Podcasts about Ebbinghaus

Essential Habits is a new weekly series from High Performance. Hosted by Damian Hughes, each episode breaks down powerful habits from world-class performers and thinkers - so you can apply them in your own life.Here's Damian's take on the first episode, featuring Jo Malone: "Sometimes life moves so fast we forget we even can stop. That's something Jo reminded me of in this episode, the quiet power of pausing and taking stock before charging ahead.Jo's story is a masterclass in resilience and reinvention. With around 6,000 thoughts flying through our minds each day, many of them negative, it's not just about thinking less, but choosing what's worth holding on to. Together, we explore how stopping to organise our thoughts and truly understand our story can turn moments of crisis into turning points.I also unpack a fascinating piece of neuroscience, a study with a less-than-glamorous title, but a powerful message, showing how our brains naturally prioritise rewarding memories. If you've ever wanted to hold on to what matters and let the rest slip away… this one's for you."Here is a list of studies referenced in the episode:The Persistence and Transience of Memory. Authors: Blake A. Richards & Paul W. FranklandEbbinghaus's Forgetting Curve. Author: Hermann EbbinghausDiscovery of 'Thought Worms'. Researchers: Queen's University, CanadaEyewitness Misidentification and Wrongful Convictions. Organisation: Innocence ProjectPost-learning Hippocampal Dynamics Promote Preferential Retention of Rewarding Events. Authors: Matthias J. Gruber, Maureen Ritchey, Shao-Fang Wang, Manoj K. Doss, Charan RanganathWhy We Forget and How to Remember Better. Authors: Andrew E. Budson & Elizabeth A. Kensinger

Du hast ADHS und Lernen fühlt sich an wie eine Strafe? Stoff reinprügeln, wieder vergessen, Frust, Druck, Aufschieben? Willkommen im Teufelskreis. In dieser Folge decke ich die 4 häufigsten Lernfehler bei ADHS auf, die dich komplett ausbremsen – und zeige dir, wie du endlich besser lernst, schneller verstehst und dranbleibst, ohne dich zu quälen.

I explore the surprising science of memory with Dr. Charan Ranganath, author of Why We Remember. Today, Dr. Ranganath reveals why forgetting isn't a flaw but a feature of our brains and how simple strategies can dramatically improve recall. You'll learn: Why forgetting is normal (feat. Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve). How multitasking physically changes your brain and worsens memory. Why filming concerts on your phone makes the experience less memorable. Proven techniques from memory athletes to help you remember more.  ---- Sign up to my newsletter: https://www.nudgepodcast.com/mailing-list Connect on LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/phill-agnew-22213187/ Watch Nudge on YouTube: https://www.youtube.com/@nudgepodcast/ Charan's book Why We Remember: https://charanranganath.com/  ---- Sources: Ebbinghaus, H. (1885). Über das Gedächtnis: Untersuchungen zur experimentellen Psychologie. Berlin: Duncker & Humblot. ESPN. (2018). LeBron James recalling play with photographic memory [Video]. YouTube. https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=SkHAsh-i6WQ Miller, G. A. (1956). The magic number seven, plus or minus two: Some limits on our capacity for processing information. Psychological Review, 63(2), 81–97. Ranganath, C. (2024). Why we remember: Unlocking memory's power to hold on to what matters. Doubleday. Tulving, E., & Schacter, D. L. (1990). Priming and human memory systems. Science, 247(4940), 301–306. https://doi.org/10.1126/science.2296719 White, R. (2018). How to memorize a deck of cards (fastest way taught by memory champion) [Video]. YouTube. https://youtu.be/yevxvTbUa4s?si=x447uhmpm9-z--SD

One of the most challenging jobs is to change a culture that achieved success with legacy thinking. It all starts with trust, especially if you are a CX leader. Stuart Gilchriest is a Certified Customer Experience Professional (CCXP) who has worked in CX for 10+ years across multiple industries . After starting his career in the hospitality industry in his native England, he transitioned into Customer Experience roles in the travel industry and became a respected voice on VOC program management, CX Strategy and Experience Design. He is most proud of helping Hertz achieve their only JD Power Customer Satisfaction wins in the past 20 years, in 2019 and 2020. Stuart shares some practical applications in this episode including: Community Support: Stuart emphasizes the importance of reaching out to communities for support when facing challenges. The Forgetting Curve: Stuart discusses the "forgetting curve" by Ebbinghaus and the importance of reinforcing information through repetition. How can this concept be applied effectively within an organization to improve stakeholder engagement and information retention? The Role of Repetition in CX: How do you ensure that key information and messages are consistently reinforced with your stakeholders to foster deeper relationships and ensure effective communication? Change Management and ADKAR: The episode touches on change management models like ADKAR. Building Trust: Stuart speaks about building and maintaining trust through practices like listening tours and the "emotional bank account" concept. CX Roadmap: Stuart emphasizes the importance of a CX roadmap that addresses both short-term and long-term goals while aligning with stakeholder metrics. This episode is packed with gems Meet Stuart: Stuart Gilchriest, a Certified Customer Experience Professional (CCXP) has worked in CX for 10+ years across multiple industries including hospitality, education, travel, vehicle rental (Hertz), and HR technology (UKG). He is currently Director of Sales Experience at Mercury Insurance, a mid-sized P+C insurance carrier based in Los Angeles, CA. He is passionate about the CX discipline and helping turn customer and agent insights into financial and operational success for Mercury. After starting his career in the hospitality industry in his native England, he transitioned into Customer Experience roles in the travel industry and became a respected voice on VOC program management, CX Strategy and Experience Design. He is most proud of helping Hertz achieve their only JD Power Customer Satisfaction wins in the past 20 years, in 2019 and 2020. Stuart holds a BA in Economics from the University of Nottingham in the UK, an MBA from Hult International Business School in Boston, MA, and a Certified Customer Experience Professional (CCXP) designation. He currently lives in Naples, FL with his wife Mayra, son Nicolas (21), daughter Mariana (5) and dog Chewy. He is a sport fanatic and has watched live sports on 5 continents (and counting), is an avid traveler (Colombia is a favorite destination), and is currently working on perfecting his homemade Indian curry recipes (the spicier the better!).

One of the most challenging jobs is to change a culture that achieved success with legacy thinking. It all starts with trust, especially if you are a CX leader. Stuart Gilchriest is a Certified Customer Experience Professional (CCXP) who has worked in CX for 10+ years across multiple industries . After starting his career in the hospitality industry in his native England, he transitioned into Customer Experience roles in the travel industry and became a respected voice on VOC program management, CX Strategy and Experience Design. He is most proud of helping Hertz achieve their only JD Power Customer Satisfaction wins in the past 20 years, in 2019 and 2020. Stuart shares some practical applications in this episode including: Community Support: Stuart emphasizes the importance of reaching out to communities for support when facing challenges. The Forgetting Curve: Stuart discusses the "forgetting curve" by Ebbinghaus and the importance of reinforcing information through repetition. How can this concept be applied effectively within an organization to improve stakeholder engagement and information retention? The Role of Repetition in CX: How do you ensure that key information and messages are consistently reinforced with your stakeholders to foster deeper relationships and ensure effective communication? Change Management and ADKAR: The episode touches on change management models like ADKAR. Building Trust: Stuart speaks about building and maintaining trust through practices like listening tours and the "emotional bank account" concept. CX Roadmap: Stuart emphasizes the importance of a CX roadmap that addresses both short-term and long-term goals while aligning with stakeholder metrics. This episode is packed with gems Meet Stuart: Stuart Gilchriest, a Certified Customer Experience Professional (CCXP) has worked in CX for 10+ years across multiple industries including hospitality, education, travel, vehicle rental (Hertz), and HR technology (UKG). He is currently Director of Sales Experience at Mercury Insurance, a mid-sized P+C insurance carrier based in Los Angeles, CA. He is passionate about the CX discipline and helping turn customer and agent insights into financial and operational success for Mercury. After starting his career in the hospitality industry in his native England, he transitioned into Customer Experience roles in the travel industry and became a respected voice on VOC program management, CX Strategy and Experience Design. He is most proud of helping Hertz achieve their only JD Power Customer Satisfaction wins in the past 20 years, in 2019 and 2020. Stuart holds a BA in Economics from the University of Nottingham in the UK, an MBA from Hult International Business School in Boston, MA, and a Certified Customer Experience Professional (CCXP) designation. He currently lives in Naples, FL with his wife Mayra, son Nicolas (21), daughter Mariana (5) and dog Chewy. He is a sport fanatic and has watched live sports on 5 continents (and counting), is an avid traveler (Colombia is a favorite destination), and is currently working on perfecting his homemade Indian curry recipes (the spicier the better!).

Hoe zorg je ervoor dat je trainingen écht blijven hangen? In deze aflevering duiken Jeanne en Jan-Peter in het brein en onthullen ze verrassende nieuwe inzichten over het geheugen. Natuurlijk komt Ebbinghaus langs - en ze delen ook praktische tips over hoe je herhalen het slimste inzet en waarom de juiste context cruciaal is. Wil je weten hoe je deelnemers jouw training écht onthouden? Deze 200e aflevering wil je niet missen!Lees hier het blog over deze podcast:https://www.brainbakery.com/brainsnacks/wat-je-nog-niet-wist-over-ons-geheugen-en-onthouden-ebbinghaus-revisitedOp https://www.brainbakery.com/brainsnacks vind je onze blogs.Wil je meepraten, laat een voice berichtje achter:https://www.speakpipe.com/brainbakerySupport the show

Matthias Ebbinghaus ist Unternehmer, Inhaber des Restaurants Ercklentz in Kempen und Gastro Coach. Ich durfte Matthias mehrere Monate im 1:1 Coaching begleiten und wir haben in diesem Zeitraum folgendes transformiert:   Von Unsichtbarkeit zur Sichtbarkeit als Unternehmer Überwindung des Arbeitskräftemangels durch die Anstellung von 12 neuen Mitarbeitenden mittels Social Recruiting über Instagram Von Überforderung und Unklarheit bezüglich der Prioritäten zu Fokus und klarer Ausrichtung für die nächsten Schritte Transformation von großen Hürden und Zweifeln wie "Was denkt mein Gegenüber?" zu Leichtigkeit und effektiver Umsetzung Vom Alleingang in der Küche zu einem engagierten Team, das zu Markenbotschaftern avancierte Von 24/7 hustlen hin zu mehr Zeit für persönliche Belange und die Familie Und vieles mehr.   Erlebe die gesamte Erfolgsgeschichte von Matthias. Schaue dir gerne auch das ganze Kundeninterview auf YouTube an.   Viel Spaß und Inspiration beim Zuhören oder Sehen. Deine Jessica   Links zu Matthias Ebbinghaus: LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/matthias-ebbinghaus-21a968258/   Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/matthiasebbinghaus/   Restaurant Ercklentz: http://www.restaurant-ercklentz.de/   Arbeite mit Jessica Lackner:   Du willst auch von gewöhnlich sichtbar zum Leuchturm deiner Branche werden? Melde dich JETZT für mein Seminar „FAN-omenal SICHTBAR“ am 25.-26.05. in Salzburg an. Nutze den Gutscheincode: „COMMUNITY2024“ und spare 30% https://www.jessica-lackner.com/event-details/fan-omenal-sichtbar-2024-05-25-09-00   Du willst lieber individuell und 1:1 mit mir arbeiten, mich für eine Workshop oder eine Keynote buchen? Schreibe mir einfach eine Nachricht an info@jessica-lackner.com   Besuche meine Website: https://www.jessica-lackner.com/   Jessica Lackner Top Voice auf LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/jessica-lackner/   Jessica Lackner auf Instagram: https://www.instagram.com/jessica.lackner.official/

Esquecemos dois terços do que aprendemos nas últimas 24 horas: Hermann Ebbinghaus; Estudo da memória --- Send in a voice message: https://podcasters.spotify.com/pod/show/pedro-mendes-ju00fanior/message

One-off learning interventions are frequently the ‘go to' solution for workplace learning teams, but we know that spaced repetition and retrieval practice are more effective. How do we get past organizational constraints that make this difficult? In this week's episode of The Mind Tools L&D Podcast, Tony Manwani from People Unboxed joins Ross Dickie and Ross Garner to discuss: ·       The problems with one-off interventions ·       Science-backed principles to make an impact ·       How Tony's ‘BentoBot' tool puts those principles into practice. For a recent replication of Ebbinghaus' ‘forgetting curve' experiment, see: Murre, J. M., & Dros, J. (2015). Replication and analysis of Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve. PloS one, 10(7), e0120644. For more on the ‘Leitner system' see the overview on Wikipedia. For the LTEM model, referenced by Ross D, see Dr Will Thalheimer's website. In ‘What I Learned This Week', Ross G recommended Perplexity.ai. For more from us, including access to our back catalogue of podcasts, visit mindtools.com/business. There, you'll also find details of our award-winning performance support toolkit, our off-the-shelf e-learning, and our custom work.   For more from Tony and People Unboxed, see peopleunboxed.co.uk. For BentoBot, see bentobot.com. Connect with our speakers    If you'd like to share your thoughts on this episode, connect with our speakers: ·       Ross Garner ·       Ross Dickie ·       Tony Manwani

Vom Choleriker zum Menschenbegeisterer - so beschreibt Matthias seinen Weg selbst. Als gelernter Koch zögert er nicht lange, übernimmt Ende 2019 ein Restaurant - und was dann passierte, wissen wir alle. Wie er es geschafft hat, diese herausfordernde Zeit zu meistern, was er dabei über sich selbst und über Mitarbeiterführung gelernt hat und es heute schafft ein Team aus 22 branchenfremden Mitarbeitern zu leiten, darüber haben wir gesprochen. Erfahre mehr über das behind the scene der Gastroszene und was du daraus für deine Entwicklung lernen kannst. Viel Spaß mit diesem Interview.

This week Eddy and Charlie have a super impactful conversation with Eric Ebbinghaus. Eric goes talks about some of the hardships that he has gone through. However, the story does not stop in the hardships. Eric shares the hopes that can be found in ministry. Hosted by:  Eddy Shigley and Charlie Alcock Produced by: Tyler Sanders (@tylerwsanders) and The Called Collective (@thecalledcollective)  Edited by: Nathan York and Haley Fouts Graphics created by: Hannah Harris (@hannahrae.of.sunshine) Facilities Provided by: Indiana Wesleyan University The Called Collective seeks to equip the next generation of ministry leaders. We accomplish this by resourcing teens and pastors for the work of ministry. The Called Collective Social Network is designed for High School teens called to ministry in order for them to learn ministry skills, share in community with students across the world, and develop their call. Please check out the Called Collective. Website: thecalledcollective.org C2 Social Network: members.thecalledcollective.org Podcasts: Fresh Text - A weekly podcast where two pastor-scholars come up with sermon ideas . Every Monday, 1 hr typically. Listen now on Apple Podcasts or Spotify: https://linktr.ee/freshtextpodcast Modern Parables - A weekly podcast where four pastors create sermon illustrations from cultural topics. Every Tuesday, 30-1hr typically. Listen now on Apple Podcasts or Spotify: https://linktr.ee/modernparables Good Days with Eddy Shigley and Charlie Alcock - A weekly podcast where they will share a Ministry Principle and how it has played out in their years of ministry. Every Wednesday, 20-25 minutes typically. Listen now on Apple Podcasts or Spotify: https://linktr.ee/GoodDayswithEddyandCharlie The Defining Yes. A Women in Ministry Podcast - A weekly podcast where women called into ministry share their stories. Every Thursday, 30 minutes typically. Listen now on Apple Podcasts or Spotify: https://linktr.ee/thedefiningyes Coffee and Calling - A weekly podcast where a pastor, missionary, professor, or student shares their calling story. Every Friday, 30-35 minutes typically. Listen now on Apple Podcasts or Spotify: https://linktr.ee/coffeeandcalling The Called Collective is a ministry sponsored by The School of Theology & Ministry (STM) at Indiana Wesleyan University. The School of Theology & Ministry has been equipping pastors, missionaries, and ministry leaders at the undergraduate level for over 100 years. We are relentless in our mission to advance the Kingdom by equipping women and men for a lifetime of transformation service.

