length of the sample, rather than remain the same. In other words, different parts of the small sample size tested by each lab test out with a statistically significant different date, a result which could be explained by contamination, and many other factors. The paper makes this claim about the non-homogenous results: Moreover, our statistical analysis of the raw data supports the conclusion of Riani et al. (2013). They used the known locations of the tested samples in each laboratory and showed a significant decrease in the radiocarbon age as one gets closer to the centre of the sheet (in length, from the tested corner). This variability of the Nature radiocarbon dates in a few centimetres, if linearly extrapolated to the opposite side of the TS, would lead to a dating in the future. So - those are some significant scientific issues raised with the 1988 dating in this paper, and many other scientific studies are cited which reveal similar problems with the dating. Casabianca's paper concludes this way: “The discussed statistical analysis reinforced the argument against the goodness of the radiocarbon dating of the TS, suggesting the presence of serious incongruities among the raw measurements. Our results, which are compatible with those previously reported by many other authors (Brunati 1996; Van Haelst 1997, 2002; Riani et al. 2013), strongly suggest that homogeneity is lacking in the data. The measurements made by the three laboratories on the TS sample suffer from a lack of precision which seriously affects the reliability of the 95% AD 1260–1390 interval. The statistical analyses, supported by the foreign material found by the laboratories, show the necessity of a new radiocarbon dating to compute a new reliable interval. This new test requires, in an interdisciplinary research, a robust protocol. Without this re-analysis, it is not possible to affirm that the 1988 radiocarbon dating offers ‘conclusive evidence' that the calendar age range is accurate and representative of the whole cloth. This is not a lightweight attack on the credibility of the 1988 radiocarbon dating of The Shroud. If you are a committed and convinced Shroud-skeptic, then I have no beef with you, since I am currently a Shroud-agnostic. However, if you have based your assured skepticism primarily on the radiocarbon dating of The Shroud, then I would encourage you to sit down and try to read Casabianca's paper. It's not an easy read in the least, and you might need some Tylenol, but i believe it does poke significant holes in the credibility of that 1988 test - enough holes that I believe that the test represents minor evidence - at best - against the genuineness of The Shroud, rather than conclusive evidence. So - has 1988 radiocarbon dating conclusively shown that The Shroud was a medieval hoax? I believe that scientists (textile experts, statisticians, chemists, historians and archaeologists) have raised enough objections with the method and the conclusions of the original 1988 test to say, ‘no.' This, of course, does NOT prove that The Shroud is the original burial cloth of Jesus, nor does it prove that The Shroud was produced originally in the first century. What it does suggest - strongly, I'd say - is that we need an updated radiocarbon testing of The Shroud. One that utilizes fabric far closer to the middle of The Shroud, and one that uses fabric that is checked and rechecked for contaminants, repairs and reweaves prior to the testing. What does The Vatican have to lose here? I realize that they want to preserve the Turin Shroud as well as possible - it is a priceless artifact whether it is genuine or not. However, I believe the loss of a small portion of the middle, non-imprinted section of The Shroud is an acceptable loss, and a worthwhile risk. If the updated testing again shows a medieval date, then nothing significant has been lost, considering that The Shroud already bears the scars of years of use and fire damage, and considering that The Vatican has never officially vouched for the authenticity of the cloth. If, however, the test comes back as dating to near the time of Christ, then imagine the clamor and positive publicity over such a finding? It would be immense, and clearly worth the risk. Worth the risk, of course, if The Vatican truly believes The Shroud could be authentic. Next episode we will consider to what degree The Vatican really does esteem The Shroud, and maybe bust a few more myths along the way. 

HAPPY NATIONAL TATTOO DAY! Join us as we celebrate getting inked and heart shapes that say "Mom"! Today we're celebrating with comedian, engineer in biotech, and tattoo owner and enthusiast Nicki Fuchs (Twitter: @nfewks / Instagram: @nfewks)!! LET'S PARTY!! Find Holiday Party online – Patreon: patreon,com/HOLIDAYPARTY Twitter: @HOLIDAYPARTYPOD / Instagram: HOLIDAYPARTYPODCAST / Facebook: @HOLIDAYPARTYPODCAST / HOLIDAYPARTYPODCAST.COM Find Alyssa – Twitter: @alyssapants / Instagram: lettertalkpodcast / alyssapants.com Find Disa – Twitter: @cinnamonenemy / Spotify: open.spotify.com/user/1243777842  SHOW NOTES History + fun facts about the holiday First, let’s define what a tattoo is, for those listeners who may not be familiar with the term. According to Wikipedia, a tattoo “is a form of body modification where a design is made by inserting ink, dyes and pigments, either indelible or temporary, into the dermis layer of the skin (the layer between the epidermis and subcutaneous tissues) to change the pigment.” Tattoos generally fall into three broad categories: purely decorative (or no specific meaning); symbolic (with a specific meaning pertinent to the wearer); pictorial (a depiction of a specific person or item) Tattoos may also be used for identification purposes such as ear tattoos on livestock, tattoos denoting that a domestic animal (such as a cat or dog) has been sterilized, or you know, good old fashioned concentration camp style The word “tattoo,” or tattow as it was stated in the 18th century, is derived from the Samoan word for “tatau” meaning “to strike.” Before the word was imported to the western world, the practice of tattooing was described as painting, scarring, or staining. The American Academy of Dermatology distinguishes five types of tattoos: amateur tattoos, professional tattoos (both via traditional methods and modern tattoo machines), cosmetic tattoos (or “permanent makeup”), traumatic tattoos, and medical tattoos Traumatic tattoos, also known as “natural tattoos,” occur when a substance such as asphalt or gunpowder is rubbed into a wound as the result of an accident or other trauma. For example, coal miners may develop characteristic tattoos from coal dust getting into wounds. Another example is an amalgam tattoo, which occurs when amalgam particles (a liquid mercury and metal alloy mixture used in dentistry to fill cavities) are implanted into the soft tissues of the mouth during filling placement and removal Accidental tattoos can also be the result of deliberate or accidental stabbing with a pencil or pen, leaving graphite or ink in the skin Medical tattoos are used to ensure that instruments are properly located for repeated application of radiotherapy and for the areola in some forms of breast reconstruction. They may also convey medical information about the wearer, such as blood group or a medical condition. Medical tattoos may also be used in skin tones to cover vitiligo, a skin pigmentation disorder SS blood group tattoos (Blutgruppentatowierung) were worn by members of the Waffen-SS in Nazi Germany during WWII to identify their wearer’s blood type. After the war, this evidence of belonging to the Waffen-SS lead to arrest and prosecution, so a number of ex-Waffen-SS would shoot themselves through the arm, removing the tattoo and leaving scars like the ones resulting from pox inoculation, making the removal less obvious Tattoos may also serve as rites of passage, marks of status and rank, symbols of religious and spiritual devotion, decorations for bravery, sexual lures and marks of fertility, pledges of love, amulets and talismans, protection, and as punishment, like the marks of outcasts, slaves and convicts People also choose to be tattooed for artistic, cosmetic, sentimental/memorial, religious, and magical reasons, or to symbolize their belonging to or identification with particular groups, including criminal gangs or a particular ethnic or law-abiding subculture Tattoos have been and are still used for the purposes of identification, and people have also been forcibly tattooed for this reason.  During the Holocaust, an infamous Nazi practice was to forcibly tattoo concentration camp inmates with identification numbers, a practice that began in the fall of 1941.  Of the Nazi camps, only Auschwitz put tattoos on inmates. The tattoo was the prisoner’s camp number, sometimes with a special symbol added. For example, Jews would sometimes receive a triangle, and Romani received the letter “Z” to denote the German word Zigeuner or “Gypsy.”  As early as the Zhou dynasty, which lasted from 1046-256 BC, Chinese authorities would enforce facial tattoos as a punishment for some crimes or to mark prisoners or slaves The Roman Empire would tattoo gladiators and slaves. Exported slaves would receive a tattoo with the words “tax paid,” and it was also common to tattoo “Stop me, I’m a runaway” on their foreheads The practice came to an end when Emperor Constantine the Great came to power. He heavily promoted the Christian church, and banned facial tattooing around AD 330 due to the Biblical strictures against the practice. The Second Council of Nicaea banned all body markings as a pagan practice in AD 787 During the period of early contact between Europeans and the Maori, the Maori would hunt and decapitate each other for their moko tattoos, which they then traded for European items such as axes and firearms. “Moko tattoos were facial designs worn to indicate lineage, social position, and status within the tribe. The tattoo art was a sacred marker of identity among the Maori and also referred to as a vehicle for storing one’s tapu, or spiritual being, in the afterlife.” Forensic pathologists occasionally use tattoos to identify burned, putrefied, or mutilated bodies. As we mentioned earlier, tattoo pigment lies encapsulated deep in the skin, so tattoos aren’t easily destroyed even when the skin is burned Tattoos may also be used on animals, such as cats, dogs, show animals, thoroughbred horses, and livestock. Tattooing in these cases may serve for purposes of identification, ownership, or to signify that the animal has been surgically sterilized Cosmetic tattooing, sometimes called permanent makeup, is the use of tattoos to enhance eyebrows, lips, eyes, or even moles, typically using natural colors.  Placing artistic designs over surgical scarring is a growing trend, particularly over mastectomy scarring. Rather than received reconstruction surgery following a mastectomy, many women choose to tattoo over the scar tissue instead, as a truly personal way of regaining control over their post-cancer bodies As an artform, tattooing has been practiced globally since at least Neolithic times, as evidenced by mummified preserved skin. The oldest discovery of tattooed human skin was found on the body of Otzi the Iceman, dating to about 3250 BC. Otzi had 61 carbon-ink tattoos consisting of 19 groups of lines simple dots and lines on his lower spine, left wrist, behind his right knee and on his ankles. It’s been argued that the tattoos were a form of healing because of their placement, though other explanations are plausible The oldest figurative (derived from real object sources, or representational) tattoos in the world were discovered in 2018 on two mummies from Egypt which are dated between 3351 and 3017 BC Other tattooed mummies have been recovered from 49 archaeological sites, including in Greenland, Alaska, Siberia, Mongolia, western China, Egypt, Sudan, the Philippines, and the Andes. The earliest possible evidence for tattooing in Europe actually appears on ancient art from the Upper Paleolithic period as incised designs on the bodies of humanoid figurines. One example is the ivory Lowenmench (“Lion-Man”) figurine from the Aurignacian culture, which dates to about 40K years ago and features a series of parallel lines on its left shoulder. This figurine also happens to be the oldest-known uncontested example of both zoomorphic sculpture and figurative art Ancient tattooing was most widely practiced among the Austronesian people (Southeast Asia, Oceania, East Africa). It was one of the early technologies developed by the Proto-Austronesians in Taiwan and coastal South China prior to at least 1500 BC It may have originally associated with headhunting, and employed the characteristic skin-puncturing technique, using a small mallet and a piercing implement made from Citrus thorns, fish bone, bone, and oyster shells The oldest known physical evidence of tattooing in North America was made through the discovery of a frozen, mummified Inuit female on St. Lawrence Island, Alaska who had tattoos on her skin. Radiocarbon determined that she lived sometime in the 16th century Early explorers to North America made lots of ethnographic observations about the Indigenous People they met. As they didn’t have a word for tattooing, they instead described the process as “pounce, prick, list, mark, and raze” to “stamp, paint, burn, and embroider.” In the late 18th and early 19th centuries, tattoos were as much about self-expression as they were about having a unique way to identify a sailor’s body should he be lost at sea or impressed (taking of military or naval force by compulsion) by the British Navy. The best source for early American tattoos is the protection papers issued following a 1796 congressional act to safeguard American seamen from impressment. These proto-passports catalogued tattoos alongside birthmarks, scars, race, and height. Using simple techniques and tools, tattoo artists in the early republic typically worked on board ships using anything available as pigments, even gunpowder and urine. Men marked their arms and hands with initials of themselves and loved ones, significant dates, symbols of the seafaring life, liberty poles, crucifixes, and other symbols.” It is commonly held that the modern popularity of tattooing stems from Captain James Cook’s three voyages to the South Pacific in the late 19th century. The dissemination of the texts and images from them brought more awareness about tattooing, however, tattooing has been consistently present in Western society from the modern period stretching back to Ancient Greece.  Tattoo historian Anna Felicity Friedman suggests a couple reasons for the ‘Cook Myth,’ including that the modern words for the practice (“tattoo,” tatuaje,``''tatouage,``''Tatowierung,``''tatuagem”) derive from ‘tatau,’ which was introduced to European languages through Cook’s travels.  However, earlier European texts show that a variety of metaphorical terms for the practice were in use, including pricked/marked/engraved/decorated/punctured/stained/embroidered. The growing print culture at the time of Cook’s voyages may have increased the visibility of tattooing despite its prior existence in the West New York City is largely considered the birthplace of modern tattoos, since the first recorded professional tattoo artist in the US was a German immigrant, Martin Hildebrandt, who opened a shop in NYC in 1846. He quickly became popular during the Civil War among soldiers and sailors of both Union and Confederate militaries In 1891, New York tattooer Samuel O’Reilly patented the first electric tattoo machine, which was a modification of Thomas Edison’s electric pen Some of the earliest appearances of tattoos on women during this period were in the circus. Other than their faces, hands, necks, and other readily visible areas, these “Tattooed Ladies” were covered in ink. The earliest women would claim tales of captivity in order to draw crowds, claiming to have been taken hostage by Native Americans that forcibly tattooed them as a form of torture, though those stories were eventually replaced with narratives of the women’s personal liberation and freedom. The last tattooed lady was out of business by the 1990s The percentage of fashionable NYC women who were tattooed at the turn of the century has been estimated at around 75%. Popular designs were butterflies, flowers, and dragons Tattoos were an early way that women took control of their own bodies When Social Security numbers were introduced in the 1930s, it became a trend to get your numbers tattoos on your arms, chest, or back to make them easier to remember A Tattoo Renaissance began in the late 1950s and was greatly influenced by artists such as Lyle Tuttle, Cliff Raven, Don Nolan, Zeke Owens, Spider Webb, and none other than our fave, Don Ed Hardy  In 1961, however, this renaissance experienced a temporary setback, at least in New York City, as a hepatitis outbreak prompted the health department to ban tattooing, leading tattoo artists to either move their shops out of the city or work out of their apartments This ban wasn’t lifted until 1997 by Mayor Rudy Giuliani According to National Day Calendar, the holiday has been observed since 2016, but the source and founder are currently unknown Americans for the Arts, a nonprofit organization for advancing the arts and arts education in America, also recognizes the holiday. In recognition of the 2016 holiday, they released a series of findings on the country’s perceptions and attitudes towards tattoos as an artform. The survey was conducted in December 2015, polling 3,020 adults online They found that 73% of Americans believe that at least some tattoos are art (a graph breakdown by age and whether all or some tattoos are art can be found below the sources in the shownotes) 27% of Americans have at least one tattoo. 15% have one, 12% have more than one There is no significant difference between genders on the likelihood of having a tattoo (27% of men vs. 25% of women, respectively). Men are more likely to have just one tattoo (17% vs 12%), women are more likely to have multiple (13% vs. 10%) Americans with full-time jobs are the most likely to have at least one tattoo (34%), compared to those who work part-time (26%), are unemployed (27%), or retired (9%) I got the following statistics from historyoftattoos.net and the article, “Tattoo Statistics: 23 Facts You Won’t Regret Reading,” from creditdonkey.com, published in June 2015: 40% of American households report having at least one person with a tattoo. This is a significant increase from 1999, when about 21% of households did so 22% of millennials aged 18-24 report having at least one tattoo 30% of millennials aged 25-29 report having tattoos, and 38% of adults aged 30-39 are tattooed Nearly 30% of 40-49 years olds, 11% of seniors between 50-64, and just 5% of seniors 65 and older report having tattoos Women are more likely to have their ankle or upper back tattooed (27% and 25%, respectively), while men overwhelmingly choose getting inked on their arm (75%) Tattooing is a $3billion industry, at least as of 2015 As of 2013, there were at least 21K tattoo shops operating nationwide The number grows by one every day Miami boasts the highest number of tattoo parlors per capita, with about 24 shops for every 100K people Salina, Kansas has the fewest, with just one tattoo parlor that serves all of its 47K residents, which is a per capita rate of about 2 per 100K (this is inaccurate as of 2019--I found four tattoo parlors listed in the Salinas area, bringing the per capita rate to 8 per 100K) The most expensive “tattoo” is a temporary one composed of 612 half-carat diamonds individually adhered to the skin in a floral pattern, and costs $924K. It was created by Shimansky, a luxury store based in South Africa Average tattoo prices range from $45 for smaller ones to $150 for larger pieces The term “tattoo” became the #1 searched term on the Internet in 2002 31% of those that have tattoos feel that tattoos made them sexy, 29% feel that it made them (or shows them as) rebellious, while 5% feel that a tattoo shows them as intelligent The most searched language as an inspiration for tattoos is Japanese When looking to get a tattoo, 49% of those polled considered the reputation of the tattoo artist or studio as a most important factor, 43% needed a tattoo with personal meaning, and 8% considered priced as a most important factor 32% of people with tattoos claim that they are addicted to getting inked 69% of people don’t see people with tattoos any more or less deviant than people without tattoos 10% of Americans who have at least one tattoo say they don’t like them Somewhere between 17 and 25% of tattooed people regret their decision. Men are more likely than women to have second thoughts. The most often cited reason for regret is “It’s a name of another person.” 5% of Americans have cover-up tattoos The average cost to remove a tattoo is around $588 Tattoo removal is booming, with a yearly revenue in the ballpark of $80 million Earliest tattoo inks were made of carbon and ash If a tattoo ink has metals there is a rare chance that it will become hot during an MRI The current world record holder in number of tattoos is Gregory Paul McLaren, AKA Lucky Diamond Rich, whose skin is 100% covered with tattoos, including the insides of his eyelids, mouth, ears, and foreskin. He’s held the title since 2006 Britain’s most tattooed man, King of Ink Land King Body Art The Extreme Ink-Ite (born Matthew Whelan) currently has over 90% of his body covered.  In 2013, the Passport Office refused to issue him a passport, claiming that his unusual name doesn’t fit their policies, however he successfully challenged the UK Government and obtained his passport in 2014 On July 1st, 2019, he whined to The Daily Star that he’s having trouble finding love Key quotes: “A lot of women are put off by my tattoos or it makes them really curious. I’m a bit like Marmite so you either like them or you don’t. I’ve had about 15-20 relationships in my life and have definitely got more attention since I got my tattoos. But since my last relationship ended two years ago I haven’t had anything serious. I’m nearly 40 so I would like to settle down and have a family. But at the same time I understand that the way I look might create an issue for some people. A lot of women are really shallow and only go for guys with Love Island-type bodies. Then I get other women who are just interested in me because of my tattoos.” He has also dyed his eyes black and had his nipples removed to allow for a smoother canvas. He also has a huge labret gauge, a subdermal piercing in his forehead, carved “teeth marks” in his ears, and split his tongue in half George C. Reiger Jr. has special permission from Disney to have tattoos of some of their copyrighted material, and specifically Disney characters. He has over 1000 Disney tattoos, including all 101 Dalmatians  SOURCES https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tattoo https://authoritytattoo.com/history-of-tattoos/ https://medium.com/daliaresearch/who-has-the-most-tattoos-its-not-who-you-d-expect-1d5ffff660f8 https://www.creditdonkey.com/tattoo-statistics.html http://www.historyoftattoos.net/ http://www.historyoftattoos.net/tattoo-facts/tattoo-statistics/ https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_tattooing http://time.com/4645964/tattoo-history/ https://nationaldaycalendar.com/national-tattoo-day-july-17/ https://www.checkiday.com/a3686928f7e2e9f083f5305e64bd3054/national-tattoo-day https://www.facebook.com/National-Tattoo-Day-117291474977030/ https://www.americansforthearts.org/news-room/press-releases/americans-for-the-arts-recognizes-national-tattoo-day https://www.tattoodo.com/a/2014/12/14-facts-about-tattoos/ https://www.thefactsite.com/tattoo-facts/ https://www.dailystar.co.uk/news/latest-news/788973/britains-most-tattooed-man-king-inkland-body-art-women-dating-birmingham