In this episode, we chat about daily review with David Morkunas, current head of teacher efficacy at Brandon Park Primary School, previously a teacher at Bentleigh West Primary School.   David Morkunas is a primary school teacher from Melbourne and currently works at Brandon Park Primary School, where his role is to help support whole school improvement in maths. David first made a name for himself by speaking about the importance of Daily Review at conferences, including Sharing Best Practice and ResearchED. David is a fierce advocate for evidence-based teaching and learning, with a particular interest in how knowledge is transferred to long-term memory.   Bill first met David as a graduate teacher while running the Bentleigh West Primary School Study Tour for South Australian educators, and he and David have remained in touch since.  Show notes In this episode, Michael and Bill talk with David about something very close to all our hearts – review. Anybody working in the explicit (direct) instruction and evidence-informed instruction space has become familiar with the importance of deliberately planned and scheduled review of previously learned material. For educators new to review, it's a case of “Where have you been all my life?”  Once maligned as non-progressive  ‘rote learning' or ‘drill and kill' in teaching circles, review has come back to classrooms with a vengeance, and teachers are seeing the difference in student learning outcomes.  Review is strongly supported by evidence and features in Barak Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction.  We cover a wide range of topics and ideas in this episode. David mentions EDI (Explicit Direct Instruction) as an instructional method used at his previous school, Bentleigh West Primary School.  The conversation moves to the role of review for transferring new information into long-term memory. Bill mentions a Research Ed talk by Emeritus Professor John Sweller (the father of Cognitive Load Theory), which discusses the narrow limits of change principle, a master stroke of evolution which made working memory a protective mechanism for long-term memory due to its extremely limited ability to deal with novel information, thus making it very difficult for new information to change long term memory without multiple repetitions.  Shortly after, David mentions Ebbinghaus's forgetting curve, a famous model teachers use to explain the importance of spaced reviews to lessen the rate at which newly learned information degrades over time after being first learned (flatten the curve of forgetting).  The importance of gaining and holding student attention first and foremost is discussed, and David mentions an episode of the ERRR podcast where the importance of having students pay attention is discussed and how this supersedes any other instructional/pedagogical considerations. OCHRE Education gets a few mentions from as a source of materials schools can use if they aren't building their teaching materials in-house. The difference between active review and students just reciting what is on a screen is discussed. David explains that students must actively pull something (retrieving) from long-term memory in active review. This distinction is explored, and David mentions a conversation with Ingrid Sealey from Teach Well that changed some of his thinking on how to structure the review.  Spaced retrieval apps are mentioned as a way for us (grownups) to learn new things. One such app is Anki, which both David and Bill have used.  Next, the question of when to review is tossed around, and David, Michael and Bill search for the holy grail – some rule of thumb or algorithm that tells us when the best time to review information is. Bill talks about how, in the Playberry Laser Literacy Program, he and his colleagues are always thinking about how to achieve the review sweet spot.  Success comes up as the driver of student attention and genuine motivation. David, Michael and Bill discuss how Australia's infatuation with making learning fun instead of focusing on effective teaching has had disastrous results. David talks about digital tech and books by Cal Newport, one being “Deep Work”, which talks about all of us (adults and kids) needing to cultivate the ability to concentrate for long periods to create good things in the world. David mentions a podcast episode by Greg Ashman on student motivation.  David's presentation for LDA is well worth a watch  David's Webinar on Spaced, Interleaved and Retrieval Practice for LDA is worth watching. Playberry Laser has some lessons up online where review can be seen in action, as well as some other excellent teaching at St Francis School Lockley's South Australia.  Comments and questions are welcome! If you're an educator, we would love to hear about your experiences with integrating structured daily review into your teaching. If you have a child in a classroom or school where daily review has been implemented, we'd love to hear about your impressions. 

German psychologist, Hermann Ebbinghaus, created the Forgetting Curve based on his research in the late 1800s, but it was replicated and confirmed in 2015. Ebbinhaus's research showed that there is an exponential loss of information that one has learned over time. The sharpest decline occurs in the first hour and the decay is significant through the first day. The curve levels off after about one week. This means that when it comes to newly learned information, if you don't use it you lose it! In this episode, we discuss more about this research and what it means for National Sales Meetings. Tune in to hear how to best combat the forgetting curve and ensure your reps retain what they learn at NSM for the long-haul! Related Resources: Want a partner in developing your advanced training strategy? We'd love to help! Email us at ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠training@cumbyconsulting.com⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠.  Connect with us on LinkedIn:   ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Cumby Consulting⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Rachel Medeiros⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ ⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠Liz Cumby⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠⁠ About Cumby Consulting:    Cumby Consulting's team of professionals deliver innovative MedTech training services for physicians, sales representatives, teaching faculty, key opinion leaders and clinical development teams. Whether you need a complete training system developed to deliver revenue sooner or a discrete training program for a specific meeting, Cumby Consulting will deliver highly strategic, efficient programs with uncompromising standards of quality.

Wie funktioniert Marketing für Branchen die eher konservativ sind? Das erfährst du in der heutigen Podcast Folge mit Dr Ralf Friedrich! dr-ralf-friedrich        hm-digirecruit.de      Über Dr. Ebbinghaus: https://www.praxis-ebbinghaus-fischer.de ▪️Du willst selbst neue Bauleiter finden? Dann schau bei MyBauleiter vorbei ▪️ Du willst die neusten Tools der KI nutzen, um dein Recruiting noch attraktiver zu gestalten? Hier geht es zum kostenfreien KI Report ▪️Unsere Homepage ▪️Vernetze dich mit mir auf LinkedIn ▪️Folge Headfound auf LinkedIn ▪️Folge Jan auf Instagram ▪️Folge Headfound auf Instagram

Ever found yourself blanking out on a key term during an important exam? Or trying to recall a word while ordering seafood? You're not alone! Co-hosts Linton and Stacy share relatable anecdotes and introduce the magic of spaced repetition - a learning technique that promises to supercharge your memory and recall abilities. Rooted in cognitive science, this method optimizes our natural memory processes and acts as a powerful hack for students preparing for exams and professionals aiming for ongoing development. Join us as we unpack the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve and explain how the brain tends to ditch information unless actively recalled and reinforced. If you need to study for your NCMHCE narrative exam, try the free samplers at: CounselingExam.comThis podcast is not associated with the National Board of Certified Counselors (NBCC) or any state or governmental agency responsible for licensure.

Diese Podcast Folge ist der absolute Hammer! ;-) Dr. Heinz Ebbinghaus verrät dir, was du präventiv tun kannst, um gesunde Mitarbeiter zu beschäftigen und die Krankheitstage nach unten zu schrauben! Viel Spaß beim reinhören! Über Dr. Ebbinghaus: https://www.praxis-ebbinghaus-fischer.de ▪️Du willst selbst neue Bauleiter finden? Dann schau bei MyBauleiter vorbei ▪️ Du willst die neusten Tools der KI nutzen, um dein Recruiting noch attraktiver zu gestalten? Hier geht es zum kostenfreien Recruiting Report ▪️Unsere Homepage ▪️Vernetze dich mit mir auf LinkedIn ▪️Folge Headfound auf LinkedIn ▪️Folge Jan auf Instagram ▪️Folge Headfound auf Instagram

We are now broadcasting live on Voice America Radio at 10 am EST weekly. Our first guest on VoiceAmerica Radio, Annette Ebbinghaus, blew it out of the water. She is a globally sought-after mental fitness resilience coach, master sophrologist, motivational speaker and author. She draws from 30+ years of experience and is founder of the beChill Exams & Life programs for adolescents and young adults. Her ethos is the first wealth is health. Physical, mental, emotional, and spiritual health are the cornerstones of her work. She focuses on linking the mind, body, and consciousness when working with her clients. Her work focuses in three areas: 1. Resilience coaching for parents and professionals with the emphasis being skills development to easily overcome common obstacles, prevent burnout and to live and work with compassion and a growth mindset. We spoke about parenting and mental health, including

Dans cet épisode, on parle de la courbe de l'oubli d'Ebbinghaus, et on découvre des astuces pour contrer l'oubli et aider nos apprenants à mémoriser ce qu'ils apprennent en classe de FLE. Retrouvez la courbe de l'oubli dans les ressources du blog Bobo French et découvrez les meilleurs moments auxquels revoir le matériel pour que vos apprenants retiennent sur le long terme. - Retrieval-based learning - Spaced repetition - Le chiffre 4!

This week, please join authors Marc Sabatine and Prakriti Gaba, as well as Associate Editor Amit Khera, as they discuss the article "Association Between Achieved Low-Density Lipoprotein Cholesterol Levels and Long-Term Cardiovascular and Safety Outcomes: An Analysis of FOURIER-OLE." Dr Greg Hundley: Welcome listeners, to this April 18th issue of Circulation on the Run and I am Dr. Greg Hundley, Associate Editor, Director of the Pauley Heart Center at VCU Health in Richmond, Virginia. Dr Peder Myhre: And I'm Dr. Peder Myhre, Social Media Editor from Akershus University Hospital and University of Oslo. Dr Greg Hundley: Peder, today's feature discussion, very interesting. We're going to evaluate the association between what's achieved with LDL cholesterol lowering, and then also long-term cardiovascular and safety outcomes. But before we get to that, how about we grab a cup of coffee and discuss some of the other articles in the issue? Would you like to go first? Dr Peder Myhre: Yes, Greg. I would love to. And the first paper is from the World of Preclinical Science and it comes to us from corresponding author, Jan Magnus Aronsen from University of Oslo in Norway. And perhaps, as you know, Greg, cardiomyocyte contraction and relaxation depend on the activity of the sarcoplasmic reticulum CA+2 ATPase 2, abbreviated SERCA2, and lowered levels or reduced activity of SERCA2, as seen in chronic heart failure, weakens contractile force and delays relaxation and no available therapy involves direct manipulation of the SERCA2 activity. And Greg, phosphodiesterase 3A is proposed to be present in the SERCA2 interactome limit SERCA2 activity and disruption of phosphodiesterase 3A from SERCA2 might thus be a strategy to develop SERCA2 activators. And in this study, the authors investigated and mapped SERCA2 and phosphodiesterase 3A and assessed this in experiments assessing the binding between these two in cardiomyocytes and in vesicles. Dr Greg Hundley: Wow Peder, sounds very interesting. So what did they find and how about the clinical implications of the findings? Dr Peder Myhre: So Greg phosphodiesterase 3A bounded directly to SERCA2 in the cardiomyocyte. So that's the first finding. Second, they demonstrated that SERCA2 phosphodiesterase 3A disruption increased SERCA2 activity independently of the catalytic activity of phosphodiesterase 3A in both normal and failing cardiomyocytes. And third, SERCA2 activity by the optimized SERCA2 phosphodiesterase 3A disruptor peptide OPT F reduced mortality and improved contractility after aortic binding in mice. So the clinical implication is that direct targeting of phosphodiesterase 3A binding to SERCA2 could be a novel approach to increase SERCA2 activity and thus cardiac contractility in patients with heart failure. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice Peder. What a great new finding in the world of preclinical science. Well my paper is going to delve into the world of clinical science and involves patients with stroke. So Peder in this study led by corresponding author, Dr. Dileep Yavagal from University of Miami Miller School of Medicine performed a survey in 75 countries through the Mission Thrombectomy 2020+ Global Network between November of 2020 and February of 2021 to determine the availability of mechanical thrombectomy for large vessel occlusion in patients with stroke. Now Peder, the primary endpoints were the current annual mechanical thrombectomy availability, the mechanical thrombectomy operator availability and the mechanical thrombectomy center availability. All of these availabilities were defined as the proportion of estimated large vessel occlusion for patients receiving mechanical thrombectomy in a given region annually. Dr Peder Myhre: Okay, Greg, so this is really an access question. So in essence, what is the availability of mechanical thrombectomy worldwide? So what did they find? Dr Greg Hundley: Right, great Peder. So what they found, the authors received 887 responses from 67 countries and low-income countries had 88% lower mechanical thrombectomy availability compared to high-income countries. The global mechanical thrombectomy operator availability was 16.5% of optimal, and the mechanical thrombectomy center availability was only 20.8% optimal. And with these results, the authors indicate that global cooperation and targeted region-specific public health interventions, including all stakeholders involved in stroke care delivery, are really needed to rapidly increase access to this brain-saving and disability-sparing treatment with mechanical thrombectomy really worldwide. Dr Peder Myhre: Oh wow. What a beautiful summary, Greg. Thank you so much. And we also have some other interesting papers in the mailbag today. We have an exchange of letters between Dr. Yang and Dr. O'Donoghue regarding the article “Long Term evolocumab in Patients with Established Atherosclerotic Cardiovascular Disease.” Dr Greg Hundley: Great Peder, and also Professor Perera has a Frontiers article entitled “Unloading the Left Ventricle in Venoarterial ECMO in Who, When and How?” and then finally there's a Research Letter from Professor Verma entitled “Prevalence of Diabetes and Cardiovascular Risk in the Middle East and Africa: The Primary results of the PACT-MEA Study.” Well Peder, how about we jump to that feature discussion? Dr Peder Myhre: Can't wait. Dr Greg Hundley: Welcome listeners to this feature discussion on April 18th and we have with us today Prakriti Gaba and Marc Sabatine from Brigham and Women's Hospital and our own associate editor, Dr. Amit Khera. Welcome everyone. Well Marc, we'll start with you. Can you describe for us some of the background information that really helps constitute the preparation of your study and what was the hypothesis that you wanted to address? Dr. Marc Sabatine: Yeah, thanks Greg and thanks for having us. So we've seen in a variety of epidemiologic cohorts the association between LDL cholesterol and the risk of adverse cardiovascular events like in Framingham Heart Study and UK Biobank. But in those cohorts, in these industrial societies, we don't have the benefit of lots of data in individuals with very low levels of LDL cholesterol and so we had the opportunity with the FOURIER study that was the randomized comparison of evolocumab PCSK9 inhibitor versus placebo to get patients down to extremely low levels of LDL cholesterol and evolocumab. We were able to get individuals down to about 30 mg/dL. And so in addition to all the studies we've done showing the comparison of evolocumab to placebo, we also then had the chance to use FOURIER, and as you'll hear from PK, FOURIER-OLE, the open-label extension, as a cohort to then examine patients' new baseline, if you will, their new achieved LDL cholesterol and then it's association not only with cardiovascular events but safety events. And so the hypothesis is that there would be a relationship with the lower the LDL cholesterol, the lower the risk of cardiovascular events and we wanted to explore how far down that went. And then the second one for safety would be that there wouldn't be any association between low levels of LDL cholesterol and a variety of safety outcomes that rightly or wrongly people have ascribed to low levels of LDL cholesterol. Dr Greg Hundley: Thanks so much, Marc. Well listeners, now we're going to turn to PK, the first author, on this very interesting paper and PK, Marc mentioned to us the FOURIER-OLE study. Maybe describe for us here your study design and then what specifically was your study population? Dr. Prakriti Gaba (PK): Yeah, definitely. Thanks so much for the introduction. So the study population included 27,564 patients with stable atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease and LDL cholesterol levels that were greater than or equal to 70 mg/dL or non-HDL cholesterol greater than or equal to a 100 mg/dL on statin therapy. The patients who then went on to the FOURIER-OLE or the open-label extension part of the trial consisted of about 6,635 patients. And so in this study we essentially evaluated the combination of those populations in 2 separate analyses. We then categorized patients according to 6 pre-specified bins based on their achieved LDL cholesterol levels at designated time points and those ranged from LDL levels of less than 20 mg/dL all the way up to 100 mg/dL. And then we looked at their baseline characteristics and evaluated the cardiovascular and safety outcomes that Dr. Sabatine mentioned earlier. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice PK. Well we've got a great listening audience today and they're anxious to hear your study results, so can you share those with us please? Dr. Prakriti Gaba (PK): Definitely. So over the course of more than 77,000 patient years of follow-up, we found that there was a monotonic relationship between achieving lower LDL cholesterol levels down to very low levels of less than 20 mg/dL and a lower annualized risk of the primary efficacy endpoint, which was a composite of 5 individual endpoints. We also found that there was a similar relationship observed between lower LDL achieved, LDL cholesterol levels and a lower annualized risk of the secondary efficacy endpoint, and then when we looked at safety, there were actually no clear monotonic trends between lower achieved LDL levels and the risk of any of the 8 adverse events and these included things like serious adverse events, hemorrhagic stroke or muscle related events. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice PK and I'm sure our listeners are wanting to know, did you find any discrepancy in your results based on either age or gender? Dr. Prakriti Gaba (PK): That's an excellent question, and we did look at age and gender throughout. I think across the board the results were pretty consistent, but additional subanalyses will further address this question. Dr Greg Hundley: Very good. Well listeners now we're going to turn to one of our associate editors, Dr. Amit Khera, who has helped move this article through the process of evaluation with the editorial team. Amit, you have many papers come across your desk, what attracted you to this paper and then how do we put this study's results really in the context of other studies that have sought to dramatically lower LDL cholesterol? Dr. Amit Khera: Well first thanks a lot Greg for allowing me to participate today. I want to congratulate Drs. Gaba and Sabatine on a fantastic paper and the minute I saw it, and you know can tell when you've done this for a while what's a great paper, and this one certainly is and we work closely with them to try to make it better and enhance the analyses and as a group, I think we achieved that. I was fortunate to write an accompanying editorial that you'll see. So I got to take a pretty deep dive in this paper and I want to just talk about sort of what's important here, why is this important, and I think as Dr. Gaba mentioned, there's two sides to this. There's the efficacy side where you talk about LDL lowering and getting to very low levels. Now mind you, they got to, what I call, ultra low levels, even explored for a down to a median of 7 mg/dL, so really, really low. And first I think what our listeners need to know when we look at guidelines, these numbers of 70 or 55, these are completely arbitrary and they're based on what was observed in clinical trials, what was achieved in high intensity versus moderate intensity statins in IMPROVE-IT. There's no biology behind that, and I think what this study does is reminds us there is no biology behind how low we need to go. This group previously published their shorter-term data approximately 2 years with this construct of lower is better and I think that's fine, but people worry, particularly on the safety side about extension, and we'll get to that in a minute, so where this fits is it gives us even more reassurance that lower is better, reminds us there's no biologic basis of that even down to very low levels. And so what does that mean? I think that comes back to guidelines. We have some discrepancy between European, ACC, Multisociety Guidelines that are around 55 and so from a guideline perspective, I think we'll see a little bit more enthusiasm about lower cut points or lower thresholds. And from a clinical standpoint, as a clinician it reminds me that when I see someone that's very high risk, there's no magic to achieving a number that if the risk is high, we need to be quite intensive and get their LDL down as low as possible and as safely as possible. I do want to also acknowledge, there's not, to your point about context, the IMPROVE-IT study also showed very low levels show additional efficacy and there's also a lot of other data, genetics and ecologic data supporting this. So this is... we look at Bayesian analysis that this is consistent that we're seeing across different platforms. I do want to talk about safety too, Greg. That's really important because honestly this is when it comes to patient level, the safety part of it. We as clinicians may have comfort with very low levels, but the safety is important. I also want to, just from a steady design, this is post-hoc, so those that achieve very low levels are different. You can see that in their table 1, but these investigators did lots of things. They did pretty extensive multi-variable analysis, they looked at time-dependent LDLs, they looked at it multiple different ways, but as mentioned, there really did not seem to be a safety signal. And this is where time matters. Safety in two years, interesting, but safety 5 to 8 years really offers us much more reassurance. So I think that's where this really comes in about that safety piece with the extended analysis. So again, I think from a guideline perspective, from a clinical perspective, there's so many implications from this paper and I really hope people take the time to take a deep dive and also put it in context, like you said, to the other literature where this is not standalone, but it's corroborating what we're seeing. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice, amit. Marc, I want to come back to you, just two quick questions thinking about the preparation of your study. One, did you sample cognition? One thing we hear about frequently in dramatic lowering of LDL cholesterol are questions around cognition, particularly in the elderly? Dr. Marc Sabatine: Yeah, it's a great question Greg. So first of all, in the FOURIER study itself, there was an embedded study called EBBINGHAUS that Bob Giugliano from our group led that actually did formal neurocognitive testing in individuals using basically a iPad-like test. We also collected the usual neurocognitive adverse events as part of safety collecting. So 2 ways, the general asking about any adverse events and then the specific neurocognitive testing. We had previously reported out the results of EBBINGHAUS that there wasn't any relationship between evolocumab and the low LDL cholesterol and the risk of any neurocognitive AEs. We just were able to recently do this OLE analysis over time for the major adverse cardiovascular events and for the general safety events including cognition, so all that looked good. As PK indicated, we're now digging into the EBBINGHAUS formal neurocognitive testing, which was also extended out. So stay tuned for those results. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice. And then eligibility, maybe just walk us through that really quickly. Patients that are going to be randomized to this form of therapy, were they already on high-dose statins? Who exactly did we randomize in this trial? Dr. Marc Sabatine: Yeah, so at the get-go, as PK indicated, these are patients with atherosclerotic cardiovascular disease, so they had a prior MI, prior stroke, symptomatic PAD. They were to be on an optimized lipid-lowering regimen, optimized statin therapy, so for close to 70%, that was a high-intensity statin. We had a small percentage on ezetimibe, but that's because we hadn't yet published the results of the IMPROVE-IT trial that Amit mentioned when we were enrolling in FOURIER, but it was a well-treated population on statin therapy. So these results would apply to your typical patient with ASCVD who's on a good statin regimen. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice. Well, listeners now we're going to go back to both of our authors and investigators, as well as Dr. Khera. PK we'll start with you. What do you see as the next study to really be performed in this sphere of research? Dr. Prakriti Gaba (PK): I think that's an excellent question. I think with the data presented here now we know that the lower the LDL, the lower the risk of adverse cardiovascular events and that having a low LDL is safe in the long term. I think moving forward, as Dr. Khera mentioned, there needs to be a shift of these recommendations into the guidelines. So I think additional studies confirming these findings is what we need, but we do have the evidence available. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice. And Marc? Dr. Marc Sabatine: Yeah, and I agree with PK of course. I think there's a couple things that we want to look at. We had looked in the parent FOURIER trial and found some groups who were higher risk, who seemed to have a bigger benefit early on, and those by and large were people who had a lot of athero. But as Amit indicated that the parent FOURIER trial was relatively short at about in two and a quarter years median follow up, and so now we have the benefit of an additional half decade of follow up in a subset of people and so now we're starting to look through and see the subgroups where we saw some differential benefit and this was a paper we published in circulation soon after we published the primary results of FOURIER. Now we have the ability to go through and look at those same subgroups and see what happens now with an additional 5 years. And so that'll be quite interesting, I think, to see how those groups play out now over time. I think as Amit indicated, time is critical. We know the benefit of lipid lowering really tends to grow with time. We saw that in FOURIER, we saw that in FOURIER-OLE and then as Amit indicated, I think for safety also it's now very reassuring, being able to go out to not two and a half years, but 5, 6, 7, 8 years of safety follow up. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice. Well, listeners we're next going to turn to Dr. Khera. I'm going to put him on the spot a little bit. I don't know if many of you know he's a cardiologist with expertise in primary prevention. So here we've really focused today, I think, on a very unique set of results in secondary prevention. Amit, as you think about studies to be performed in the future, is there a role for really lowering LDL cholesterol as a primary prevention target? Dr. Amit Khera: The short answer is absolutely. I think, to be fair, you can't necessarily directly extrapolate these results 'cause it's a secondary prevention population, but I think if we step back for a second, is there any reason I think this wouldn't work in primary prevention, there's not, and I think there's tons of genetic data, tons of other long-term data that suggests that lower is better than primary prevention. I think the challenge, as you know, is just from primary prevention is it's just about the number that you need to treat and primary prevention is pretty profound in terms of to lower events. So this is where the trade-off comes. I think even in their study, we do have to appreciate while lower is better, when you have very low levels and you're going to even lower, let's say when you go from in secondary prevention from 50 to 40, as much as that sounds valuable, that delta's pretty small and then the absolute risk reduction is still going to be pretty small for those individuals and that's only magnified in primary prevention. So the short answer is I have no reason to believe that lower is better is not applicable in primary prevention, but I do know that the cost and what entails to get there, you don't get as much return on investment. I do want to say one last thing though. We're talking about lower is better, and I know these investigators know this well, but it's not only just how low but how long and I think that's where primary prevention about to go to clinic and I play the long game for primary prevention that we know we've magnified these benefits over the long term and even a little bit early in life can pay off long dividends. So that's how I look at it. Dr Greg Hundley: Very nice. Well, listeners we want to thank Dr. Prakriti Gaba, Dr. Marc Sabatine, both from Brigham and Women's Hospital and also our own associate editor, Dr. Amit Khera from University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center for bringing us this study involving patients with arteriosclerotic cardiovascular disease indicating that long-term achievement of lower LDL cholesterol levels down to values less than 20 mg/dL was associated with a lower risk of cardiovascular outcomes and not and not an increase in the risk of significant safety related events. Well, on behalf of Peder, Carolyn and myself, we want to wish you a great week and we will catch you next week on the run. Dr. Greg Hundley: This program is copyright of the American Heart Association 2023. The opinions expressed by speakers in this podcast are their own and not necessarily those of the editors or of the American Heart Association. For more, please visit ahajournals.org.