Whether the rock formation is caused by natural phenomenon or it is a man-made structure, is not understood. While many people think it to be the outcome of tessellated pavement, the flat rocks which are cut at right angles do not seem to be formed naturally.The road that stretches for about half a mile has a pronounced hook at the end, The definite bend is proof that the stones are not accumulated by the whims of nature, but are a part of a well-engineered road that was constructed by man ages ago..In this prediction that was made in 1927, Edgar Cayce had mentioned that the discovery can be expected to happen during ’68 or ’69. It was in 1968 when subsea archaeologist Joseph Mason and his team discovered the paved pathway under the water. Greg Little, an amateur archaeologist has discovered a second row of rocks right below the first one in the same formation. Although the rocks are submerged in the water, the Bimini Road can be spotted in the satellite pictures as well. Radiocarbon test of the rocks have found them to be not more than 2000 years old, but as per the proponents of the Atlantis theory, whole-rock samples were tested, the findings of the radiocarbon tests are invalid. Cayce had reported speaking to a person who was an Atlantean in his former life. As per the Atlantean, the city of Atlantis used to be somewhere near the island of Bimini. This makes the connection between the Bimini Road and the lost city of Atlantis even stronger. When stones of the Bimini Wall were tested with other stones found off the coasts of the Bimini and other nearby islands, it was found the Bimini stones had lesser trace elements which point to the fact that these rocks were formed somewhere else and they were being transported to that area. Much like the City of Atlantis, the Bimini Road is also highly mysterious and has been causing debates amongst scientists for years.

2018 may go down in whisky history as the "Year of the Collector" as whisky collecting became popular not only among connoisseurs, but with investors looking for that next big thing to make money on. The trouble is that some so-called "rare whiskies" are cleverly counterfeited fakes so good that even the experts can't detect them without testing the liquid inside the bottle. A new report from the Scottish consulting firm Rare Whisky 101 suggests that there are likely millions of dollars worth of fake whiskies being traded on the secondary market worldwide. Professor Gordon Cook heads the radiocarbon dating lab at the Scottish Universities Environmental Research Centre, and among the fakes he's found for Rare Whisky 101 was a single malt claimed to be from the 1860's that was actually distilled in 2005. He'll explain the radiocarbon dating process to us on WhiskyCast In-Depth. In the news, the partial shutdown of the U.S. government could start to affect whisky makers within days as 2019 begins, while the arrival of the New Year brings the nation's toughest drunk driving law to one state. We'll also look at Bruichladdich's new "Islay: Badge or Provenance" campaign, and on Your Voice, we'll share some of your picks for drams to send off 2018 and ring in 2019.