Discussions about education tend to focus on those who do the teaching. Let's not ignore, however, the abundant opportunities for improvement possible at the point of learning. Amy and Mike invited educator Patrice Bain to explain the importance of feedback-driven metacognition. What are five things you will learn in this episode? Why doesn't study time always equate to commensurate learning? How can we discriminate between what we know and what we still need to learn? How are retrieval, spacing, and metacognition connected? Who is ultimately responsible for learning outcomes? How can teachers and learners both harness feedback-driven metacognition? MEET OUR GUEST Patrice M. Bain, Ed.S., is a veteran K–12 educator, speaker and author. As a finalist for Illinois Teacher of the Year and a Fulbright Scholar in Russia, she has been featured in national and international podcasts, webinars, presentations and popular press, including NOVA and Scientific American. In addition to Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning, she also co-authored an essential practice guide for educators, Organizing Instruction and Study to Improve Student Learning, in collaboration with the Institute of Education Sciences (IES).  Bain's latest book A Parent's Guide to Powerful Teaching reinforces the “Teaching Triangle'' of student, parent, and teacher collaboration. Patrice was one of two U.S. teachers on the working task group: Neuromyths vs. Neurotruths, sponsored by (IES) and the National Commission of Educational Research (NCER). In addition, she was a contributor to the United Nations UNESCO ISEE (International Science and Evidence-based Education) Assessment, outlining the vision for world education by 2030.  Find Patrice at www.patricebain.com. LINKS Powerful Teaching: Unleash the Science of Learning A Parent's Guide to Powerful Teaching www.powerfulteaching.org  www.retrievalpractice.org  Ebbinghaus's Forgetting Curve RELATED EPISODES THE SCIENCE OF MEMORY MAKING LEARNING SCIENCE WORK FOR YOU HOW TO TEACH STUDENTS TO STUDY EFFECTIVELY ABOUT THIS PODCAST Tests and the Rest is THE college admissions industry podcast. Explore all of our episodes on the show page. ABOUT YOUR HOSTS Mike Bergin is the president of Chariot Learning and founder of TestBright. Amy Seeley is the president of Seeley Test Pros. If you're interested in working with Mike and/or Amy for test preparation, training, or consulting, feel free to get in touch through our contact page.

Es ist Stoff für eine Vielzahl erfolgreicher Filme, doch wie sieht eigentlich die Realität von Kunstdiebstahl aus? Was, wenn Kunstwerke verschollen, gestohlen und nicht mehr auffindbar werden? Wie kann ich mich als Sammler:in und auch Künstler:in schützen und entsprechend vorsorgen? Amelie Ebbinghaus ist Leiterin von The Art Loss Register mit Sitz in London. Durch ihre Arbeit und durch ein großes Verzeichnis werden verschollene Werke wieder auffindbar. Mehr zum Amelie: Instagram: @artlossregisterLinkedIn: Amelie EbbinghausHomepage: The Art Loss Register................................................Mehr zum Podcast:Instagram: @wegederkunstMail: info@wegederkunst.comMehr über Christian: Instagram: @christian_h_rotherInstagram: @smart_collectorsTwitter: @CAHHROTHER Website: www.smart-collectors.comMail: info@smart-collectors.comBy the way! We have also a great english podcast. For more English art content just listen to our "Path of Art" podcast. Your perfect listen tool for your art life with episodes every second Thursday. Just click here!

On episode 106 of Welcome To The Winners Circle, Derek Pang and co-host Bianca Léger interview Michael Ebbinghouse (www.austinsoulcoach.com; IG: @michael_ebb_and_flow) a soul worker, psychotherapist, ecopsychologist who's completed his master's in clinical psychology at the California Institute of Integral Studies. He also has attained his MS Medical Science. He is committed to helping purpose-driven individuals nurture an intimidate relationship with Soul so they can lead from wholeness.  Here are some of the subjects we touched on: - what he loves about his world - his personal mission & embracing who he is - winning as a transcendence of the win/loss game - embracing the triumphs and failure - alchemizing the process - celebrating some of his wins  - recognizing the powers of Nature - diving in the unseen/unconscious - leaving the ''known world'' and studying in institutions - dealing with depression, suicidal ideations and masochism - the illusion of separateness - expanding consciousness - acting upon intuition and stepping into the unknown - experiences with LSD and DMT - what is Soul? - relating to our dreams and good sleep hygiene - his biggest life lessons this far I hope you guys enjoy this podcast as much as we did. We are all on the same path, The Hero's Journey, just at different points along the way. Thank you so much for listening! Connect with us on Instagram: WTTWC Podcast: @wttwc Derek Pang - @pangyoga Bianca Léger - @bee.leger https://www.welcometothewinnerscircle.com

For some people, the entrepreneurial path seems like the most obvious. Others fall into it after a long time of trying out other things. Other people again actually never start a company but have so much operational talent and domain knowledge that they've learned throughout their career, that they still end up as the spearhead of the company. Karin Ebbinghaus is one of those last people. For the majority of her career, she worked in the legal field, becoming an expert in mergers and acquisitions, to later leverage that knowledge as an Investment Manager at a GreenTech fund. This is where she eventually came across Elonroad ... Last episode:If you enjoyed this episode, why not recommend it to a friend?Homepage: https://www.deeptechstories.ioPodcast Twitter: https://twitter.com/deeptechpodMy Twitter: https://twitter.com/sturmerphLinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/deeptechstories Music by Nathaniel Drew x Tom Fox:https://www.nathanieldrew.com/https://tfbeats.com/Design by Amadeus Schwed:https://elementsofpuremotion.com/This podcast uses the following third-party services for analysis: Chartable - https://chartable.com/privacy

Earlier this year, the European Union approved ending the sale of vehicles with internal combustion engines by 2035 to reach the carbon emission targets by 2050. This means, from 2035 on, you will only be able to buy electric vehicles. And while EVs have seen an impressive leap in reach and accessibility in the last decade, there are still many things to buff out to allow for widespread adoption.High on the list of those issues are a lacking charging infrastructure, reach and grid overloading when too many people want to charge their cars simultaneously. One way could be electric roads, where the car is being charged while driving. With such a solution, one would increase reach, reduce necessary battery size and with that reduce the entry price for new car owners. And on top of that, the maths check out that on lowering grid load.However, Karin Ebbinghaus, CEO of Elonroad sees an additional reason to work on their contact-based electric roads: Electric roads would make life much easier, without the necessary hassle of plugging in your car.Timestamps:0:00 Intro2:05 What is restricting full electrical vehicle adoption?2:37 The motivation behind Elonroad4:25 Contact vs. Induction6:27 Benefits and problems of electrical roads8:49 Rasons why car manufacturers haven't adopted as quickly10:35 How to make electric roads reliable13:14 Core technology behind Elonroad14:45 Electric roads for commercial operators15:47 Current trial tracks and figuring out where to place the electric roads16:55 Impact of electric roads on truckers18:00 Which solution will come out on top?21:51 What does Elonroad currently focus on?24:25 Disruption vs. the traditional way of doing things26:34 OutroIf you enjoyed this episode, why not recommend it to a friend?Homepage: https://www.deeptechstories.ioPodcast Twitter: https://twitter.com/deeptechpodMy Twitter: https://twitter.com/sturmerphLinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/company/deeptechstories Music by Nathaniel Drew x Tom Fox:https://www.nathanieldrew.com/https://tfbeats.com/Design by Amadeus Schwed:https://elementsofpuremotion.com/This podcast uses the following third-party services for analysis: Chartable - https://chartable.com/privacy

How does memory really work with learning? Are there ways we can learn things efficiently for the long term, without mixing up similar ideas? In Episode 3 of The Pedagogue-cast we see if the research literature has any answers.For teachers at all stages of their career and lovers of learning, The Pedagogue-cast is a space to dive into all things weird and wonderful about classroom pedagogy. Please rate and subscribe so you're the first to know when our next episode drops.You can hear more of Staś over at his podcast, Education Bookcast or learn more here.The Pedagogue-cast is proudly powered by Maths PathwayShow notes:“Necessary conditions of learning” - Ference Marton“Saxon Math”  - Wikipedia page"Bruner's Spiral Curriculum – The 3 Key Principles" - Chris Drew"Replication and Analysis of Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve" - Jaap M. J. Murre and Joeri Dros"A New Theory of Disuse and an old theory of Stimulus Fluctuation" - Elizabeth Bjotk and Robert A. Bjotk (sometimes referred to as the “new” Theory of Disuse)

Daisy Christodoulou is an expert in learning theory who has focused her career on building and evangelizing research-based practice. In this episode, Sean and Daisy talk about educational myths in the areas of learning styles, teaching knowledge vs. skills, project-based learning, rubrics, studying techniques, and more. This is a long one but trust us: Daisy is worth it. Links and further reading: Sean's review of Teachers vs. Tech. Daisy's website, which has all the details of her books as well as links to purchase them, and her Twitter profile. The No More Marking website has many details about Comparative Judgement. Anki spaced repetition software (with links to Win, Mac, Linux, iOS, and Android versions) and Daisy's blog post about Anki. Ebbinghaus' Forgetting Curve. Have a great idea for a podcast topic? You can find Sean on Twitter, TikTok, Instagram, LinkedIn, or by e-mail at seandc@thrivedx.com. Reach out and share what matters to you. And finally:

Remembering new vocabulary so that you can use it when you speak is one of the  hardest things about learning a language. In this episode, I interview Paul, a learner from Slovakia, who uses a special method for remembering new vocabulary. Highlights from this episode are:- some of the things he does differently to get results- the importance of a 'whole sentence' method (and learning 'fluency phrases')- the spaced repetition method, and the system he uses- the effect of the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve - how long the method takes him every dayFor more help getting an advanced English vocabulary, check out my course "Advanced English Vocabulary In 30 Days". You also get a special discount:https://smartenglishcoach.com/vocabularySubscribe to the podcastNever miss an episode! Get free weekly coaching tips here.