Welcome back to The Emancipation Podcast Station - the place to hear about history researched and retold through the eyes of Middle school and HS students.   Last time on the show... Beginnings - 600 BCE   The origin of humans and early human societies: Beginnings -  Gabe - Prehistory is the history before it was written. Finding bones and doing tests like potassium argon dating or other methods to find the age was one of the ways we could see find prehistory. The tools they used and how the newer ones were perfected is another. Ben- Anthropology is the study of ancient humans and their cultures. Everyone always talks about how old certain things are, but how is the information found? Radiocarbon dating is when you get a certain element called carbon 14 and and see how much of it has decayed back into nitrogen 14. So if half the carbon 14 has decayed, that means the item is 5730 years old. The radiocarbon method is a good indicator of how old something is. Audrey - Written records are a main tool in learning the history of the people before us. These are, in some ways, more detailed than other forms of records, including archaeological and biological remains. That being said, written records can’t be the only thing taken into consideration; they could be biased or could be stories passed down generation after generation, slowly being changed to fit the current worldviews. Emma - Many Paleolithic societies were communal. The members of a community, which were most often small, nomadic groups, worked together to perform various tasks. The women typically raised the children, gathered food, and cooked, whereas the men did the hunting, often in groups. However, in some communities, the work is thought to have been divided evenly between both women and men. Ella - Early paleolithic societies did not have agricultural systems like we do today. They relied on tools they made to hunt animals. These societies would use tools made out of rocks such as handaxes. They used these for both hunting and digging. The other half of their diet consisted of natural fruits and vegetables they found in their environment. Skylar - According to historians the first generations of “human” like people are called Homo Sapiens. Homo Sapiens were apart of a group called Hominids. Archaeologist and anthropologist believe that they were alive between 2.5 and 4 million years ago and lived in eastern and southern Africa. Ethan - The anatomic structure of the people of today has existed for about 200,000 years. Egyptian hieroglyphs have been around for close to 5,000 years but America couldn’t even comprehend the hieroglyphs until 1799 when America found the Rosetta Stone. Even then when America had the Rosetta Stone it took quite a while to decipher it. And even after we began to comprehend hieroglyphs, we still had to hope no one would “change the story” to make it more interesting. And people still had altering views so deciding which was true caused more investigation. Thus, the Scientific Process. Hunter- the study of human existence has been going on for multiple centries. The process has just evolved to even being able to find the year of when the creature and or early human existed and died.   600 BCE The Neolithic Revolution and the birth of agriculture: Beginnings - Emma - The word Neolithic is derived from neo, meaning new, and the Greek word lithos, which translates to stone. It is the latter part of the stone age in which tools began to have a more smooth and refined appearance. Unlike before, these tools had complex shapes and purposes, and began to resemble the instruments used in more advanced societies. Audrey - Since the birth of agriculture, Earth’s population has increased immensely. In the Paleolithic period, humans were primarily hunter-gatherers, and the population was roughly 10 million. Then 10 - 15 thousand years ago (13000 - 8000 B.C.) the Neolithic period came, and along with that, agriculture. Since plants and animals were now being domesticated, and more people could be fed, the population grew. By the time of the Roman Empire there were around 250 million people on Earth, and since then the population has grown to approximately 7 billion.  Gabe -  There was different types of agriculture there was pastoralism which was the branch of agriculture that bred animals goat, sheep, cattle, and in this branch they collected food from there goats and cattle and probably wool from the sheep and milk from the cows and probably the goats too     Ella - Most  early civilizations came together through religion, or beliefs and practices that associate with the meaning of the world. with  This was how people who were not familiar with one another created trustworthy and respectful relationships. Religion was commonly associated with politics. Religious leaders commonly worked as political leaders as well.   Ethan - Agriculture was created so that the survivability of the human race would increase. The end of the most recent glacial period was about the same time that agriculture emerged. The reasoning behind this is that the soil had thawed so food could be grown in abundance. Ben - There were a few different things being grown around the world. Stuff like barley, but also something less known called sorghum. Sorghum today is mostly used for animal food, but can also be used to create a kind of sweet syrup. Sorghum was being grown about the area sudan is at today and was probably being used as a normal grain in 9000-7000 BCE. There was also okra, black eyed peas, and yam around the west coast of africa. (Can talk about more different foods and where they’re from if needed) Skylar -City-States couldn’t have been became created without agriculture. Most people would not be alive if it wasn’t for agriculture. Since agriculture has been created the plants (veggies) and animals (meat and milk). Thanks to irrigation vegetation can now be grown almost anywhere. The availability of human consumable calories per square kilometer has increased rapidly. People started farming in Iraq, Syria, and Turkey and went on to East Asia, mexico, and many more places. Hunter- Neolithic Age is also known as the New Stone Age. However, it is closely connected to civilization, animal domestication, inventions, and agriculture. Stability in life opened new doors for man, as he ventured into domesticating animals rather than merely hunting them as per his need. He also invented pottery in this era, making it a symbol of the Neolithic era. 600 BCEAncient Mesopotamia: Beginnings -  Gabe - I'm going to start by saying Mesopotamia means country between to rivers so most the cities were born on the rivers tigris euphrates (which is what Mesopotamia is in between) the yangtze or the nile. They were born on these cities because the rivers would fertilize their crops bring water and transportation later on      Ella - The Sumerians were a group of people that started in Southern Mesopotamia around 4000 BCE. They wrote some of the first written scripts that were made of clay tablets. These ideas spread to surrounding civilizations which resulted in more languages being written. These languages are what today's alphabet was developed from. Audrey - Mesopotamia was one of the first significant civilizations, and was located in what is now Iraq. The Sumerians are believed to be the first civilization to emerge in Mesopotamia (4000 B.C.). They are well known for the first development of the wheel (3500 B.C.), and for their architectural structures, like the ziggurats which were found in the center of many Sumerian and Mesopotamian cities. Emma - Around 3000 BC the Sumerians came in contact with the Akkadians, named after the city-state of Akkad. About 700 years later, Sargon of Akkad came into power and is thought to have started the first dynastic empire. Both the Akkadian and Sumerian speakers were ruled by the Akkadian Empire until it’s fall in 2154 BC. Ben - After the akkadian empire, a new empire began, and it was called the Babylonian empire. The Babylonians used to just be a small place in Akkadia (2300 BC), but grew into an empire. The leader of the Babylonian empire was Hammurabi. The Babylonians influenced the area in that they had a sort of law system that was based on religion. They spoke Akkadian. (1800-600 BC) from 1770- 1670 and from 612-320 BC babylon was estimated to be the largest city in population size in the world. Skylar - The Pharaoh King Menes was able to unify upper and lower Egypt with the Eqyptian civilization. Hammurabi was famous for making the code of Hammurabi. He codified a series of laws. Ethan - After the Sumerian and Akkadian empires formed, the Assyrian Empire formed about 1000 years later in northern Mesopotamia. Ashur was the capital of Assyria. Assyria was originally ruled by Sargon and his bloodline during the Akkadian Empire. After the end of the Akkadian empire Assyria became the major empire then. 8. Hunter- Mesopotamia was known in antiquity as a seat of learning, and it is believed that Thales of Miletus  (c. 585 BCE, known as the first philosopher) studied there. As the Babylonians believed that water was the ‘first principle’ from which all else followed, and as Thales is famous for that very claim, it seems probable that he studied there.   600 BCEAncient Egypt: Beginnings - 600 BCE  Gabe - Egypt started next to the nile which is because it helps with many things as we  talked about earlier there was the old egypt which was when the pyramids were built and this is the time we kind of think about when we think egypt but the pharaohs you think about were very far from the building of the pyramids and cleopatra actually lived 2500 years from the makings of the pyramids and 2037 from the making of the first iphone so she lived closer to the iphone   Ella - During the old kingdom period, Egypt was a single state. The country eventually became more complex and expanded their military. The kings of the time built formations such as Great Pyramid and the Sphinx of Giza. These structures were used as tombs or monuments for the kings that built them. Emma - The Egyptian political system was based on the idea of divine kingship. They believed that the political ruler, or pharaoh, either held the favor of a god (or gods) or was in fact a living incarnation of the god themself. An example of this was Narmer who was thought to be Horus. This reinforced the authority of the current political figure in power. Audrey - The Egyptian civilization was originally divided into upper and lower Egypt. The official beginning of the civilization was somewhere around 3100-3150 B.C. when the two parts of Egypt were united under one king. Ben - As with most early civilizations, egypt was based around a river. When civilizations start around rivers it gives the people fresh water and a good source of water for agricultural purposes too. Even egypt’s seasons were based around the nile and how it affected crops and weather. The first season would be Akhet, which would now be around june-september and was based around the nile river flooding to provide water to crops. The second season was Peret, (Oct. - Feb.) where crops would be planted. The final season was called Shemu, (March - May) when everything would be harvested.                                                                                          Skylar - The Nile River starts in mid-eastern Africa and goes all the way down to the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is one of the great rivers. It makes the soil around it rich. Like ben said for growing plants. Most of the population in Egypt is around or close by the multipurpose river. They have a season of harvest and it’s when the soil is most fertile for growing crops. The annual rain is very important because it adds another layer of extremely nutrient-rich soil that’s needed for the Shemu season. Ethan - Wars had what seemed to be a major impact on the civil structure of Egypt. The costs include drought, famine, and disruption of Egyptian civilians. This kind of split Egypt into many different city-states. This allowed any city-state with the military power to take cities, as Kush conquered Lower and Upper Egypt. But soon the Kushites were kicked out of Egypt. Hunter- nothing left to write T^T this is sad all info was sucked dry so please dont blame me   Ancient art and artifacts: Beginnings -  Gabe - One of the artifacts that was found was the standard of ur and no one knows for sure what it actually was but it has 2 sides to it and on one side you have basically peace and prosperity where it shows animals being taken to trade or sacrifice or eat were not really sure and it shows the king and some other important people drinking in enjoyment there many things like that.(didnt want to take to much info someone want to connect to mine and explain what was on the other side) Ella - There were many materials used to make the standard of ur such as lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, Red stones from India, and shells from the gulf to the South of Iraq. These things are all reminders that the cities thrived because of the success in agriculture. There was a river valley between Tigris and Euphrates where they grew large amounts of food. Ben - One of the most important historical items in Egyptian history was the Rosetta Stone, the Rosetta Stone was an ancient stone tablet discovered in 1799, it had the same thing written in three different languages. First, hieroglyphs, then egyptian, then greek. This allowed historians to translate all the hieroglyphs that were seen in temples and pyramids. Emma - On the other side of the Standard of Ur, there are three scenes depicting a war. The lowest section shows chariots coming into battle and trampling their enemies. The second row has a clearly organized army marching into battle, fighting, and taking prisoners. The top again has the king, this time being presented with prisoners of war. Audrey - The Rosetta Stone is a very popular artifact found in the British Museum. It was brought there when Napoleon’s army was in Egypt. One of the many people who came with Napoleon came across the stone being used in the foundation of a fort. Originally it would have been in or near an Egyptian temple and was the bottom part of a much taller tablet. Napoleon took the stone back with him, but when the British defeated Napoleon they took it. Two years later, in 1801 or 1802, the Rosetta Stone was taken to the British Museum and it has been there ever since. Ethan - I guess I’ll explain the Rosetta Stone. It had 2 forms of Egyptian on it. Hieroglyphic and Demotic. Hieroglyphic, as many people know, uses symbols. Demotic is kind of like the print writing of English, but Egyptian. It also had Greek on the stone so it, even after many years, was decipherable. Skylar - The Rosetta Stone was carved in 196 B.C. We were not able to read the Rosetta Stone until mid 19th century. The Rosetta stone is called the Rosetta stone because of where it was found, Rosetta. It was written in three different scripts The first was hieroglyphic which was the script used for important or religious documents. The second was demotic which was the common script of Egypt. The third was Greek which was the language of the rulers of Egypt at that time. Hunter- The Rosetta stone and the Standard of Ur are both important discoveries I can’t say anything more because like last season nothing left to say it’s all taken (and yes i went and looked at more than just the first page or google but I mean this is what I get for being busy all week i guess)   600 BCEAncient India: Beginnings -  Gabe - the harappan civilization or the indus valley civilization because it was near the indus river spread from northwest india to afghanistan and pakistan at the peak of the harappan civilization they may have had a population of 5 million people indus cities are noted for there urban planning which is where you build your cities in with the land to make your life easier basically they also made baked brick houses huge drainage systems water supply systems and basically metropolitan areas.    Ella - Around 2600 BCE, Harappan communities had become large urban areas. Overall about 1000 settlements were founded in the Indus river area. The Mohenjo-daro was one of the biggest cities in the area. It was also one of the more sophisticated cities with its advanced uses for engineering and urban planning. Ben - The Indus river civilization was one of the most advanced and one of the most mysterious ancient places. They were very good at building and their brick areas are impressive even to today’s standards because of how they survived hundreds of years of weather and damage. And jewelry from around that area has been seen in different countries, so trading was probably happening too. Emma - The people of the Indus River Valley Civilization region are known for their advancements in the technology of their time. Their accurate systems for measuring length and mass made their advanced sanitation system possible. This system was the first of its kind ever in history. Audrey - Sanskrit has many similarities to other languages like English and Latin. Words like matr, in English mother, and in Latin mater, show the resemblance. The Vedas mention a “god” named Dyaus Pitr which means “sky father”. In Greek there is Zeus Pater, and in Latin Jupiter, both of which, also meaning sky father. - Ethan - Some of the people in the Indus Valley are called Harappans. The reason that the Harappans succeeded in early technology was they had the most accurate ways to measure length and mass. They also invented bricks, one of the staples in building today. Skylar - The Harappa civilization was more than just Harappa. The largest cite they had was Mohenjo-Daro, it was n the Sihn region of Pakistan. They believe 40,000 lived in just Mohenjo-Daro. Some think that the Harappa civilization was happening around 7000 BCE, they believe they were just living in small villages, but they don’t have very much evidence. Nobody really knows how or why the Indus Valley civilization came to an end. Hunter- Important innovations of this civilization include standardized weights and measures, seal carving, and metallurgy with copper, bronze, tin, and lead. 600 BCEShang China: Beginnings -  Gabe - the earliest period in chinese history is the mythical period which supposedly was ruled by the xia empire and was overthrown by the Shang in 1766 bce but we are not sure if the Xia overthrow was true because we don’t have archaeological evidence of the Xia empire but we do have evidence of the Shang empire and they ruled from 1766 bce to 1046 bce Ella - The earliest form of Chinese writing was found as inscriptions carved into bones and shells.These animal remains were known as oracle bones. The writing on the bones was very complex, suggesting that the language had been around for a while. Scientists didn't have trouble reading it because it was very similar to modern chinese writing. Ben - The chinese craftsmen mastered the alloy bronze, which gave most of their soldiers an advantage. The Shang were excellent builders and engineers, they worked on many things including irrigation systems similar to how the indus river civilization did.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               Emma - In the Shang Dynasty Civilization, the king was not a political figure. His main role was as a religious leader, the use of oracle bones making up a large part of their responsibilities. The government itself was run by chosen advisors and other officials. Audrey - Chinese writings from the Shang Dynasty can be found on oracle bones. An oracle bone is an ox’s scapula (shoulder blade) that people would write questions on; they would heat the bone over a flame until it cracked, and then they would interpret the cracks to get an answer to their question. Skylar - The Shang Dynasty was the first dynasty that we have a lot of proof of. It lasted around 500 years. They had great irrigation systems for their day, and had also developed social classes. Both banks of the Yellow River had greats amounts of loess.with is a very nutrient-rich soil that is amazing for growing almost anything. The Shang dynasty was in and near the modern day city of Anyang. It’s known for their writing, a lot like modern day Chinese. Near the end of this dynasty they had chariots and people believe they were in contact with people out in the west. - Ethan - The Shang had some, to say the least, strange practices.  The Shang made offerings to dead relatives in attempt to communicate with them. These “Oracle Bones” people will have talked about by now, are made out of turtle shells, and they were used to predict the future. Hunter- the Shang dynasty craftspeople mastered bronze, an alloy of copper and tin; bronze weapons gave the foot soldiers a tactical advantage.   600 BCEAncient Americas: Beginnings - Gabe - Some of the first people in north america were the olmec who were some of the first mexicans they lived around the gulf of mexico around were veracruz and tabasco (like the sauce i guess) is a nahuatl word from the aztec language which means rubber people because they were the first we know to discover how to convert latex off trees into rubber we call them this because we do not know exactly what they called themselves Ella - None of the Olmecs beliefs or customs were recorded, but there were some artifacts found in the area that indicated long trade routes that spread throughout many regions. Some of the artifacts such as jade and obsidian were evidence that the Olmec people traded with civilizations outside the Gulf Coast of Mexico. Ben - There were a few different early north and south american tribes and cultures such as the mayans. The Mayans were the only ones in early america who had a fully developed writing system. They used hieroglyphs and lived in southeast mexico, they kind of owned southeast mexico. Emma - From 3500 to 1700 BC the Caral civilization existed in was is now northern Peru. It was a complex society in which specialized and interconnected roles existed, though people disagree on whether or not it can be classified as a civilization due to the lack of evidence concerning political, economical, and religious systems. Audrey - The first humans to come to the Americas came 15-16,000 years ago.They are believed to have come from north-eastern Asia across the Bering Strait during the last glaciation period when the sea level was low enough for the Bering Land Bridge. Skylar - the first people that came to north and south america somewhere between 15,000 and 16,000 years ago. They believe the first people were in Florida 14,500 years ago. The Mississippian culture was a north american culture. The mississippi river is named after them. Their famous city was Cahokia and it is around modern day St. Louis. - Ethan - There was a race of people called the Chavin and their culture was centered around a big temple in Chavin de Huantar. Their government system was most likely based off of a hierarchy, while sticking to religion. The Chavin was founded in the northern Andean highlands in Peru. Their civilization was founded in between 900 and 250 BC, which was about to the time period of 1000 years after the collapse of the Caral. The Chavin were located in the Mosna River Valley, in which the Mosna and Huachesa rivers meet. Hunter- cant find nothin!!!!!!! 600 BCE Human innovation and the environment  Gabe - We were nomadic people so we started to farm and start agriculture and build small villages probably making us have more food for more population and basically we started staying in one spot and we started to have tribes and the others started doing this. Ella - One thing that separates humans from animals is our ability to learn and teach efficiently and effectively. We are able to pass down the information and skills we learned to the next generation a lot better than other species can. This is because of our specific and strong communication techniques we've developed like language and writing. Skylar - Before the Neolithic era people had to hunt for food. They would walk short or long distances to find food if there was nothing oblivious to kill for food. Most people were what are called hunter gatherers. They did not consume as much calories as pastoral people. This was called Paleolithic era and the beginning of the mesolithic era. The main thing that happened in the Neolithic era was agriculture. Agriculture was a huge deal, most would say one of the best things that happened in human history. It changed people’s lifestyle and diet. They could now raise crops and/or animals. Move most anywhere they wanted. They then had time to figure out a way to write out the things they were learning. Ben - Over all this time and seeing these things it’s interesting to realize that these people were skilled and could create art and sculptures, writing and speech. One of the most helpful human skills is collective learning, where most information can be passed on to more people in such a way to make the potential knowledge of collective humanity nearly infinite. Emma - The development of written language had a huge impact on the development of human civilizations. Learning from the past, beyond what current generations could recall, began to change societies. For example, it allowed agriculture to develop because newer generations could learn what did and didn’t work in the past. Political records also influenced and changed developing political systems. Audrey - The Aboriginal Australians, Aboriginal meaning from the beginning, would have controlled fires that would clear the forests to make the area more suitable for grassland. The grassland would provide an area for animals they could easily hunt and live off of. - Ethan - Innovation mainly began with stone tools that allowed humans to do simple tasks even easier. These tools that helped early humans hunt consisted mainly of spears and knives but very primitive. Like very poorly sharpened edges, but enough to get the job done. Farming tools would mainly consist of what today would be related to a hoe. Hunter- A type of farming used by the Aboriginal Australians was firestick farming, when they would conduct said farming they would start what are called ‘controlled burns’ they were not new to this and knew which seasons to do this in. Like in Spring or Autumn when there was a certain amount of moisture in the air to control the fires and this did more than just give the natives a better landscape but to also help prevent large scale fires and allow kangaroo to graze there for them to eat.   That’s all the time we have for today. THank for joining us out of the box that is learning