Tomado de El Libro de la Psicología (Ed. DK).

Brian McGowan PhD, FACEP planned to be the team orthopedic surgeon for Notre Dame football. After a month of working in an orthopedic rehab hospital when he was in college, he realized that he didn't know what he wanted to be when he grew up, but it wasn't going to be a physician. Lucky then for us. Brian has worked in academic, industry, and is co-founder of ArcheMedX. But the places he's been do not mark who Brian is. It's his passion for behavioral science, learning science, and research into medical education methodology that make him inimitable in the field of continuing education for health professionals.Join us for a conversation about what continuing education practitioners can do to help learners think more efficiently and effectively. Points of interest include: ✔️ Which root skills are most important for CME storytellers ✔️ What the Ebbinghaus experiment is in learning science ✔️ How physical environments affect learning ✔️ Brian's love for the three-slide-per-page print option for PowerPoints Resources Brian's reading list Alter A. Drunk Tank Pink and Other Unexpected Forces that Shape How We Think, Feel, and Behave. NY: Penguin, 2013. McGowan B. #SocialQI: Simple Solutions for Improving Your Healthcare. 2012. Milkman KL, et al. Megastudies improve the impact of applied behavioral science. Nature. 2021;600:478-483. Murre JMJ, Dros J. Replication and analysis of Ebbinghaus' forgetting curve. PLOS One. 2015; 10(7): e0120644. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0120644Roediger HL, III. Remembering Ebbinghaus. Cont Psych. 1985;30(7):519-523.Connect with BrianArcheMedXTwitter LinkedInemail: brian@archemedx.comConnect with AlexTwitterLinkedIn email: alex@alexhowson.com  

Karin Ebbinghaus (CEO at Elonroad)We are talking about:-The background of the ElonRoad?-How do you create the charge stations?-How does the road system that auto charges all types of electric vehicles when driving?-Is it easy to get this system in our cities? do the urban planners understand what you want? is there a space for your system?This episode is in collaboration with H22. Read more here https://h22.se/en/Enjoy your listening. Let's connect and talk further about this episodeMustafa Sherif LinkedinKeep Up the Good Work. Keep Loving Cities❤️️.Follow Urbanistica and let's get in touch:ClubhouseInstagramFacebookYoutube channelThanks to Urbanistica Podcast partner AFRY.AFRY is an international engineering and design company providing sustainable solutions in the fields of energy, industry, and infrastructure. Read more about AFRY https://afry.com/enVisit Mustafasherif.com for collaborations and nominations. See acast.com/privacy for privacy and opt-out information.

Från legoprojekt till bilbanor i naturlig storlek – Lundabolaget Elonroad har gjort en raketresa i sin satsning på att elektrifiera de svenska vägarna. Med laddningsskenor i marken och 5G-teknik vill man bygga bort batteristressen och bidra till en fossilfri fordonsflotta. I det här avsnittet av Digitala influencer-podden berättar vd Karin Ebbinghaus om en företagsidé som föddes i snömodden på en väg i Skåne och om att strömma el som man strömmar musik, i en framtid där både vägen och bilen är uppkopplade.

What is sophrology? I'd never even heard of it so joining me to explain is Annette Ebbinghaus who is a globally sought after mental fitness coach, master sophrologist, mentor and speaker. She specializes in helping adolescents transform anxious energy into calm confidence through her bespoke beChill programs. She works with professionals, individuals and athletes who seek better balance and performance in their lives. Her main areas of focus are stress and sleep management, anxiety, self-development and high performance. She's such an interesting lady and I loved talking with her.Annette's website is https://www.trulybalance.comLinked In profile is https://www.linkedin.com/today/author/annetteebbinghaus@AEbbinghaus on Twitter Instagram is https://www.instagram.com/trulybalanceFacebook https://www.facebook.com/trulybalanceFollow misterkindness_pod https://www.instagram.com/misterkindness_pod on Instagram and Mis ter Kindness on Facebook https://www.facebook.com/njohn.kindness.9onhttps://www.misterkindness.com

Mit Design Thinking, Spieltheorie und „radikaler Transparenz“ der Regierung belebt Digitalministerin Audrey Tang Taiwans Zivilgesellschaft und nutzt dabei eine ganze Bandbreite technischer Möglichkeiten. In Deutschland tut man sich bis heute schwer im konstruktiven Umgang mit Digitalität. Inwiefern kann Taiwan als Wegweiser in in eine digitale Zukunft dienen – für Deutschland und die Weltgemeinschaft allgemein?  Als Repräsentant der kritischen Einstellung gegenüber digitalen Entwicklungen analysieren wir in dieser Folge die Position des Philosophen Byung-Chul Han, um zu diskutieren, inwiefern Audrey Tangs Denken hier entgegengesetzt werden oder wo sich die augenscheinlich konträren Haltungen ergänzen können. Von welchen (philosophischen) Gedanken ist Audrey Tang beeinflusst? Wie zeigt sich dies in ihrer Regierungsarbeit? Warum kann Taiwan als ein Vorbild digitaler Demokratie dienen? Aus Berlin (Lisanne) und Taipeh (Monika) gehen wir diesen Fragen im heutigen Beitrag nach, der Teil eines Wettbewerbs zum Thema „ Warum ist Taiwan für die Weltgemeinschaft wichtig?“ in Zusammenarbeit mit dem Taipei Wirtschafts- und Kulturbüro ist, und freuen uns über konstruktive Kritik und Rückmeldungen. Quellen: Von und über Byung-Chul Han: HAN, Byung-Chul: „Müdigkeitsgesellschaft“, Berlin 2010. HAN, Byung-Chul: „Transparenzgesellschaft“ Berlin 20 12. HAN, Byung-Chul: „Psychopolitik – Neoliberalismus und die neuen Machttechniken“, Frankfurt 2014. HABERL, Tobias: „Wir steuern auf eine Katastrophe zu“, in: Süddeutsche Zeitung Magazin vom14.12.2012,  https://sz-magazin.sueddeutsche.de/gesellschaft-leben/wir-steuern-auf-eine-katastrophe-zu-79408. LINK, Oliver: „Philosoph Byung-Chul Han im Interview. Nur eine Maschine ist transparent“, brand eins 07/2011, https://www.brandeins.de/magazine/brand-eins-wirtschaftsmagazin/2011/transparenz/nur-eine-maschine-ist-transparent. EBBINGHAUS, Uwe: „Byung-Chul Han: „TRANSPARENZGESELLSCHAFT“. Durchsicht ist nicht mit Einsicht zu verwechseln“, in: FAZ.net vom 27.03.2012, 16:30 Uhr, https://www.faz.net/aktuell/feuilleton/buecher/rezensionen/sachbuch/byung-chul-han-transparenzgesellschaft-durchsicht-ist-nicht-mit-einsicht-zu-verwechseln-11699427.html. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Byung-Chul_Han Von und über Audrey Tang: KALKHOF, Maximilian: „Vom Hacker zur Ministerin“, in: Zeit online vom 30.03.2017, https://www.zeit.de/2017/14/audrey-tang-taiwan-digitalministerin-china-emanzipation/komplettansicht?utm_referrer=https%3A%2F%2Fpadlet.com%2F QIU, Mei-Zhen, ZHENG, Zhong-Lan: „Audrey Tang: Wie ich die Freiheit und Zukunft sehe“ 《唐鳳:我所看待的自由與未來》, Commonwealth Education Media 2020. STRITTMATTER, Kai: "Ich gebe keine Befehle. Ich nehme keine Befehle an", in: Süddeutsche Zeitung vom 1.6.2019, https://www.sueddeutsche.de/digital/cyberministerin-audrey-tang-taiwan-1.4468006?reduced=true TANG, Audrey bei The Taiwan Take: “The Life & Times of Audrey Tang (Digital Minister of Taiwan), Ghost Island Media vom 2.3.21, https://open.spotify.com/episode/5d8DjFU4peMr44U2G9s3Sa?go=1&sp_cid=ce1f114a-f96a-43c0-b57f-52b9aec3540c&utm_source=embed_player_p&utm_medium=desktop&nd=1 TANG, Audrey bei atlasmovement.org am 24.09.2020, https://ur-pk.facebook.com/atlasmovement/videos/audrey-tang-taiwans-digital-minister/249714756389396/ TANG, Audrey, HUANG, Yaqi: „Audrey Tang – 15 Schlüsselworte“ 《唐鳳 15個關鍵詞》, Businessweekly 2021. VOLLMER, Jan: „Von der Hackerin zur Digitalministerin: So löst Audrey Tang Systemfehler der Politik“, in: t3n digital pioneers vom 16.03.2020, 07:22 Uhr, https://t3n.de/magazin/von-der-hackerin-zur-so-loest-der-248958/. https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Audrey_Tang Weiteres: STRITTMATTER, Kai: „Die Neuerfindung der Diktatur: Wie China den digitalen Überwachungsstaat aufbaut und uns damit herausfordert“, Piper 2018.  

Karin Ebbinghaus är vd på Elonroad, en svensk startup som vill elektrifiera vägnätet med hjälp av tekniken bakom barndomens bilbanor. Kanske har alla bilar i framtiden en nedfällbar metallskena som kan ladda batteriet på motorvägen – så att vi faktiskt kan köra längre ju mer vi kör? Vi träffade Karin på Techarenan Summit i Stockholm för att prata om den här spännande utvecklingen. Programledare: Christian von Essen // Inspelat på Clarion Hotel i Stockholm. // Läs mer på http://www.hejaframtiden.se och beställ nya boken Nu fattar jag med kompisrabatt!

Der Hausarzt Heinz Ebbinghaus arbeitet in Soest, einer kleinen Stadt mit rund 50.000 Einwohnern im südlichen Westfalen. Wie hat er die Zeit im Lockdown erlebt und welche Herausforderungen mussten er und sein Team beim Impfen in der Praxis bewältigen? Darum geht‘s in dieser Folge. Im Juli haben wir Heinz Ebbinghaus bei seiner Arbeit begleitet und mit Krankenschwester Edith Liebscher gesprochen, die das Organisieren der Impftermine viel Geduld gekostet hat.

In this episode we finish talking about the ebbinghaus forgetting curve and a little bit about why learning and staying flexible in learning is useful in these times. Let's Jump On In! --- This episode is sponsored by · Anchor: The easiest way to make a podcast. https://anchor.fm/app Support this podcast: https://anchor.fm/joseph-guzman-ma/support

In this episode we begin talking about the ebbinghaus forgetting curve. Don't know what it is? That's okay! Let's talk about it! --- This episode is sponsored by · Anchor: The easiest way to make a podcast. https://anchor.fm/app Support this podcast: https://anchor.fm/joseph-guzman-ma/support

Kaum gelernt und schon wieder vegessen! Geht es Dir manchmal auch so? Das ist nicht weiter verwunderlich, zumindest dann nicht, wenn man die sogenannte Ebbinghaus'sche Vergessenskurve kennt. Denn diese besagt, dass wir langfristig lediglich 15% des Gelernten behalten.

Okay so a bit of self indulgence for you in this episode. I was invited by a previous guest and fan of the podcast, Rupert Honeywood of Business Growth Bureau to appear on his weekly live stream titled ‘Look Forward Thursdays'. This is my first speaking event since the start of the pandemic, so I said yes of course. Another opportunity to talk about my current passion, storytelling. We came up with a jazzy title ‘Your brain is wired for stories and how to implement this in your business'. We discussed the following 5 topics.1. How storytelling affects your brain 2. Research on the use of visuals 3. The Ebbinghaus forgetting curve 4. How you experience the Hero's Journey 5. How to implement this in your business from tomorrowNow of course we discuss some visuals that I shared, which you can't see on an audio podcast but if you head over to the show notes you will be able to see them all there for downloading. Anyway I hope you will find it useful and of course reach out if you have any questions at all. Enjoy!Look Forward Thursdays: https://businessgrowthbureau.tv/event1/Storytelling Workshop: https://www.stayingaliveuk.com/share-your-storyLinkedIn Rupert Honywood: https://www.linkedin.com/in/rupert-honywoodLinkedIn Michael de Groot: https://www.linkedin.com/in/stayingaliveuk

Carolyn Ebbinghaus talks about how you can win with power in Pickleball even at the professional level. She also mentions an unusual method of tournament preparation that is important to her game.