Welcome back to The Emancipation Podcast Station - the place to hear about history researched and retold through the eyes of Middle school and HS students.   Last time on the show... Beginnings - 600 BCE   The origin of humans and early human societies: Beginnings -  Gabe - Prehistory is the history before it was written. Finding bones and doing tests like potassium argon dating or other methods to find the age was one of the ways we could see find prehistory. The tools they used and how the newer ones were perfected is another. Ben- Anthropology is the study of ancient humans and their cultures. Everyone always talks about how old certain things are, but how is the information found? Radiocarbon dating is when you get a certain element called carbon 14 and and see how much of it has decayed back into nitrogen 14. So if half the carbon 14 has decayed, that means the item is 5730 years old. The radiocarbon method is a good indicator of how old something is. Audrey - Written records are a main tool in learning the history of the people before us. These are, in some ways, more detailed than other forms of records, including archaeological and biological remains. That being said, written records can’t be the only thing taken into consideration; they could be biased or could be stories passed down generation after generation, slowly being changed to fit the current worldviews. Emma - Many Paleolithic societies were communal. The members of a community, which were most often small, nomadic groups, worked together to perform various tasks. The women typically raised the children, gathered food, and cooked, whereas the men did the hunting, often in groups. However, in some communities, the work is thought to have been divided evenly between both women and men. Ella - Early paleolithic societies did not have agricultural systems like we do today. They relied on tools they made to hunt animals. These societies would use tools made out of rocks such as handaxes. They used these for both hunting and digging. The other half of their diet consisted of natural fruits and vegetables they found in their environment. Skylar - According to historians the first generations of “human” like people are called Homo Sapiens. Homo Sapiens were apart of a group called Hominids. Archaeologist and anthropologist believe that they were alive between 2.5 and 4 million years ago and lived in eastern and southern Africa. Ethan - The anatomic structure of the people of today has existed for about 200,000 years. Egyptian hieroglyphs have been around for close to 5,000 years but America couldn’t even comprehend the hieroglyphs until 1799 when America found the Rosetta Stone. Even then when America had the Rosetta Stone it took quite a while to decipher it. And even after we began to comprehend hieroglyphs, we still had to hope no one would “change the story” to make it more interesting. And people still had altering views so deciding which was true caused more investigation. Thus, the Scientific Process. Hunter- the study of human existence has been going on for multiple centries. The process has just evolved to even being able to find the year of when the creature and or early human existed and died.   600 BCE The Neolithic Revolution and the birth of agriculture: Beginnings - Emma - The word Neolithic is derived from neo, meaning new, and the Greek word lithos, which translates to stone. It is the latter part of the stone age in which tools began to have a more smooth and refined appearance. Unlike before, these tools had complex shapes and purposes, and began to resemble the instruments used in more advanced societies. Audrey - Since the birth of agriculture, Earth’s population has increased immensely. In the Paleolithic period, humans were primarily hunter-gatherers, and the population was roughly 10 million. Then 10 - 15 thousand years ago (13000 - 8000 B.C.) the Neolithic period came, and along with that, agriculture. Since plants and animals were now being domesticated, and more people could be fed, the population grew. By the time of the Roman Empire there were around 250 million people on Earth, and since then the population has grown to approximately 7 billion.  Gabe -  There was different types of agriculture there was pastoralism which was the branch of agriculture that bred animals goat, sheep, cattle, and in this branch they collected food from there goats and cattle and probably wool from the sheep and milk from the cows and probably the goats too     Ella - Most  early civilizations came together through religion, or beliefs and practices that associate with the meaning of the world. with  This was how people who were not familiar with one another created trustworthy and respectful relationships. Religion was commonly associated with politics. Religious leaders commonly worked as political leaders as well.   Ethan - Agriculture was created so that the survivability of the human race would increase. The end of the most recent glacial period was about the same time that agriculture emerged. The reasoning behind this is that the soil had thawed so food could be grown in abundance. Ben - There were a few different things being grown around the world. Stuff like barley, but also something less known called sorghum. Sorghum today is mostly used for animal food, but can also be used to create a kind of sweet syrup. Sorghum was being grown about the area sudan is at today and was probably being used as a normal grain in 9000-7000 BCE. There was also okra, black eyed peas, and yam around the west coast of africa. (Can talk about more different foods and where they’re from if needed) Skylar -City-States couldn’t have been became created without agriculture. Most people would not be alive if it wasn’t for agriculture. Since agriculture has been created the plants (veggies) and animals (meat and milk). Thanks to irrigation vegetation can now be grown almost anywhere. The availability of human consumable calories per square kilometer has increased rapidly. People started farming in Iraq, Syria, and Turkey and went on to East Asia, mexico, and many more places. Hunter- Neolithic Age is also known as the New Stone Age. However, it is closely connected to civilization, animal domestication, inventions, and agriculture. Stability in life opened new doors for man, as he ventured into domesticating animals rather than merely hunting them as per his need. He also invented pottery in this era, making it a symbol of the Neolithic era. 600 BCEAncient Mesopotamia: Beginnings -  Gabe - I'm going to start by saying Mesopotamia means country between to rivers so most the cities were born on the rivers tigris euphrates (which is what Mesopotamia is in between) the yangtze or the nile. They were born on these cities because the rivers would fertilize their crops bring water and transportation later on      Ella - The Sumerians were a group of people that started in Southern Mesopotamia around 4000 BCE. They wrote some of the first written scripts that were made of clay tablets. These ideas spread to surrounding civilizations which resulted in more languages being written. These languages are what today's alphabet was developed from. Audrey - Mesopotamia was one of the first significant civilizations, and was located in what is now Iraq. The Sumerians are believed to be the first civilization to emerge in Mesopotamia (4000 B.C.). They are well known for the first development of the wheel (3500 B.C.), and for their architectural structures, like the ziggurats which were found in the center of many Sumerian and Mesopotamian cities. Emma - Around 3000 BC the Sumerians came in contact with the Akkadians, named after the city-state of Akkad. About 700 years later, Sargon of Akkad came into power and is thought to have started the first dynastic empire. Both the Akkadian and Sumerian speakers were ruled by the Akkadian Empire until it’s fall in 2154 BC. Ben - After the akkadian empire, a new empire began, and it was called the Babylonian empire. The Babylonians used to just be a small place in Akkadia (2300 BC), but grew into an empire. The leader of the Babylonian empire was Hammurabi. The Babylonians influenced the area in that they had a sort of law system that was based on religion. They spoke Akkadian. (1800-600 BC) from 1770- 1670 and from 612-320 BC babylon was estimated to be the largest city in population size in the world. Skylar - The Pharaoh King Menes was able to unify upper and lower Egypt with the Eqyptian civilization. Hammurabi was famous for making the code of Hammurabi. He codified a series of laws. Ethan - After the Sumerian and Akkadian empires formed, the Assyrian Empire formed about 1000 years later in northern Mesopotamia. Ashur was the capital of Assyria. Assyria was originally ruled by Sargon and his bloodline during the Akkadian Empire. After the end of the Akkadian empire Assyria became the major empire then. 8. Hunter- Mesopotamia was known in antiquity as a seat of learning, and it is believed that Thales of Miletus  (c. 585 BCE, known as the first philosopher) studied there. As the Babylonians believed that water was the ‘first principle’ from which all else followed, and as Thales is famous for that very claim, it seems probable that he studied there.   600 BCEAncient Egypt: Beginnings - 600 BCE  Gabe - Egypt started next to the nile which is because it helps with many things as we  talked about earlier there was the old egypt which was when the pyramids were built and this is the time we kind of think about when we think egypt but the pharaohs you think about were very far from the building of the pyramids and cleopatra actually lived 2500 years from the makings of the pyramids and 2037 from the making of the first iphone so she lived closer to the iphone   Ella - During the old kingdom period, Egypt was a single state. The country eventually became more complex and expanded their military. The kings of the time built formations such as Great Pyramid and the Sphinx of Giza. These structures were used as tombs or monuments for the kings that built them. Emma - The Egyptian political system was based on the idea of divine kingship. They believed that the political ruler, or pharaoh, either held the favor of a god (or gods) or was in fact a living incarnation of the god themself. An example of this was Narmer who was thought to be Horus. This reinforced the authority of the current political figure in power. Audrey - The Egyptian civilization was originally divided into upper and lower Egypt. The official beginning of the civilization was somewhere around 3100-3150 B.C. when the two parts of Egypt were united under one king. Ben - As with most early civilizations, egypt was based around a river. When civilizations start around rivers it gives the people fresh water and a good source of water for agricultural purposes too. Even egypt’s seasons were based around the nile and how it affected crops and weather. The first season would be Akhet, which would now be around june-september and was based around the nile river flooding to provide water to crops. The second season was Peret, (Oct. - Feb.) where crops would be planted. The final season was called Shemu, (March - May) when everything would be harvested.                                                                                          Skylar - The Nile River starts in mid-eastern Africa and goes all the way down to the Mediterranean Sea. The Nile is one of the great rivers. It makes the soil around it rich. Like ben said for growing plants. Most of the population in Egypt is around or close by the multipurpose river. They have a season of harvest and it’s when the soil is most fertile for growing crops. The annual rain is very important because it adds another layer of extremely nutrient-rich soil that’s needed for the Shemu season. Ethan - Wars had what seemed to be a major impact on the civil structure of Egypt. The costs include drought, famine, and disruption of Egyptian civilians. This kind of split Egypt into many different city-states. This allowed any city-state with the military power to take cities, as Kush conquered Lower and Upper Egypt. But soon the Kushites were kicked out of Egypt. Hunter- nothing left to write T^T this is sad all info was sucked dry so please dont blame me   Ancient art and artifacts: Beginnings -  Gabe - One of the artifacts that was found was the standard of ur and no one knows for sure what it actually was but it has 2 sides to it and on one side you have basically peace and prosperity where it shows animals being taken to trade or sacrifice or eat were not really sure and it shows the king and some other important people drinking in enjoyment there many things like that.