Shawnna Sumaoang: Hi, welcome to the Sales Enablement PRO podcast. I am Shawnna Sumaoang. Sales enablement is a constantly evolving space and we’re here to help professionals stay up to date on the latest trends and best practices so that they can be more effective in their jobs. As we get ready to close out the year, we want to spend some time reflecting on the top expertise that was shared with us this year. We’re kicking off a series of podcasts on lessons learned across key areas of sales enablement. This week, we’re diving into the best expertise on training from 2020. To start, we’re going to hear from some of our experts on best practices for onboarding and training frameworks. Mike Rioux: We give you your first six months to ramp to productivity. So, no quota your first six months. All we want you focusing on is getting up to speed on what we sell and how we sell it. So, the first starts day one, you figure out where the washrooms are, and we get you your pre-work. So, pre-work for our sales bootcamp and this includes, technical foundations, database fundamentals, sales fundamentals, sales process introduction. And you do some pre-work you meet with a solutions architect buddy. So, a solutions architect is basically a technical seller, a salesperson’s counterpart. So, we pair you up with them, you meet with them and you dive really deep into the technology. They help you close any gaps that you have with the pre-work. You do a final exam. You jump into bootcamp. So, bootcamp is a live intense weeklong sales training. So, you’ll get a really good understanding for the value that we provide as a company and how we can go sell this product and our products and our services to our customers. Then once you graduate boot camp, which happens in and around the one month, you basically get out into the field, you start having some conversations with your customers, some nice conversations, some not so nice conversations, and you gain a lot of contexts. You do a lot of contextual learning. But we don’t just kind of throw you out there. We have a pretty prescriptive post-bootcamp, self-paced learning track. We’ll call it where we sprinkle in different bits of information and knowledge that you need at the right time. And after you get all that great contextual learning, we’re going to bring you back for another in-person or live training called advanced sales training, where we dive deeper into the technology, deeper into the modern data architectures, deeper into our sales process. And then after advanced sales training, you are ramped. Marie-Louise Dalsgaard: Another way that we set them up for success is to set really high expectations. The days of our bootcamp are not easy. It ends with a really strong power hour where they have to call their first clients after four days, and that’s a really high expectation that we have of them, and they all succeed, and they all do really well. But making sure that we’re not sort of the soft spot, and then they come out on the other side and they get a completely different experience. We are a fast-paced company, so things need to move fast, and we show that during the onboarding. Then I think it’s about not seeing onboarding as a one week kind of thing, and then sales enablement can brush their hands and say, “bye, have fun.” We have these four core areas that we are focusing on and they kind of are a continuous cycle of things that happen for the people who join Pleo. So yes, we host a bootcamp initially to immerse them into our company, and then we focus on ramping them over a course of three to four months where they really get weekly new learnings that they need to take in to master their experience. Then there becomes a time where we focus on mastery, and that’s really where we try and train them to become the next promotion level that they get. So really making sure that we’re not just sort of setting them up for success in the first couple of weeks, and then they’re forgetting about us, but we’re constantly with them throughout their whole career in Pleo. SS: It is important for onboarding and training to come with a really solid foundational knowledge around what it takes for adults to learn. And so, we’ve got some great tips on adult learning from some of our experts from this year. April Terry: With children, children are empty shelves, they are sponges, they are empty bookshelves just waiting to be filled. And for the most part, they look to a teacher or a parent and they immediately trust what’s coming out of their mouth. They don’t have as much to contradict, right? They’re empty bookshelves, they’re just open vessels waiting to learn everything about the world. In contrast, adults are filled bookshelves. When you present information to an adult, they’re kind of choosing what to take in because they have so many books and information on their shelves already. And the approaches that you have to take with an adult versus with a child is it’s very important that you understand maybe some pre-knowledge, or you understand where an adult is coming from, what existing knowledge do they have and how is the new information that I’m going to share, maybe connect with that existing knowledge? Again, we’ve got a lot of books on our bookshelves, so if we’re able to tie this new piece of information is going to fit perfectly on that bookshelf, we’re able to get people to retain and be open for that information Julie Dirksen: So, I look at if it is a knowledge gap, what’s going to help people. Sometimes that is the gap between where somebody is and where they need to be. If you have a very experienced salesperson who totally knows their product line and all you’ve got are a few updates to that product line, then knowledge is all they need. They just need to know what those updates are. They’ll be able to take that knowledge and go and use it. But if you’ve got an inexperienced salesperson who doesn’t know much about the product line at all, just handing them those facts probably isn’t going to be enough to help them adequately apply those in the workplace. Sometimes it’s a knowledge gap, but sometimes it’s more than a knowledge gap and a lot of training unfortunately gets treated as we just need to tell people the thing and then they’ll do something differently. I also look at things like procedural gaps, where we have a really defined rule set. So, the procedure for filling out a sales report or the procedures for doing an order or something like that might be really specific. And we have a nice set of rules and we know exactly what correct performance looks like. But then there are also skills gaps. Skills have one really simple thing. Is it reasonable to think that somebody can be proficient without practice? For example, could you call somebody up and explain it to him over the phone? Well, procedural stuff, maybe you could just talk them through the steps, right? But with skills, you’re never going to call somebody up and explain golf to them over the phone, and then expect them to be able to go out and play golf. So, anything where we really know that practice is going to be important in order for somebody to get good at something, that’s what I consider to be a skills gap and skills are particularly important because then the answer is sort of built right into the question of what do we need to do for these people? Well, we need to give them opportunities for practice and figure out how they’re going to get feedback on their performance. SS: Once a solid framework is established. It’s important to move on to flawless execution of tactical details. In these quotes, we’re going to hear about some of the tactical elements of successfully pulling off training. Murt Hussain: I think there are two main principles that I personally really strive and implement when it comes to our onboarding and training. Number one is teaching the important topics in five different ways. So, I understand people learn in different ways. My background is in art, so I’m a very visual learner, but there are people who might learn better in a classroom setting. They might learn through an LMS course. They might learn through a mentor, right? So I have ways to implement the “have-to-know” topics in five different ways. This can be through an LMS course, through a classroom-style discussion. I create podcast episodes internally, so maybe a podcast episode while they’re going for a run or working out. We do it through games, we do it through guest presenters, through BDR mentors, through guest speakers. With these topics, I’ve really gotten a lot of love through five different ways and hope it’s helping these new reps understand and hone in on the topics in different channels. Evangeline Earl: I think another thing that sales enablement practitioners can keep in mind is the timing of the different training sessions that you’re teaching. So, for example, are you teaching internal processes right at 8:00 a.m.? Or are you teaching really technical product training sessions right after lunch? Because that’s definitely something that we are very conscious of at Granite is really just looking into the timing of those different training sessions that we’re teaching and figuring out when best to capture the sales rep’s attention. SS: It’s absolutely critical as you’re designing onboarding and training initiatives that you’re doing so with the learner in mind. And so instructional design and a solid understanding of how best practices apply there are also critical. Alyssa Clark: I really see learning as a human-based brain pattern thinking approach that we need to lean into fully and understand. And I think at its core where we need to arrive at as a discipline is really making sure when we’re designing a piece of content as a learning professional, is that the right solution, right? Is content king? I would probably argue that not anymore. I think content is context. And again, by using design thinking, what we’re able to do is shift the approach from quantity and high consumption of collateral to truly what is the right solution to support the performance outcome. So, absolutely sometimes the answer is content and through design thinking, we’re able to arrive at that and truly have a higher lift content experience for the learner Matt Sustaita: The biggest thing to really consider is getting into that analysis or that discovery phase and doing a really good job. I think the challenge that I see a lot of companies, and even in my own organization, it could be a challenge where you see a potential problem or you think there’s a solution that’s going to solve for and you just go, and you start building. But in reality, just like any good salesperson you want to make sure you do a really good discovery to really identify what it is that businesses are struggling with, where do they really need help? On my team, something that I really pushed back on is, if you get a request for a problem like negotiation or discovery questions, or what have you, any different aspects of training that salespeople might need, I really like to slow down the person asking for, and really identify where are the real problems? What are they doing today? What do we actually want them to do, what barriers are in the way and stopping them from actually being able to perform an act the way that we want, and then what do we want them to do at the very end of this training? What behaviors do we want to see changed? Because putting people in front of content is great and all, but what are you really measuring? Where’s that really going at the end of the day? So that’s something that I really slow my team down on. So, before we even start designing or start rolling out a solution, really understanding the specific problem we’re targeting SS: It’s important to ensure that you’re measuring the impact of your onboarding and training initiatives throughout the year. We have some advice on how best to go about measuring these and optimizing them over time. Anna Cockell: It really depends on the training and what we’re looking at. So, for example, I’m going to go back to that negotiation training. What I’m interested in there is I’m looking at our discount percentages before and after the training. I’m going to be looking at our average transaction size, etc. And for onboarding, which is a little bit different, I’m going to be looking at more of the speed to ramp and whether or not the sales reps are able to hit their quota within a certain period of time, and how quickly that happens. So, the metrics for me aren’t consistent across the board, across every single training. We’re going to probably pull different metrics for whatever the topic really is. But the importance really is to make sure that when you identify what metrics you want to be tracking, all the stakeholders agree to what those are. And then secondarily, that you actually do track those and are able to report back on them. Mark Eckstein: How do we know if a new hire learned what we taught them and can effectively actually apply that knowledge and skills? And then the second part are the experience feedback loops. So, these ensure that new hires are actually enjoying the experience of the onboarding program itself and if there is anything that we can do as program administrators to further improve it, that we’re hearing about it basically near real-time, you can fix it accordingly before the next new hire cohort starts. And for us, every cohort is about every two weeks. So, it’s a constant stream of new hires coming through the organization and therefore this constant iteration within these programs to rebuild it little by little and tweak it before the next one comes. SS: Even after the onboarding and training programs conclude it’s important to put in reinforcement so that your attendees retain the information that was learned. Here are some great tips on improving retention. Robert Koehler: I think it’s really important that you take a long-term approach is that it gets more people involved in sustaining the program. The research that I’ve read shows that the most important success factor in sales performance improvement is frontline sales manager involvement during and after a training event. And if you only have a one-time event, you don’t get that reinforcement from the frontline sales managers who were really a key lever in providing lasting behavior change in sales organizations. Aisha Wallace-Wyche: I tend to think application is a critical component of any training program. You’ve got to make sure there is an opportunity for practice and application of new skills learned. Repetition is also key, so I liken it to a drip marketing campaign, so when I think about training, I tend to think of it as a drip campaign, whereby you may have an initial training, but then beyond that consider how you’ll deploy refresher or follow-up trainings that follow a certain cadence throughout the year so that you’re constantly re-engaging on that topic matter with the teams. I think probably the most important is ensuring commercial leadership is equipped to coach to these new skills. When you’re deploying a training program, you definitely want to work closely with your frontline sales managers and make sure that they’re equipped to coach to these new skills SS: And, of course, in 2020, a large part of that required pivoting to virtual. And so we have some quotes that cover best practices around how to deliver onboarding and training initiatives virtually. Julie Zhang: Zoom fatigue and virtual meeting fatigue is real. If you’re going to capture people for three hours, make sure there are extended breaks, make sure that you’re using all of the bells and whistles of technology, whether it’s polling, cameras, Q&A, or breakout rooms. We’re trying all the time to figure out creative, new ways to be engaging with our audience. We just realized that in the past when you were able to break out your normal routine by seeing people, it was less important to do that because people’s attention spans seem to be longer on Zoom or on Skype. But now, if we give you a really intense subject, we can only really make you focus for 30 minutes. Then we have to do an exercise for 15, then we have to do a break, and then we have to give you another topic that’s a little bit lighter or uses another part of your brain to make it a little bit easier for you to keep up if we’re going to capture your attention for more than a couple hours. Daniel Haden: If you’re a salesperson, you could attend maybe a one or two-hour session that’s focused on a particular subject or a particular skill. For example, my team in Europe at the moment is doing a lot around negotiation skills. You could deliver a two-hour session on negotiation live online in a virtual session. They can learn best practices from other markets and other teams that are also in that virtual learning session. You can give them a few weeks to integrate that into that role and experiment and practice with their clients to see how well they’re using those new skills that they’ve developed and then everybody regroups again a few weeks later to continue the development of that particular skill. By having that approach, you’re really giving people time to integrate the learning in a much more digestible and manageable way. And if you compare that to what we had before COVID-19 – which was potentially six to seven hours in a classroom delivering all of this content. If you think about the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve, which is another learning theory, 90% of that in-person classroom training is probably forgotten within the first week of that training course, if not within the first 24 hours. So, I think that we’ve really seen an advantage that a lot of leaders haven’t had a choice but to move to virtual. And that’s given us a real opportunity to prove the value in virtual training. SS: To our audience, thanks for listening. For more insights, tips, and expertise from sales enablement leaders, visit salesenablement.pro. If there’s something you’d like to share or a topic you’d like to learn more about, please let us know. We’d love to hear from you.

Annette Ebbinghaus is a globally sought after mental fitness coach, master sophrologist, mentor, and speaker. She specializes in helping adolescents transform anxious energy into calm confidence through her bespoke beChill programs. She works with adults as well: professionals, individuals, and athletes who are seeking better balance and performance in their lives. Her main areas of focus are stress and sleep management, anxiety, self-development, and high performance. Annette and her husband Dan endured a nine year legal battle with the courts in Switzerland after discovering countless construction errors and the home they were building was deemed unlivable. Their battle, despite being trapped in a legal system, has resulted in legislation change. “To work with me you need to want to be ready to make changes in your life. Together we will move energy that will propel or pull you in a new direction. If you are ready, it is all systems go!” 00:31 An experience in high school - what would that look like for a teenager today? 02:40 The beChill program - transforming anxious energy into calm confidence for teenagers 05:00 The adolescent brain 10:40 Life's paths - from being the only woman who graduated as a civil engineer in 1985 to now 15:30 A clairvoyant and Annette's fear of heights 21:00 The long lasting impact of Sophrology 24:14 Living in Switzerland and connecting worldwide with many options 25:45 A text message that changes everything in an instant 28:20 Things weren't adding up - construction errors are adding up 31:18 The house has deemed unlivable - moving our family again 32:20 Inspired Journeys - a book being released in May 35:00 Nine cases at one time - trapped in a legal system 40:45 Legislation changes being made because of our case 45:07 Positive affirmations 49:50 Reaching Annette at https://trulybalance.com/ 50:45 A 20% discount for two of Annette's courses - beChill for teenagers and beHappy for adults. See info below. https://trulybalance.com beChill course for teens with 20% discount in January https://trulybalancescheduling.as.me/January2021Course beHappy couse for adults with 20% discount in January https://trulybalancescheduling.as.me/beHappyJanuaryFebruaryCourse Use "TAKINGTHEHELM" as your discount code. --- Support this podcast: https://anchor.fm/taking-the-helm/support

Dr. Megan Sumeracki teaches us about Spacing, Retrieval, Interleaving, Elaboration, Dual-coding, and Concrete Examples. [2:16] The Learning Scientists Podcast & Bi-directional Communication [4:13] The Importance of Learning Research as open-access [5:27] The Six Strategies of Effective Learning from the Institute for Education Sciences (2007?) & The National Council for Teaching Quality Report (2016?) [7:45] A Brief History of Spacing and Retrieval Practice, Ebbinghaus, and Memory Accessibility [9:57] What is Spacing and How do We Use it? [12:17] The Ins and Outs of Retrieval Practice [4:47] Interleaving Your Study Practice (19:10 Taylor and Rore? 2010 blocking v. interleaving) [21:20] Elaborative Interrogation: The How, When, Why, and Where of Your Study Material [24:40] Dual Coding: Combining Visual information with your Learning! [28:05] Concrete Examples: The More the Merrier [32:54] Closing Advice from Dr. Sumeracki: Use These Strategies!!!   Also, you can find Dr. Sumeracki’s books on Amazon, research articles, and some great podcasts by the Learning Scientists on Retrieval for medical residents, and an interview with her sister, Dr. Alyssa Smith.

Hey, du Liebe und hey, du Lieber! Besser ein Buch 3x lesen – als drei Bücher ein Mal. Klingt erstmal merkwürdig, oder? Warum? Weil unser Gehirn so funktioniert, es dauert eine Zeit lang und mehrere Wiederholungsschleifen bis sich eine neuronale Autobahn des Wissens gebildet hat – bereits nach 24 Stunden haben wir 70 Prozent des Gelesenen vergessen. Hilfe eilt heran, in Form eines sehr alten Sprichworts: Wiederholung ist die Mutter der Weisheit. Wie du aber ganz genau die Macht der Wiederholung nutzen kannst, erfährst du in der neuen Folge. Viel Freude beim Anhören – auch beim Wiederholen

Very often, how we teach is not in alignment with how the brain works. Fortunately, we can change how we share content as well as how we assess to ensure students are comprehending the material. Using information recall techniques will help students process information from sensory memory through short-term memory to long-term memory. You can control for Ebbinghaus’ forgetting curve effect by intentionally using some of the information retention techniques that I share in this episode. Practicing information recall is a cornerstone to the success of this strategy. This week, we are going to take a look at how memory works, strategies for increasing information retention, and specific ideas you and your students can use in your classroom. Come learn more. Join me on Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/InTheClassroomPodcast/  Other podcast episodes: https://tubarksblog.com/intheclassroom  Show notes: https://tubarksblog.com/itc81  Music credit: https://www.purple-planet.com/  Sponsor: https://tubarksblog.com/textexpander  Sponsor: https://tubarksblog.com/read-to-succeed/  

On this episode, Dr. Mary Ellen Dello Stritto is joined by Dr. Mary Kite. Mary Kite received her B.A., M.S., and Ph.D. from Purdue University. A social psychologist, she is currently Professor of Social Psychology at Ball State University. Strongly committed to psychology education at all levels, she is Past-President of The Society for the Teaching of Psychology (STP, APA Division 2); she has held a number of other leadership roles for STP. She also chaired the APA Presidential Task Force on Diversity Education Resources and is Past President of the Midwestern Psychological Association. She is a Fellow of APA Divisions 2, 8, 9, 35, & 44 and of the Association for Psychological Science and the Midwestern Psychological Association. She maintains an active research program in the area of stereotyping and prejudice, including co-authoring The Psychology of Prejudice and Discrimination (3e) with Bernard Whitley, Jr.; Kite and Whitley also co-authored Principles of Research in Behavioral Science (4e). Recognitions include the Charles L. Brewer Award for Distinguished Teaching in Psychology from the American Psychological Foundation (2014) and a Presidential Citation from the Society for the Teaching of Psychology (2011). She was selected as a G. Stanley Hall Lecturer for the American Psychological Association in 2009 and was named a Minority Access National Role Model in 2007. Segment 1: External Validity [00:00-08:03] In this first segment, Dr. Kite discusses the importance of external validity in experimental research. In this segment, the following resources are mentioned: Kite, M. E., & Whitley, Jr., B. E.(2016). The psychology of prejudice and discrimination (3rd ed.). New York: Routledge. Kite, M. E., & Whitley, Jr., B. E. (2018). Principles of research in behavioral science (4th ed.). New York: Routledge. Darley, J. M., & Latané, B. (1968). Bystander intervention in emergencies: Diffusion of responsibility. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 8, 377-383. Piliavin, I. M., Rodin, J., & Piliavin, J. A. (1969). Good Samaritanism: An underground phenomenon? Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 13, 289-299. Ebbinghaus’ research on nonsense syllables Segment 2: Sampling [08:04-18:12] In segment two, Dr. Kite discusses sampling issues in quantitative research methods. In this segment, the following resources are mentioned: Arnett, J. (2008). The neglected 95%: Why American psychology needs to become less American. American Psychologist, 67, 602-614. Fraley, R. C. (2007). Using the Internet for personality research. In R. W. Robins, R. C. Fraley, & R. F. Krueger (Eds.), Handbook of research methods in personality psychology (pp. 130-148). New York: Guilford. Henrich, J., Heine, S. J. & Norenzayan, A. (2010). The weirdest people in the world? Behavioral and Brain Sciences, 33, 61-135. Henry, P. J. (2008). College sophomores in the laboratory redux: Influences of a narrow data base on social psychology’s view of the nature of prejudice. Psychological Inquiry, 19, 49-71. Kraut, R., Olson, J., Banaji, M., Bruckman, A., Cohen, J., & Couper, M. (2004). Psychological research online: Report of Board of Scientific Affairs’ Advisory Group on the conduct of research on the Internet. American Psychologist, 59, 105-117. Rosenthal, R., & Rosnow, R. L. (1975). The volunteer subject. New York: Wiley. Amazon Mechanical Turk Qualitrics To share feedback about this podcast episode, ask questions that could be featured in a future episode, or to share research-related resources, post a comment below or contact the “Research in Action” podcast: Twitter: @RIA_podcast or #RIA_podcast Email: riapodcast@oregonstate.edu Voicemail: 541-737-1111 If you listen to the podcast via iTunes, please consider leaving us a review. The views expressed by guests on the Research in Action podcast do not necessarily represent the views of Oregon State University Ecampus or Oregon State University.