(didnt want to take to much info someone want to connect to mine and explain what was on the other side) Ella - There were many materials used to make the standard of ur such as lapis lazuli from Afghanistan, Red stones from India, and shells from the gulf to the South of Iraq. These things are all reminders that the cities thrived because of the success in agriculture. There was a river valley between Tigris and Euphrates where they grew large amounts of food. Ben - One of the most important historical items in Egyptian history was the Rosetta Stone, the Rosetta Stone was an ancient stone tablet discovered in 1799, it had the same thing written in three different languages. First, hieroglyphs, then egyptian, then greek. This allowed historians to translate all the hieroglyphs that were seen in temples and pyramids. Emma - On the other side of the Standard of Ur, there are three scenes depicting a war. The lowest section shows chariots coming into battle and trampling their enemies. The second row has a clearly organized army marching into battle, fighting, and taking prisoners. The top again has the king, this time being presented with prisoners of war. Audrey - The Rosetta Stone is a very popular artifact found in the British Museum. It was brought there when Napoleon’s army was in Egypt. One of the many people who came with Napoleon came across the stone being used in the foundation of a fort. Originally it would have been in or near an Egyptian temple and was the bottom part of a much taller tablet. Napoleon took the stone back with him, but when the British defeated Napoleon they took it. Two years later, in 1801 or 1802, the Rosetta Stone was taken to the British Museum and it has been there ever since. Ethan - I guess I’ll explain the Rosetta Stone. It had 2 forms of Egyptian on it. Hieroglyphic and Demotic. Hieroglyphic, as many people know, uses symbols. Demotic is kind of like the print writing of English, but Egyptian. It also had Greek on the stone so it, even after many years, was decipherable. Skylar - The Rosetta Stone was carved in 196 B.C. We were not able to read the Rosetta Stone until mid 19th century. The Rosetta stone is called the Rosetta stone because of where it was found, Rosetta. It was written in three different scripts The first was hieroglyphic which was the script used for important or religious documents. The second was demotic which was the common script of Egypt. The third was Greek which was the language of the rulers of Egypt at that time. Hunter- The Rosetta stone and the Standard of Ur are both important discoveries I can’t say anything more because like last season nothing left to say it’s all taken (and yes i went and looked at more than just the first page or google but I mean this is what I get for being busy all week i guess)   600 BCEAncient India: Beginnings -  Gabe - the harappan civilization or the indus valley civilization because it was near the indus river spread from northwest india to afghanistan and pakistan at the peak of the harappan civilization they may have had a population of 5 million people indus cities are noted for there urban planning which is where you build your cities in with the land to make your life easier basically they also made baked brick houses huge drainage systems water supply systems and basically metropolitan areas.    Ella - Around 2600 BCE, Harappan communities had become large urban areas. Overall about 1000 settlements were founded in the Indus river area. The Mohenjo-daro was one of the biggest cities in the area. It was also one of the more sophisticated cities with its advanced uses for engineering and urban planning. Ben - The Indus river civilization was one of the most advanced and one of the most mysterious ancient places. They were very good at building and their brick areas are impressive even to today’s standards because of how they survived hundreds of years of weather and damage. And jewelry from around that area has been seen in different countries, so trading was probably happening too. Emma - The people of the Indus River Valley Civilization region are known for their advancements in the technology of their time. Their accurate systems for measuring length and mass made their advanced sanitation system possible. This system was the first of its kind ever in history. Audrey - Sanskrit has many similarities to other languages like English and Latin. Words like matr, in English mother, and in Latin mater, show the resemblance. The Vedas mention a “god” named Dyaus Pitr which means “sky father”. In Greek there is Zeus Pater, and in Latin Jupiter, both of which, also meaning sky father. - Ethan - Some of the people in the Indus Valley are called Harappans. The reason that the Harappans succeeded in early technology was they had the most accurate ways to measure length and mass. They also invented bricks, one of the staples in building today. Skylar - The Harappa civilization was more than just Harappa. The largest cite they had was Mohenjo-Daro, it was n the Sihn region of Pakistan. They believe 40,000 lived in just Mohenjo-Daro. Some think that the Harappa civilization was happening around 7000 BCE, they believe they were just living in small villages, but they don’t have very much evidence. Nobody really knows how or why the Indus Valley civilization came to an end. Hunter- Important innovations of this civilization include standardized weights and measures, seal carving, and metallurgy with copper, bronze, tin, and lead. 600 BCEShang China: Beginnings -  Gabe - the earliest period in chinese history is the mythical period which supposedly was ruled by the xia empire and was overthrown by the Shang in 1766 bce but we are not sure if the Xia overthrow was true because we don’t have archaeological evidence of the Xia empire but we do have evidence of the Shang empire and they ruled from 1766 bce to 1046 bce Ella - The earliest form of Chinese writing was found as inscriptions carved into bones and shells.These animal remains were known as oracle bones. The writing on the bones was very complex, suggesting that the language had been around for a while. Scientists didn't have trouble reading it because it was very similar to modern chinese writing. Ben - The chinese craftsmen mastered the alloy bronze, which gave most of their soldiers an advantage. The Shang were excellent builders and engineers, they worked on many things including irrigation systems similar to how the indus river civilization did.                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                                               Emma - In the Shang Dynasty Civilization, the king was not a political figure. His main role was as a religious leader, the use of oracle bones making up a large part of their responsibilities. The government itself was run by chosen advisors and other officials. Audrey - Chinese writings from the Shang Dynasty can be found on oracle bones. An oracle bone is an ox’s scapula (shoulder blade) that people would write questions on; they would heat the bone over a flame until it cracked, and then they would interpret the cracks to get an answer to their question. Skylar - The Shang Dynasty was the first dynasty that we have a lot of proof of. It lasted around 500 years. They had great irrigation systems for their day, and had also developed social classes. Both banks of the Yellow River had greats amounts of loess.with is a very nutrient-rich soil that is amazing for growing almost anything. The Shang dynasty was in and near the modern day city of Anyang. It’s known for their writing, a lot like modern day Chinese. Near the end of this dynasty they had chariots and people believe they were in contact with people out in the west. - Ethan - The Shang had some, to say the least, strange practices.  The Shang made offerings to dead relatives in attempt to communicate with them. These “Oracle Bones” people will have talked about by now, are made out of turtle shells, and they were used to predict the future. Hunter- the Shang dynasty craftspeople mastered bronze, an alloy of copper and tin; bronze weapons gave the foot soldiers a tactical advantage.   600 BCEAncient Americas: Beginnings - Gabe - Some of the first people in north america were the olmec who were some of the first mexicans they lived around the gulf of mexico around were veracruz and tabasco (like the sauce i guess) is a nahuatl word from the aztec language which means rubber people because they were the first we know to discover how to convert latex off trees into rubber we call them this because we do not know exactly what they called themselves Ella - None of the Olmecs beliefs or customs were recorded, but there were some artifacts found in the area that indicated long trade routes that spread throughout many regions. Some of the artifacts such as jade and obsidian were evidence that the Olmec people traded with civilizations outside the Gulf Coast of Mexico. Ben - There were a few different early north and south american tribes and cultures such as the mayans. The Mayans were the only ones in early america who had a fully developed writing system. They used hieroglyphs and lived in southeast mexico, they kind of owned southeast mexico. Emma - From 3500 to 1700 BC the Caral civilization existed in was is now northern Peru. It was a complex society in which specialized and interconnected roles existed, though people disagree on whether or not it can be classified as a civilization due to the lack of evidence concerning political, economical, and religious systems. Audrey - The first humans to come to the Americas came 15-16,000 years ago.They are believed to have come from north-eastern Asia across the Bering Strait during the last glaciation period when the sea level was low enough for the Bering Land Bridge. Skylar - the first people that came to north and south america somewhere between 15,000 and 16,000 years ago. They believe the first people were in Florida 14,500 years ago. The Mississippian culture was a north american culture. The mississippi river is named after them. Their famous city was Cahokia and it is around modern day St. Louis. - Ethan - There was a race of people called the Chavin and their culture was centered around a big temple in Chavin de Huantar. Their government system was most likely based off of a hierarchy, while sticking to religion. The Chavin was founded in the northern Andean highlands in Peru. Their civilization was founded in between 900 and 250 BC, which was about to the time period of 1000 years after the collapse of the Caral. The Chavin were located in the Mosna River Valley, in which the Mosna and Huachesa rivers meet. Hunter- cant find nothin!!!!!!! 600 BCE Human innovation and the environment  Gabe - We were nomadic people so we started to farm and start agriculture and build small villages probably making us have more food for more population and basically we started staying in one spot and we started to have tribes and the others started doing this. Ella - One thing that separates humans from animals is our ability to learn and teach efficiently and effectively. We are able to pass down the information and skills we learned to the next generation a lot better than other species can. This is because of our specific and strong communication techniques we've developed like language and writing. Skylar - Before the Neolithic era people had to hunt for food. They would walk short or long distances to find food if there was nothing oblivious to kill for food. Most people were what are called hunter gatherers. They did not consume as much calories as pastoral people. This was called Paleolithic era and the beginning of the mesolithic era. The main thing that happened in the Neolithic era was agriculture. Agriculture was a huge deal, most would say one of the best things that happened in human history. It changed people’s lifestyle and diet. They could now raise crops and/or animals. Move most anywhere they wanted. They then had time to figure out a way to write out the things they were learning. Ben - Over all this time and seeing these things it’s interesting to realize that these people were skilled and could create art and sculptures, writing and speech. One of the most helpful human skills is collective learning, where most information can be passed on to more people in such a way to make the potential knowledge of collective humanity nearly infinite. Emma - The development of written language had a huge impact on the development of human civilizations. Learning from the past, beyond what current generations could recall, began to change societies. For example, it allowed agriculture to develop because newer generations could learn what did and didn’t work in the past. Political records also influenced and changed developing political systems. Audrey - The Aboriginal Australians, Aboriginal meaning from the beginning, would have controlled fires that would clear the forests to make the area more suitable for grassland. The grassland would provide an area for animals they could easily hunt and live off of. - Ethan - Innovation mainly began with stone tools that allowed humans to do simple tasks even easier. These tools that helped early humans hunt consisted mainly of spears and knives but very primitive. Like very poorly sharpened edges, but enough to get the job done. Farming tools would mainly consist of what today would be related to a hoe. Hunter- A type of farming used by the Aboriginal Australians was firestick farming, when they would conduct said farming they would start what are called ‘controlled burns’ they were not new to this and knew which seasons to do this in. Like in Spring or Autumn when there was a certain amount of moisture in the air to control the fires and this did more than just give the natives a better landscape but to also help prevent large scale fires and allow kangaroo to graze there for them to eat.   That’s all the time we have for today. THank for joining us out of the box that is learning