Eğer destekte bulunmak istiyorsanız, lütfen Patreon sayfamı ziyaret edin, link - https://www.patreon.com/amanov" Hermann Ebbinghaus bellek (memory) çalışmaları ile ünlenmiş bir psikologtur. Daha önceden John Locke ve ya David Hume gibi filozofların insan hafızası üzerine bir çok düşünceleri olmuştur. Ebbinghaus bunu deneysel psikoloji ile test etmeye karar vermişti. Çalışmalarının sonunda, insanların bir şey öğrendikten sadece 9 saat sonra, öğrendikleri şeyin 60%-ına kadarını unutduklarını belirlemiştir. 24 saat sonunda ise bu oran 67%-a kadar irerliyor. Kaynak: DK Psikoloji Kitabı Seslendiren: Amanov Shamsaddin --- Send in a voice message: https://anchor.fm/amanov-shamsaddin/message

O experimento de Ebbinghaus mostra como perdemos memórias, mas não como deve ser a revisão. Você vai descobrir: 1 como foi o experimento de Ebbinghaus2 o que ele descobriu 3 o que não vale para outros assuntos4 o que vale (os princípios da memorização) Aproveite para se aprofundar sobre técnicas de memorização no Sniper de questões https://www.sniperdequestoes.com.br/- Use o cupom RESUMOV nos cursos online- Professor Ferretto, Imaginie, projeto redação, gabaritageo, se liga nessa história - cupom RESUMOV - Sniper de questões https://www.sniperdequestoes.com.br/

Shawnna Sumaoang: Hi, and welcome to the Sales Enablement PRO podcast. I am Shawnna Sumaoang. Sales enablement is a constantly evolving space and we’re here to help professionals stay up to date on the latest trends and best practices so they can be more effective in their jobs. I’m excited to have Daniel Haden from American Express join us. Daniel, I would love for you to introduce yourself, your role, and your organization to our audience. Daniel Haden: I’m the director of global sales training and enablement at American Express. I’m based in London in the UK, but I have a global team across the world. I have training representatives in every different region around the world. SS: Fantastic. Daniel, I’m really excited to have you here today on our podcast. Now, as sales teams everywhere kind of transition to remote working environments, it sounds like you’ve had reps all over the world already. What can you tell us about your experience with the transition? What has been the biggest challenges that you’ve learned along the way? DH: Yeah. First of all, I’ll probably start by saying what my biggest learning is and my biggest learning leading a global training team during this COVID-19 pandemic has been the importance of working in the most agile way possible and being able to quickly adapt whatever your program of events or whatever your curriculum looks like for the year, being able to adapt and tweak that given the changing business needs has been really important. One of the things that we’ve been quite lucky, with as a global team is that we’ve been used to working virtually for some time because if I think about my team calls, I have people dialing in from New York, Phoenix, London, Madrid, Sydney, and we used to work in a much more globalized virtual way. I think the big challenge came with really convincing sales leaders to really buy into virtual training because we’d done some virtual trainings in the past with things like live webinars when we brought in different experts for particular topics. But we’d never converted the entire curriculum for a year into a virtual environment. And I think although we’ve been pretty effective at doing that, getting the leadership buy-in and the stakeholder buy-in, it was probably our biggest challenge that we faced over the past couple of months with COVID. SS: That’s really interesting and I’m sure a lot of other sales enablement practitioners are facing the same challenge. How did you guys go about getting the sales leadership team bought in? DH: Yeah. So, one of the things that I’ve always said to my team is it’s really important to try and pilot any curriculum or any sales training program that you have to really demonstrate the value that you’re adding to the organization. And also then, the value that you’re adding to the sales performance for those sales professionals to integrate those learnings into their sales practices. Where I had particular teams or markets that were really open to virtual and said, “look, my teams don’t have to have as much work at the moment. They’re really hungry for any training and development opportunities that you can give them. We would love to be the first teams to move with some of these virtual programs.” So, what I did is given there were some markets that were more engaged and open to it, I kind of started with those markets. and I went running with them and kind of delivered some really, really good programs, but we got some great engagement. And then looking at how that went, we kind of gathered feedback from those different teams, really made sure that we could integrate all of the behaviors we’re looking to change into their day to day learning. And we stayed really close to them to make sure that those learnings were integrated and also sustained. Then we use those results to really sell that to the stakeholders that were less open to the virtual environment. We’ll probably go onto it in a moment, but I really think there are some great benefits to virtual over in-person. And I think a lot of it was just the mindset of how to convert training to be better or even the same as in person. Actually, in some instances, I’ve found that there have been some really great opportunities to show that virtual learning in some instances can be a lot better. I’m sure we’ll probably touch on that at some point during today’s podcast. SS: I’d love to touch on that now. If you could explain to our audience the benefits that you’ve seen from virtual training, I think a lot would love to hear how you’ve articulated that? DH: Yeah, sure. So, one of the big things in sales training theory at the moment is all around this importance of spaced repetition. For those listeners that aren’t quite familiar with this learning concept of spaced repetition, it’s all about making sure you focus on one or two key skills that you’re really trying to exploit and just continuing to reinforce that particular behavior over a certain period of time. By having space between the training, what you’re essentially doing is giving the learner the opportunity to integrate what they’re learning into their day-to-day role. So, if you think about it, if you’re a salesperson, you could attend maybe a one or two-hour session that’s focused on a particular subject or a particular skill. For example, my team in Europe at the moment is doing a lot around negotiation skills. You could deliver a two-hour session on negotiation live online in a virtual session. They can learn best practices from other markets and other teams that are also in that virtual learning session. You can give them a few weeks to integrate that into that role and experiment and practice with their clients to see how well using those new skills that they’ve developed and then everybody regroups again a few weeks later to continue the development of that particular skill. By having that approach, you’re really giving people time to integrate the learning in a much more digestible and manageable way. And if you compare that to what we had before COVID-19 – which was potentially six to seven hours in a classroom delivering all of this content. If you think about the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve, which is another learning theory, 90% of that in-person classroom training is probably forgotten within the first week of that training course, if not within the first 24 hours. So, I think that we’ve really seen an advantage that a lot of leaders haven’t had a choice but to move to virtual. And that’s given us a real opportunity to prove the value in virtual training. SS: That’s fantastic. Now, you’ve touched on this a few times, but I want to talk a little bit about behavior change. How do you go about measuring behavior change in a way that your sales executives and your leadership team can see that actually occurring within the organization? DH: Yeah, so one of the things that I think I’ve realized in the 10 years that I’ve been at American Express working across multiple training teams and multiple markets is that behavioral change is really the goal of any training and development program. Because ultimately, what you’re trying to do is change the behavior in a more positive way so that the output or the outcome from the particular training, and then, therefore, the results in terms of the sales performance, are improved. I think that what we’ve traditionally looked at from a learning point of view is we’ve not been as close to the business. A lot of training teams have said, “we’re a training team. This is our program for the next year. This is what we’re going to deliver. Feel free to join the programs that you’re interested in.” The problem with that approach is there isn’t really any follow-up to whether or not behavior has changed. There isn’t any understanding completely of whether or not the training has impacted the results and even if the results have gone up, how much of that is correlated positively to the training that was delivered and how do you know which components of that training even contributed to the performance in the sales scorecard. So, I think one of the things I’ve done a lot with my training teams in the past couple of years is look up what behaviors can we change that are going to make the biggest impact overall to the sales performance of the company? Then this could be quite easy, basic sales skills that you would just assume a lot of salespeople have. And maybe they do have those skills, but they just need updating or refreshing. We have a global learning experience review survey that goes out at the end of every year. We do focus groups with all stakeholders and in-depth interviews and really try and figure out and hone-in on what particular behaviors do we really want to change in the next six to 12 months. And then using those results in that survey data to figure out how do we build a learning program around changing that particular behavior. And by doing so, the sales leaders, more than ever, know exactly where the gaps are within their team. So, if you can figure out the gaps within those sales teams, then you can really focus on what behaviors are going to plug those gaps and really help boost the results. And then how can the training team deliver programs that are focused on or targeting those particular behaviors? And also, how can the sales training team then continue the sustainability of that behavioral change once you deliver the training program through things like reinforcement activities or follow-up calls or whatever it may be, and actually stay close to the salespeople throughout the whole journey of selling and not just being there at the point that they deliver training. And I think that’s how we’ve integrated behavioral change into the organization. It’s all been about follow-up, learning, reinforcement and giving the salespeople time and that spaced repetition I referred to earlier to really embed the behaviors and the new behaviors that they’ve learned into the way that they sell. SS: Fantastic. I love that answer. Now I want to shift gears just slightly, but still talk about the notion of change. On your LinkedIn account, you talked about scaled change management as being central to your current role, and it is particularly important right now in the sales enablement space, especially as many businesses are experiencing large changes at the moment. In your opinion, what is sales enablement’s role in helping organizations navigate change in the current environment? DH: If you think back to what makes a great salesperson, one of the things that I’ve realized from my research and all of the data I’ve collected across the organization is the best salespeople are the ones that can adapt, and they’re the ones that can adapt not just to changes within the organization that they work for, but changes within the organizations that their clients work for. By being able to adapt and change your approach, you will provide a much more tailored sales experience to any clients that you work with. That’s what will drive your results. It goes back to the classic notion of, why do people buy? Well, it’s partly because of the great product, but it’s partly because of the sales experience and the relationship that you have. And if you’re able to adapt to change and you’re able to adapt to your style and the way that you sell to different clients in different organizations, you’re going to be much more effective as you start to navigate through your sales career. One of the biggest changes, obviously, that we’ve seen recently with the global pandemic is that ability to continue to sell for some people in a very different environment – we’ve got teams at Amex that are used to going into different stores and restaurants day-to-day, knocking on the doors, and saying, “Hey, do you guys want to accept American Express? Here’s the value proposition.” One of the big questions we’ve been asking, particularly in the U.S. has been, how do we now gain access to those merchants? A lot of these stores are closed. A lot of them are answering their phone. A lot of them are completely out of business. It’s a case of how do we not only sell to them, but how do we support them through these difficult times? The salespeople that are most effective at doing that are the ones that can adapt. As a training team, we can really support those salespeople by helping them develop those skills around tailoring your messages to particular clients and different industries around making sure that you really consider the needs of the client. Making sure that they understand active listening, and therefore can reposition the value prop in a way that really makes sense for that client. So, whatever change comes your way, you have that skill to quickly pick up what your product is and pick up what your value proposition is and position it in probably a very different way. That’s what makes a really successful salesperson. So, a sales training team or a sales enablement team, it’s their job to really make sure that the salespeople have that skill of being able to adapt and work in a really agile way so they can navigate through the different portfolio or the prospects that they have to be more successful in closing those deals and making sure that they’re able to sell the company’s products. If we look at our curriculum for American Express sales training for the next year, it’s all around developing those skills. And a lot of the time, salespeople come back and go, “these skills seem pretty basic. Why are we even doing this? I already have these skills.” The point I keep referencing is, “you may already have the skills, but how deep is your knowledge and how much do you really feel that you have those skills? Because you may not have been tested in all the different environments.” The recent pandemic has really tested those salespeople and really shown which ones can adapt in times of crisis and which ones maybe thought they could but didn’t necessarily have all of the skills? So, it was essential as a sales training and enablement team that we recognize those gaps and we really make sure that the sales teams can adapt really quickly to any change that comes their way. SS: Fantastic. Now, I have a question because you’ve talked about adaptability and you’ve also talked a little bit about what I’ll summarize as empathy and teaching your reps how to be empathetic. And some of those can be trained skills, but some are just in essence, core to maybe the hiring process. How much does sales enablement get involved with the hiring criteria for the sales reps within your organization? DH: The sales training enablement teams that I lead have always been very much focused on the sales training. And we started recently to really look at the bigger picture of the sales experience for the client and really putting yourself in the client’s shoes. And by doing so, you can look end-to-end at how you potentially could change the performance of that salesperson. One of the things that I believe we need to get more involved in as a sales enablement team is in the recruitment. I think it’s not really been helped by the traditional structure of organizations where they’ve had maybe sales training owned by a learning team or HR even. And what we’ve done at American Express is we’ve really ensured that the sales training and enablement team is owned by the sales organization, but also that it’s not just about training, but it’s about enabling. And you’re going to be much more successful at enabling salespeople if you’re recruiting salespeople that are right for your organization. And although I believe in a lot of instances, I’ve always said, you can train the skill, but you can’t train the will. That recruitment process is essential because you need to find salespeople that really have that will, that have that drive, that have that passion and that are really going to excite your clients. Even though they may not know much about how to navigate through difficult conversations with your clients or how to potentially use adaptability to be more successful in tailoring that value proposition message that I mentioned earlier, what you’ve really got to make sure is that during the journey that they’re trained on all of those skills, but they have to have that will from the beginning, because that’s what’s going to make the difference. So, when you couple the will that they have from the recruitment process that you recognize with the skills that you’re developing as an organization to drive your sales performance forward, those combined can be really powerful in having and creating strong training teams. I believe that my global team needs to get much more into the recruitment process and figuring out what gaps are we seeing across the organization and how do we make sure we plug those gaps with the new wave of talent that’s coming into the organization. A lot of the time at American Express, we put a lot of investment into our people, so we tend to find that you can get a lot of tenured salespeople, which is a good thing because they know your products and they know things that have changed and how to potentially adapt to your clients. And they know the value prop. But what sometimes we do need is fresh ideas. So, if we can make sure that we integrate any needs that we’re seeing across the organization from those evaluation programs that I mentioned earlier on the learning experience review, if we can identify the gaps and the opportunities that we have, some of those gaps may even be plugged when we’re recruiting. I do feel that my team needs to be much closer to that recruitment process to make sure we can bring in that fresh talent that’s going to plug some of those gaps and then use best practice sharing and learning reinforcement activities to share all of that knowledge across the organization to really improve the organizational culture overall. That’s what’s going to elevate the sales performance and really drive the sales results forward. So, I do believe there’s a place for sales enablement as part of the recruitment process, but I think it’s got to be really well integrated into the overall journey for that seller, not just from recruitment to embedding them into the organization, but right through to when they’re selling and that experience that they create for any client that they work with. SS: Absolutely. If you don’t mind, I’d love to drill in a little bit more. Now, you’ve talked about a learning experience review. Can you explain to our audience a little bit about what that looks like and then also how you layer in additional reinforcement and potentially even working with your sales managers on coaching based on what you’re seeing there? DH: Yeah, sure. So, one of the things I’m particularly passionate about, and prior to this role in sales training, I led a global performance management team out of Florida. And one of the things that performance management role taught me was the importance of using data and feedback. Then when I moved into the sales training and enablement role, I was all about the data. And I think if you can make sure that you’re getting regular feedback from your stakeholders and you’re doing so in a way that makes it easy to interpret what they need, and you can do that on an ongoing basis through programs like the learning experience of you that we have, then you’re going to be much more successful in delivering those sales training programs and making sure you change the behavior. So, the learning experience review was something I introduced with my global training team in 2018. Essentially, it touches every single stakeholder that we work with. It could be anyone from the seller, right through to the sales leader, right through to the supporting functions like pricing or product or marketing. And we essentially use that as a way to figure out what’s going on in the sales organization and with our clients and our prospects, but also what’s going on in the rest of the company and bring in all of that together to really create a strong curriculum that’s going to be impactful and really make a difference, but also utilize the resources that we have elsewhere in the organization. That data can change on an ongoing basis. So, we look to do not just surveys at the end of every single training program, but we have touchpoints throughout the year where we gather data to really fuel the adaptation of those training programs so that they’re more effective and more tailored to what that particular stakeholder group needs. I think it’s essential that we have learning experience reviews in any sales training enablement team, because you can’t keep delivering effective training programs if you’re not staying close to the changing needs of the business. I think what’s happened over the past couple of months with COVID has proven that even though you might have a really shiny, great, effective training curriculum laid out for the year in January, it can change the moment you hit February when things like the pandemic happen and you’ve got to adapt and change. And without that learning experience review giving you that global understanding of how the world is changing and what your sales training teams need, you’re not going to be able to adapt or customize your programs quickly. We found it a real essential tool to make a difference in how effective we are as a training and enablement team. SS: I love that. Now, you talked about the importance of data. I want to broaden this out a little bit and talk about what are some of the business metrics that have been most important in your organization in demonstrating the success of sales enablement initiatives? DH: Yeah. So, one of the things I’ll start by saying on metrics is it’s important to make sure that they are focused metrics and that they are filtered down enough that they make sense. So, I think there’s a real tendency across many organizations, and I’ve seen this across many teams at AmEx, where they feel like more metrics are better because it will give them a better insight into how the picture’s changing. The problem is, and the way I used to think about this with my performance management team was, every additional metric you add to a scorecard dilutes or devalues the other metrics that you have within it. If you have one metric on your scorecard that your sales training and enablement team is focused on, they know exactly what their number one goal is. It could be, for example, sales revenue. If you just had sales revenue in there, they know all they’ve got to focus on is sales revenue. Now, if they focus on other things like staff retention or increasing prospects in every seller’s portfolio, those things are good, but they ultimately ladder up to the sales revenue. Even if you’d focused on all three of those metrics, there’s probably other metrics or there are other things that you’re missing that would still contribute to sales revenue. So, I’m a big believer in less is more and really making sure that you educate not just the salespeople, but also the sales training and enablement teams on what the main metric or main two or three metrics are that we need to drive. I’m a little nervous to introduce any more than two or three metrics because I believe that it starts to distract and distance people from the core message or the core deliverable that we have as an organization. When I talk to my global team, I always say to them, work with your sales VPs and your sales leaders and figure out what is the one thing that they’re really focusing on with their salespeople this quarter or this half of the year, and let’s look at how we can support that with the training and enablement activities that we have planned. I would say to anyone that’s in sales training enablement, really make sure you craft that message effectively and know what the main one or two metrics are that the sales team’s trying to drive. Because if you don’t have that, it’s going to be very difficult for the team to really know as they’re developing learning or developing training programs what they really need to keep reinforcing that makes sense for the salespeople and makes that change in their behavior. I would say when it comes to metrics, what is it that that sales team is trying to drive? And it may not always be sales revenue. It may be other things that the team wants to focus on, like client retention. But I would say make sure you’re crystal clear with the sales leaders on what it is that they’re focused on as an organization so you can position your training in the right way, so you accommodate that request and you really make sure you drive them forward to achieving those results. SS: Absolutely, I couldn’t agree more. Now, Daniel, I have one closing question for you. Given everything that’s been changing recently, how do you envision sales enablement evolving in the next year and beyond? DH: That’s a really good question. And I’ve been to quite a few conferences in the past 12 months that have talked about this. What I’m seeing across many organizations and from my network is this real shift from learning or training to performance support or performance enabling. I think sales enablement as a concept is relatively new to many organizations. Some organizations don’t have sales enablement teams, and they’re still focused on the traditional training teams. I think sales enablement is absolutely crucial to the future of the way that we sell, because the thing that I like about sales enablement versus just pure training is it looks at enabling the sellers. It looks about how can we really support sellers, not just with training programs or learning content, but also with tools, resources, organizational cultural change, all these different components. And as you mentioned before, recruitment’s another one. What can we do with our talent pools to really enable sellers to be more successful in the future? So, I think looking at the future, sales enablement is going to change in quite a few ways. I think one, people are going to shift from training much more to sales enablement because they’re going to realize the value. The organizations that are focused on sales enablement are probably going to be more successful in selling. I think another point that people are going to realize as we move to the future of sales enablement is that we need to look at tools and resources and not just training to ensure that performance improves. Particularly with technology nowadays, there are some great sales tools out there that you can use to present your sales pitches and really connect well with clients. I think we’re going to see a lot more around tools. The other thing I would mention as well is we’re probably going to see a lot more partnerships going forward within an organization. Rather than just a salesperson going into a client meeting or prospect meeting, they’ll probably be going along with multiple stakeholders. So, you might have somebody from the pricing team or the product team and the salesperson, rather than being an expert on everything about the product, they’re going to bring those experts that have that specialty and are going to be really able to present the power of what that product is about and the salesperson’s job will be all around connecting those stakeholders together to make sure that the overall pitch or the overall conversation with the client is much more powerful. I think what we’re going to see, like we are generally in society, is that people now that are successful are the ones that know how to access information, not necessarily the ones that always know the information, because information is changing quicker and quicker every single day, and you’ve got to be able to access that and remain on top of it. Because to be honest, by the time you learn it all, it’ll probably be all be out of date. So, the future of sales enablement for me is all around tools and access to knowledge, and I think we’re going to see much larger sales pitches and much larger stakeholder meetings as we go forward, because that’s what’s going to be much more powerful and impactful for any clients or prospects that we work with. SS: I couldn’t agree more. Thank you so much, Daniel. I really appreciate your time today. DH: You’re welcome. Thank you for having me. I look forward to speaking to you soon. SS: Absolutely. To our audience. Thanks for listening. For more insights, tips, and expertise from sales enablement leaders, visit salesenablement.pro. If there’s something you’d like to share or a topic you’d like to learn more about, please let us know. We’d love to hear from you.

Episode 22 Iluzja Ebbinghaus https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion Please check out my newest book: 21 Self-Limiting Beliefs on Learning a Foreign Language – Smashed! USA & worldwide Kindle: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1673536964 Metoda GO „Mieszkam w Niemczech od lat. Przeszedłem wszystkie poziomy i zdałem niezbędne egzaminy. Niemniej jednak wciąż popełniam zbyt wiele błędów, aby uzyskać poważne zatrudnienie w moim zawodzie ”. Łatwo jest rozpocząć naukę języka obcego. Płynność wymaga jedynie praktyki i życia za granicą. Aby nauczyć się ostatnich (!) 5% i mówić bezbłędnie, będziesz jednak potrzebować zupełnie innego podejścia. Metoda GO pomaga pozbyć się chronicznych błędów gramatycznych i wymowy, stosując psychologię i zasady zarządzania jakością. Oferujemy kursy korekcyjne dla niektórych języków, a także ogólny system usprawniający korzystanie z dowolnego języka. Wspieramy firmy w podnoszeniu biegłości językowej kluczowych pracowników. Gerhard Ohrband Pomógł ponad 1200 studentom w rozwoju studiów i karierze zawodowej, zdobywając doskonałe umiejętności niemieckiego i hiszpańskiego. Psycholog i nauczyciel języka z Hamburga / Niemcy (* 1979). Żonaty, jeden syn. Magister psychologii na Uniwersytecie w Hamburgu. Ponad 15 lat doświadczenia jako wykładowca uniwersytecki w dziedzinie psychologii, a także konsultant w UNICEF, Terre des Hommes, IOM, UE i firmach prywatnych. Mówi w 21 językach. Kontakt Wyślij do nas e-mail: gerhard.j.ohrband@gmail.com Nasza strona główna: https://www.thegomethod.org/polish/ Nasze kursy online: https://gerhards-school.thinkific.com/ Nasz kanał na Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3n5LCxW8N3uPatViww-Okw/ Nasz podcast: https://anchor.fm/polishgo Nasz blog: https://thegomethod.blogspot.com/ Nasza strona na Facebooku: https://www.facebook.com/Psychologia-i-j%C4%99zyki-obce-101668314609319/ Na LinkedIn: https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerhard-j%C3%B6rg-ohr0band-22525147/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/JOhrband Jeśli chcesz zaoszczędzić czas na naukę języka obcego bez nauczyciela, sprawdź moją książkę „The GO Method” na Amazon .

Episode 22 Ebbinghaus illüziyası https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion Please check out my newest book: 21 Self-Limiting Beliefs on Learning a Foreign Language – Smashed! USA & worldwide Kindle: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1673536964 UK Kindle: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1673536964 Canada Kindle: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/1673536964 Australia Kindle: https://www.amazon.com.au/dp/B082J2L8YT GO metodu “İllərdir Almaniyada yaşayıram. Mən bütün səviyyələri keçdim və lazımi imtahanları verdim. Buna baxmayaraq, peşəmdə ciddi bir iş tapmaq üçün hələ çox səhv edirəm ”. Xarici dil başlamaq asandır. Sərbəst danışmaq üçün yalnız təcrübə və xaricdə yaşamaq lazımdır. Sonuncu (!) 5% -i öyrənmək və səhv etmədən danışmaq üçün tamamilə fərqli bir yanaşma lazımdır. GO metodu psixologiya və keyfiyyət idarəetmə prinsiplərini tətbiq etməklə xroniki qrammatika və tələffüz səhvlərinizdən xilas olmağa kömək edir. Bəzi dillər üçün düzəliş kursları, habelə istənilən dildə istifadənizi yaxşılaşdıran ümumi bir sistem təklif edirik. Biz əsas işçilərin dil biliklərinin artırılmasında şirkətləri dəstəkləyirik. Gerhard Ohrband 1200-dən çox tələbəyə mükəmməl Alman və İspan bacarıqları əldə edərək təhsillərini və peşə karyeralarını inkişaf etdirməyə kömək etdi. Hamburq / Almaniyadan psixoloq və dil müəllimi (* 1979). Ailəlidir, bir oğlu var. Hamburq Universitetindən psixologiya üzrə magistr. 15 ildən çox bir universitetin psixologiya üzrə müəllimi və UNİCEF, Terre des Hommes, BMqT, AB və özəl şirkətlərdə məsləhətçi kimi iş təcrübəsi. 21 dildə danışır. Əlaqə Bizə bir elektron poçt göndərin: gerhard.j.ohrband@gmail.com Ana səhifəmiz: https://thegomethod.org/ Onlayn kurslarımız: https://gerhards-school.thinkific.com/ Youtube kanalımız: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3n5LCxW8N3uPatViww-Okw/ Podcastımız: https://anchor.fm/azerbaijanigo Blogumuz: https://thegomethod.blogspot.com/ Facebook səhifəmiz: https://www.facebook.com/Psixologiya-v%C9%99-xarici-dill%C9%99r-104899527613446/ Linkedin-də: https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerhard-j%C3%B6rg-ohrband-22525147/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/JOhrband Müəllim olmadan xarici dil öyrənməyə vaxtınıza qənaət etmək istəyirsinizsə, Amazon -dakı "The GO Method" kitabımı nəzərdən keçirin.

Episode 22 De Ebbinghaus-illusie https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion Please check out my newest book: 21 Self-Limiting Beliefs on Learning a Foreign Language – Smashed! USA & worldwide Kindle: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1673536964 Netherlands Kindle: https://www.amazon.nl/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1673536964 De GO-methode “Ik woon al jaren in Duitsland. Ik heb alle niveaus doorlopen en de nodige examens afgelegd. Toch maak ik nog steeds teveel fouten om een ​​serieuze baan in mijn beroep te krijgen. ” Het is gemakkelijk om een ​​vreemde taal te starten. Je hoeft alleen maar te oefenen en in het buitenland te wonen om vloeiend te worden. Om de laatste (!) 5% te leren en zonder fouten te spreken, moet u echter een geheel andere aanpak gebruiken. De GO-methode helpt je om van je chronische grammatica en uitspraakfouten af ​​te komen door psychologie en principes van kwaliteitsbeheer toe te passen. We bieden corrigerende cursussen voor sommige talen, evenals een algemeen systeem om uw gebruik van elke taal te verbeteren. We ondersteunen bedrijven bij het verbeteren van de taalvaardigheid van belangrijke werknemers. Gerhard Ohrband Heeft meer dan 1200 studenten geholpen hun studie en professionele carrière te bevorderen door uitstekende Duitse en Spaanse vaardigheden te verwerven. Psycholoog en taaldocent, uit Hamburg / Duitsland (* 1979). Getrouwd, een zoon. MA in psychologie aan de Universiteit van Hamburg. Meer dan 15 jaar ervaring als universitair docent psychologie en adviseur voor UNICEF, Terre des Hommes, IOM, de EU en particuliere bedrijven. Spreekt 21 talen. Contact Stuur ons een e-mail: gerhard.j.ohrband@gmail.com Onze startpagina: https://thegomethod.org/ Onze online cursussen: https://gerhards-school.thinkific.com/ Ons YouTube-kanaal: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3n5LCxW8N3uPatViww-Okw/ Onze podcast: https://anchor.fm/dutchgo Onze blog: https://thegomethod.blogspot.com/ Onze Facebook-pagina: https://www.facebook.com/Psychologie-en-vreemde-talen-110238603736477/ Op Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerhard-j%C3%B6rg-ohrband-22525147/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/JOhrband Als je tijd wilt besparen bij het leren van een vreemde taal zonder leraar, bekijk dan mijn boek “The GO Method” op Amazon.

Episode 22 Ebbinghaus-illusjonen https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion Please check out my newest book: 21 Self-Limiting Beliefs on Learning a Foreign Language – Smashed! USA & worldwide Kindle: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1673536964 Canada Kindle: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/1673536964 Australia Kindle: https://www.amazon.com.au/dp/B082J2L8YT UK Kindle: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1673536964 GO-metoden “Jeg har bodd i Tyskland i mange år. Jeg har gått gjennom alle nivåer og gjennomført de nødvendige eksamenene. Ikke desto mindre gjør jeg fortsatt for mange feil for å få en seriøs ansettelse i mitt yrke. ” Det er lett å starte et fremmedspråk. Det krever bare å trene og bo i utlandet for å bli flytende. For å lære de siste (!) 5% og å snakke uten feil, trenger du imidlertid en helt annen tilnærming. GO-metoden hjelper deg å bli kvitt dine kroniske grammatikk- og uttalefeil ved å anvende psykologi og prinsipper for kvalitetsstyring. Vi tilbyr korrigerende kurs for noen språk, i tillegg til et generelt system for å forbedre din bruk av alle språk. Vi støtter bedrifter i å forbedre språkkompetansen til nøkkelmedarbeidere. Gerhard Ohrband Har hjulpet mer enn 1200 studenter med å fremme studiene og yrkeskarrieren ved å oppnå gode tyske og spanske ferdigheter. Psykolog og språklærer, fra Hamburg / Tyskland (* 1979). Gift, en sønn. MA i psykologi fra University of Hamburg. Mer enn 15 års erfaring som universitetslektor i psykologi samt konsulent for UNICEF, Terre des Hommes, IOM, EU og private selskaper. Snakker 21 språk. Kontakt Send oss ​​en e-post: gerhard.j.ohrband@gmail.com Hjemmesiden vår: https://thegomethod.org/ Våre nettkurs: https://gerhards-school.thinkific.com/ Youtube-kanalen vår: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3n5LCxW8N3uPatViww-Okw/ Podcasten vår: https://anchor.fm/norwegiango Bloggen vår: https://thegomethod.blogspot.com/ Facebook-siden vår: https://www.facebook.com/pg/Psykologi-og-fremmedspr%C3%A5k-105094454256915/ På Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerhard-j%C3%B6rg-ohrband-22525147/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/JOhrband Hvis du vil spare tid på å lære et fremmedspråk uten lærer, kan du sjekke boken min "GO-metoden" på Amazon.