Which is more trustworthy: carbon-14 dating or reliable eyewitnesses? Conventional dating methods aren’t as straightforward as they seem. In this episode, Dr. Jim Johnson investigates Viking bones, radiocarbon dating, and how we should determine the timeline of historical events. More...

The Turin Shroud is one of the most revered relics of the Catholic Church: a piece of linen cloth that appears to show the imprint of a blood-stained crucified man. Some Christians believe it is the ancient cloth that Jesus Christ was buried in. In 1988, the Church allowed scientists to perform a radiocarbon dating test on a small sample of the shroud. The results are still controversial. In 2016 Rob Walker spoke to Professor Michael Tite who supervised the testing process. This programme is a rebroadcast.(Photo: Picture showing a facsimile of the Shroud of Turin at the Cathedral of Malaga. Credit: Jorge Guerrero/AFP/Getty Images)

Today we are Debunking the idea that Radiocarbon dating requires faith. Genesis Apologetics is getting really disingenuous about this. First, they try to say that the decay rates change over time. They present a strawman argument that labels the different levels of radiocarbons in the atmosphere as being changes in decay rates. Decay rates have always been proven to be constant while the actual atom that is selected to decay at any given moment is random. They want to suggest that it could have changed, therefore radiocarbon dating isn't reliable. They try to poison the well of radiocarbon dating by bringing out a bogus report that is nowhere to be found on the internet at all. The only reference to anything they show is an HIV study that was done that has no relevance to this particular study. Even that doesn't exist anymore. The study only shows that the labs in question didn't meet performance standards that resulted in the incorrect dating of known objects. Then he goes into his Christian spiel about how we can only trust the word of god because he was there at the beginning and penned it with his lightning cock. Subscribe to this channel ➽➽➽https://goo.gl/2oZaqY Donate to Engineers without Borders ➽➽➽https://goo.gl/qcqhzo Become a Patron ➽➽➽http://goo.gl/VRVjxK Follow me on Twitter ➽➽➽https://goo.gl/BbxhWL LIKE on Facebook ➽➽➽https://goo.gl/3xEibn

Lange galten Altersbestimmungen durch die C14-Methode geradezu als unfehlbar. Doch inzwischen zeigt sich: Die "Radiocarbon"-Uhr tickt leider nicht so zuverlässig, wie die Wissenschaft das gerne hätte. Autor: Hellmuth Nordwig

Love and hate A story of love for Prometheus with recognition of its faults. Surprisingly high tomato ratings. So much stuff to think about? Seeding Earth Natural selection, evolution, and engineers seeding life on Earth. This would require seeding all life on earth, to explain our shared genetic heritage with everything else that lives here. Objective-based evolution In this movie, I guess Lamarck Was Right. Continued Egineer presence over the course of the history of life on earth, guiding things toward their goals in order to make us like them. The Engineers Yoked as hell. Albinos with allopecia. Cave Paintings List of cultures visited. Radiocarbon dating (carbon-14). Uranium dating. Informational density. Star Maps Constellations and hemispheres and directions to solar systems. Alien System FTL. Moons and ringed planets. How not to safely approach and explore a new planet/moon. “Eh, seems fine” as a modus operandi for your space exploration mission. Alien Pregnancy Parasites. Superparasites, Tearing the umbilical cord. Placenta. Messages for the Future by VSauce: YouTube Support the show!

  This week we're going back to the 2016 Fringe to look at Radiocarbon Dating, especially when it pertains to questioning the claims of religious people that the Earth is only 6000 years old. Join Leonard Sym as he takes us through this scientific field, and looks at how the dating system works, how it is calibrated, and how its limits of measurement have been pushed back to 50,000 years BP. We also have a great interview with Leonard where he goes into more detail about the subject. Leonard teaches management, both commercially and in higher education. Current work includes management education at middle and senior management level within the oil industry, as well as the design and delivery of management training for a range of organisations throughout the world. He briefly studied Archaeology at Glasgow University as part of his first degree and has kept up an interest in the subject ever since. Over the last few years he has become increasingly aware of how our knowledge of the past has been increasingly attacked for religious reasons. This has inspired him to revisit the topic and defend the educated viewpoint.

The Turin Shroud is one of the most revered relics of the Catholic Church: a piece of linen cloth that appears to show the imprint of a blood-stained crucified man. Some Christians believe it is the ancient cloth that Jesus Christ was buried in. In 1988, the Church allowed scientists to perform a radiocarbon dating test on a small sample of the shroud. The results are still controversial. Witness speaks to Professor Michael Tite who supervised the testing process. (Photo: Picture showing a facsimile of the Shroud of Turin at the Cathedral of Malaga. Credit: Jorge Guerrero/AFP/Getty Images)

Is Climate Change responsible for the downfall of the Pyramid Age of Egypt Recent palaeoenvironmental evidence suggests that northeast Africa and southwest Asia were struck by an intense 'mega-drought' around the year 2200 BC. The event has already been blamed for the collapse of complex societies in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. I am trying to radiocarbon date both the drought event, at the headwaters of the Nile, and the collapse of the Pyramid Age of Egypt. Ultimately, I am hoping to determine whether Climate Change may have been responsible for the downfall of the state.

Is Climate Change responsible for the downfall of the Pyramid Age of Egypt Recent palaeoenvironmental evidence suggests that northeast Africa and southwest Asia were struck by an intense 'mega-drought' around the year 2200 BC. The event has already been blamed for the collapse of complex societies in Mesopotamia and the Indus Valley. I am trying to radiocarbon date both the drought event, at the headwaters of the Nile, and the collapse of the Pyramid Age of Egypt. Ultimately, I am hoping to determine whether Climate Change may have been responsible for the downfall of the state.

Tom Higham examines some of the projects the Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit has been involved with over the last few years; from dating the Neanderthal extinction, to identifying the bones of Richard III and Alfred the Great.

Tom Higham examines some of the projects the Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit has been involved with over the last few years; from dating the Neanderthal extinction, to identifying the bones of Richard III and Alfred the Great.

In this week's episode we'll visit the land of milk and honey dipping, South Carolina will volunteer to be stupider and a bunch of Christians will protest gay marriage by refusing to swallow.

This episode was recorded 22 May 2013 live and in person at Adobe's offices in Fremont in Seattle. You can download the m4a file or subscribe in iTunes. (Or subscribe to the podcast feed.) John Nack is Principal Product Manager, Adobe Digital Video. He has a blog (definitely worth reading, especially if you use Photoshop) and is @jnack on Twitter. This episode is sponsored by Microsoft Azure Mobile Services. One of the cooler features recently added is the ability to create custom APIs. Originally you were limited to standard operations on your database tables — but now you can design any API you want. This allows you to create a full REST/JSON API that's tailored to your app, that works as efficiently as possible. (And it's all in JavaScript. Mobile Services runs Node.js. Write your apps in your favorite text editor on your Mac.) Things we mention, in order of appearance (pretty much): Adobe LiveMotion Photoshop John's Blog Kurt Vonnegut Granfalloons despair.com Cocoa 64-bit Carbon 64-bit Unfrozen Cave Man Olive Garden South Bend, Indiana Tiramisu St. Sebastian Breadsticks Monkeys 2005 Movable Type DeBabelizer GifBuilder Anarchie 1984 Mac 2001 Algonquin Hotel Apple II PCjr ASCII Art Clip Art Googly Eyes Bill Atkinson MacPaint Rorschach Test Apple II GS Great Books Quadra 840AV Quadra Ad Director SuperCard Søren Kierkegaard Immanuel Kant Notre Dame Football Windows NT HTML New York City 1998 Flash Macromedia Illustrator Navy ROTC San Francisco GoLive NetNewsWire After Effects Thomas Knoll Camera Raw Photoshop Touch Germany Philistinism Perfectionism Volkswagen Carbon-dating Web Standards SVG CSS Gus Mueller Acorn Neven Mrgan Khoi Vinh Croatia Portland JDI Healing Brush Buck Rogers Creative Cloud Facebook Smugmug WWDC Jetta Ketchup Death-march Comic Book Guy John Gruber “If you see a stylus, they blew it.” Microsoft Surface Metro UI Rahm Emmanuel: “You never want a serious crisis to go to waste.” The Mythical Man-Month Content-Aware Fill Shawshank InDesign Adobe Magazine Nike PageMaker Postscript SLR Lightroom Black & Decker Dr. Evil Loren Brichter Instagram Kickstarter NGO Tumblr Acquisition Troy Gaul Blurb The Onion: Report: 98 Percent Of U.S. Commuters Favor Public Transportation For Others Data T-1000 Syria MacApp Resource Manager John Knoll Industrial Light & Magic QuickTime OpenDoc Corba OLE SnapSeed Mac System 6 Apple events AppleScript Audio Bus 1992 “The only time you should start worrying about a soldier is when they stop bitchin'” Alan Kay: “The Mac is the first computer good enough to be criticized.” TapBots Tweetbot 2 Android Kai's Power Tools Kai Krause Fremont RUN DMC Porsche Boxster Flavawagon Google Glass Robert Scoble