Episode 25 Ebbinghaus-illusionen https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion Please check out my newest book: 21 Self-Limiting Beliefs on Learning a Foreign Language – Smashed! USA & worldwide Kindle: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1673536964 Canada Kindle: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/1673536964 Australia Kindle: https://www.amazon.com.au/dp/B082J2L8YT UK Kindle: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1673536964 GO-metoden ”Jag har bott i Tyskland i flera år. Jag har gått igenom alla nivåer och genomfört de nödvändiga examina. Ändå gör jag fortfarande för många misstag för att få en seriös anställning inom mitt yrke. ” Det är lätt att starta ett främmande språk. Det krävs bara träning och att bo utomlands för att bli flytande. För att lära dig de sista (!) 5% och att prata utan misstag behöver du dock en helt annan strategi. GO-metoden hjälper dig att bli av med dina kroniska grammatik- och uttalsfel genom att tillämpa psykologi och principer för kvalitetshantering. Vi erbjuder korrigerande kurser för vissa språk, liksom ett generellt system för att förbättra din användning av alla språk. Vi stöder företag i att förbättra språkkunskaperna hos nyckelpersoner. Gerhard Ohrband Har hjälpt mer än 1200 studenter att utveckla sina studier och sin yrkeskarriär genom att få utmärkta färdigheter på tyska och spanska. Psykolog och språklärare, från Hamburg / Tyskland (* 1979). Gift, en son. MA i psykologi från Hamburgs Universitet. Mer än 15 års erfarenhet som universitetslektor i psykologi samt konsult för UNICEF, Terre des Hommes, IOM, EU och privata företag. Talar 21 språk. Kontakta Skicka ett e-postmeddelande till: gerhard.j.ohrband@gmail.com Vår hemsida: https://thegomethod.org/ Våra onlinekurser: https://gerhards-school.thinkific.com/ Vår Youtube-kanal: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3n5LCxW8N3uPatViww-Okw/ Vår podcast: https://anchor.fm/swedishgo Vår blogg: https://thegomethod.blogspot.com/ Vår Facebook-sida: https://www.facebook.com/svenskago På Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerhard-j%C3%B6rg-ohrband-22525147/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/JOhrband Om du vill spara tid på att lära dig ett främmande språk utan lärare, vänligen kolla min bok "GO-metoden" på Amazon.

Episode 45 La ilusión de Ebbinghaus https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion Please check out my newest book: 21 Self-Limiting Beliefs on Learning a Foreign Language – Smashed! Spain Kindle: https://www.amazon.es/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.es/dp/1673536964 Mexico Kindle: https://www.amazon.com.mx/dp/B082J2L8YT ¿Actualmente estás estudiando una lengua extranjera? ¿O sientes que no estás progresando más? Entonces has encontrado el podcast correcto. Gerhard Ohrband, psicólogo, autor, políglota y profesor de idiomas, te muestra consejos y estrategias para llevar tus habilidades lingüísticas al siguiente nivel. El método GO “Llevo años viviendo en Alemania. He pasado por todos los niveles y exámenes necesarios. Sin embargo, todavía cometo demasiados errores para obtener un empleo serio en mi profesión ". Es fácil empezar un idioma extranjero. Solo hace falta practicar y vivir en el extranjero para obtener fluidez. Para aprender el último (!) 5% y hablar sin errores, sin embargo, necesitarás un enfoque completamente diferente. El Método GO te ayuda a deshacerte de tus errores gramaticales y de pronunciación al aplicar la psicología y los principios de la gestión de la calidad. Ofrecemos cursos correctivos para algunos idiomas, así como un sistema general para mejorar el uso de cualquier idioma. Ayudamos a las empresas a mejorar la competencia lingüística de los empleados clave. Gerhard Ohrband Ha ayudado a más de 1200 estudiantes a avanzar en sus estudios y carrera profesional al obtener excelentes habilidades en alemán. Psicólogo y profesor de idiomas, de Hamburgo / Alemania (* 1979). Casado, un hijo. Maestría en psicología de la Universidad de Hamburgo. Más de 15 años de experiencia como lector universitario de psicología, así como consultor para UNICEF, Terre des Hommes, OIM, la UE y empresas privadas. Habla 21 idiomas. Contacto Envíanos un email: gerhard.j.ohrband@gmail.com Nuestra página de inicio: https://thegomethod.org/ Nuestros cursos online: https://gerhards-school.thinkific.com/ En Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3n5LCxW8N3uPatViww-Okw/ Nuestro podcast: http://anchor.fm/spanishgo/ Nuestro blog: https://elmetodogo.blogspot.com/ Nuestra pagina de Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/elmetodogo/ En Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerhard-j%C3%B6rg-ohrband-22525147/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/JOhrband Si deseas ahorrar tiempo en aprender un idioma extranjero sin un profesor, consulta mi libro "El método GO" en Amazon.

Episode 41 Die Ebbinghaus-Illusion https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion Please check out my newest book: 21 Self-Limiting Beliefs on Learning a Foreign Language – Smashed! USA & worldwide Kindle: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1673536964 Germany Kindle: https://www.amazon.de/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.de/dp/1673536964 Die GO-Methode „Ich lebe seit Jahren in Deutschland. Ich habe alle Kursstufen durchlaufen und die notwendigen Prüfungen bestanden. Trotzdem mache ich immer noch zu viele Fehler, um eine ernsthafte Anstellung in meinem Beruf zu bekommen. “ Es ist leicht, eine Fremdsprache zu beginnen. Um fließend zu sprechen, reicht es, bloß zu üben und im Ausland zu leben. Um die letzten (!) 5% zu erlernen und fehlerfrei zu sprechen, müssen Sie jedoch anders vorgehen. Die GO-Methode hilft dir dabei, deine chronischen Grammatik- und Aussprachefehler durch die Anwendung von Psychologie und Prinzipien des Qualitätsmanagements zu beseitigen. Wir bieten Korrekturkurse für einige Sprachen sowie ein allgemeines System zur Verbesserung deiner Sprachkenntnisse an. Wir unterstützen Unternehmen bei der Verbesserung der Sprachkenntnisse wichtiger Mitarbeiter. Gerhard Ohrband Hat mehr als 1200 Studenten geholfen, ihr Studium und ihre berufliche Laufbahn voranzutreiben, indem sie hervorragende Deutsch- und Spanischkenntnisse erworben haben. Psychologe und Sprachlehrer aus Hamburg (* 1979). Verheiratet, ein Sohn. Diplom der Psychologie an der Universität Hamburg. Über 15 Jahre Erfahrung als Universitätsdozent für Psychologie sowie als Berater für UNICEF, Terre des Hommes, IOM, die EU und private Unternehmen. Spricht 21 Sprachen. Kontakt Senden Sie uns eine E-Mail: gerhard.j.ohrband@gmail.com Unsere Homepage: https://thegomethod.org/ Unsere Online-Kurse: https://gerhards-school.thinkific.com/ Auf Youtube: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3n5LCxW8N3uPatViww-Okw/ Unser Podcast: https://anchor.fm/germango/ Unser Blog: https://psychologiedesfremdsprachenlernens.blogspot.com/ Unsere Facebook-Seite: https://www.facebook.com/dieGOMethode/ Auf Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerhard-j%C3%B6rg-ohrband-22525147/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/JOhrband Wenn Sie Zeit sparen möchten, wenn Sie autodidaktisch eine Fremdsprache lernen, lesen Sie bitte mein Buch „The GO Method“ bei Amazon.

Episode 78 The Ebbinghaus illusion https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ebbinghaus_illusion Please check out my newest book: 21 Self-Limiting Beliefs on Learning a Foreign Language – Smashed! USA & worldwide Kindle: https://www.amazon.com/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.com/dp/1673536964 UK Kindle: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.co.uk/dp/1673536964 Canada Kindle: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/B082J2L8YT Paperback: https://www.amazon.ca/dp/1673536964 Australia Kindle: https://www.amazon.com.au/dp/B082J2L8YT India Kindle: https://www.amazon.in/dp/B082J2L8YT The GO Method “I have been living in Germany for years. I have gone through all the levels and sustained the necessary exams. Nonetheless, I still make too many mistakes as to get a serious employment in my profession.” It is easy to start a foreign language. It takes only practice and living abroad to get fluent. To learn the last (!) 5% and to speak without mistakes, however, you will need completely different approach. The GO Method helps you get rid of your chronic grammar and pronunciation mistakes by applying psychology and principles of quality management. We offer corrective courses for some languages, as well a general system for improving your use of any language. We support companies in improving the language proficiency of key employees. Gerhard J. Ohrband Has helped more than 1200 students advance their studies and professional career by obtaining excellent German and Spanish skills. Psychologist and language teacher, from Hamburg /Germany (*1979). Married, one son. MA in psychology from the University of Hamburg. More than 15 years of experience as a university lecturer in psychology as well as a consultant for UNICEF, Terre des Hommes, IOM, the EU and private companies. Speaks 21 languages. Contact Send us an e-mail: gerhard.j.ohrband@gmail.com Our homepage: https://thegomethod.org/ Our online courses: https://gerhards-school.thinkific.com/ Our Youtube channel: https://www.youtube.com/channel/UC3n5LCxW8N3uPatViww-Okw/ Our podcast: https://anchor.fm/the-psychology-of-learning-foreign-languages/ Our blog: https://thegomethod.blogspot.com/ Our Facebook page: https://www.facebook.com/theGOMethod/ On Linkedin: https://www.linkedin.com/in/gerhard-j%C3%B6rg-ohrband-22525147/ Twitter: https://twitter.com/JOhrband If you want to save time in learning a foreign language without a teacher, please check out my book “The GO Method” on Amazon.

Der Psychologe Hermann Ebbinghaus gilt als Pionier der Gedächtnisforschung. Mit seiner bekannten "Vergessenskurve" beschrieb er erstmals, wie schnell und umfangreich wir Gelerntes wieder vergessen. Vergessen kann nicht nur ein Segen sein, es ist für das optimale Funktionieren unseres Gehirns auch unerlässlich. Davon sind Hirnforscher heute überzeugt. Autorin: Daniela Wakonigg

Almi Invest is Sweden’s most active startup investor. With 3 billion SEK under management, they make about 50 new investments each year and have invested in 660 companies overall, some of which have been acquired by Google, Microsoft, and Apple or IPOed at a billion kroner level on the stock market.  Join us as we speak with investment manager Karin Ebbinghaus about Almi's GreenTech fund, which only invests in companies that reduce greenhouse gas emissions. The fund has about 650 million SEK under management or 60 million euro. Listen in as we talk about: 3:50 Almi's investment thesis  15:10 What a GreenTech model looks  17:35 How to measure a GreenTech model's impact 21:20 How Almi's GreenTech fund fits into Swedens' national strategy to reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 30:10 Almi's vision for FoodTech ecosystem in 10-15 years

Learning how to study in medical school can be difficult. Is there a right way? It seems that spaced repetition with programs like Anki might be helpful for most people. What about the right QBank? Ed and Mike discuss all this and more on this episode. Bickerdike et. al 2017 J. Medical Education Tabibian Et al 2019 Ebbinghaus forgetting curve ... Read More The post Episode 18- Learning and Study Habits appeared first on Medschoolmedic.

Ebbinghaus klingt jetzt nicht wirklich nach Fotografie sondern irgendwie nach Medizin. Tatsächlich hat Ebbinghouse (wie er richtig heißt) in der Psychologie sein zu Hause.Aber was er herausgefunden hat findet man in vielen (Touri) Bildern wieder. Wir denken da nur an den schiefen Turm von Pisa ...

Dr. Megan Sumeracki teaches us about Spacing, Retrieval, Interleaving, Elaboration, Dual-coding, and Concrete Examples. You will not want to miss this episode covering the evidence-based learning strategies that are proven to be the most effecting study methods. On today’s show, Dr. Megan Sumeracki will teach us about Spacing, Retrieval, Interleaving, Elaboration, Dual-coding, and Concrete Examples. Using these methods are a proven way to make your study time more efficient. Intro 2:16 The Learning Scientists Podcast & Bi-directional Communication 4:13 The Importance of Learning Research as open-access 5:27 The Six Strategies of Effective Learning from the Institute for Education Sciences (2007?) & The National Council for Teaching Quality Report (2016?) 7:45 A Brief History of Spacing and Retrieval Practice, Ebbinghaus, and Memory Accessibility 9:57 What is Spacing and How do We Use it? 12:17 The Ins and Outs of Retrieval Practice 14:47 Interleaving Your Study Practice (19:10 Taylor and Rore? 2010 blocking v. interleaving) 21:20 Elaborative Interrogation: The How, When, Why, and Where of Your Study Material 24:40 Dual Coding: Combining Visual information with your Learning! 28:05 Concrete Examples: The More the Merrier 32:54 Closing Advise from Dr. Sumeracki: Use These Strategies!!! Also, you can find Dr. Sumeracki’s books on Amazon, research articles, and some great podcasts by the Learning Scientists on Retrieval for medical residents, and an interview with her sister, Dr. Alyssa Smith.

Empezamos con el olvido y acabamos hablando de Facebook. En este episodio revisamos algunas aplicaciones móviles para ayudar a personas con alergias o intolerancias alimentarias. ¿Es útil la tecnología en estos casos? Paseamos por el lado hacker (pero con hackers buenos, que quede claro) y escuchamos un trocito del Quijote. Ah, y tal vez ya sea posible que nos veas en Youtube. Ebbinghaus estaría muy orgulloso de nosotros. La entrada Episodio 39: Ebbinghaus y los alérgenos se publicó primero en Conectando Puntos.

Empezamos con el olvido y acabamos hablando de Facebook. En este episodio revisamos algunas aplicaciones móviles para ayudar a personas con alergias o intolerancias alimentarias. ¿Es útil la tecnología en estos casos? Paseamos por el lado hacker (pero con hackers buenos, que quede claro) y escuchamos un trocito del Quijote. Ah, y tal vez ya sea posible que nos veas en Youtube. Ebbinghaus estaría muy orgulloso de nosotros. La entrada Episodio 39: Ebbinghaus y los alérgenos se publicó primero en Conectando Puntos.

E4 – Do You Attend 1-Day Training and Do Nothing with It? Are You Failing to Make Learning Stick? Have you ever attended a 1-day training course, returned to the office and done nothing different. You’re one of many who fails to make learning stick. The return on time & money invested is therefore zero. In this podcast, we discuss this common story; You work in the corporate world, you attend 1-day training courses. You come back and get on with your work. Nothing changes. We spend 10 years at school going to lesson after lesson. Yet, we then get out into the big wide world and expect to learn a skill between 9-5 in a training course. It simply can not happen. Similar to when you learnt to drive. The average person takes 40 driving lessons. And then they pass. In the science of learning, this is called, ‘Spaced Repetition’. It simply means that we learn, we take a break, we learn, we take a break, and so on. Also, we are applying what we are learning all the time, as we drive. In short, we are making the learning stick. Yet on 1-day training courses, we learn the theory, there is some practice, but not enough. Read the Make Learning Stick Podcast Transcript: “People go on one-day training courses, come back, and nothing’s changed. My name is Darren Smith, and you’re at home with Sticky Learning MBM, trainers to the UK grocery industry. So I spent 15 years in the corporate world and I attended one-day training courses. HR would come along or you’d have your appraisal and there’ll be a list of courses that you could attend, my team could attend, and you’d worked through some sort of very complex process to arrive at Bob needed time management skills, or John needed negotiation skills, and the date was set with HR. These guys went on a training course normally with a bunch of other companies, but it could be internal.” No One Questions Why Our Behaviours Don’t Change Following Training “Now here’s the surprising thing. We go to school, we have double English every week, if not two lots, for many, many years to try and get us to understand that topic and then when we leave school, we go to the corporate world, spend a huge amount on training. I’d expect our behaviours to change and of course, they don’t and no one really questions it. You’d go on a course, you come back, your manager might say, “How was it?” That was fine. And you try and get on with the rest of your day, which was piling up. And that’s all you really thought about whilst you were on this one-day training course.” “So for 50 plus years, who can blame anyone? The norm is you go on a one-day training course, you come back and nothing changes. Nowadays, the learning gurus understand about blended learning or 70/20/10, but what I want to talk about is really simple. It’s doing learning or training and then changing behaviour. Because if you’re not, all that’s happening is learning transfer. You’re going on a course or you’re talking to someone or you’re learning something and they’re passing on that information, but you’re not doing anything with it. As someone once said, information without application is just entertainment. And whilst the courses that I’m sure you’re going on aren’t that entertaining, that’s all that’s happening. You’re being entertained. Because we’re not achieving that crucial behavioural change. Aye, you’re doing something different when you’re at work.” Three Simple Steps to Get the Most from Your Training Investment and Make Learning Truly Stick “So I want to talk through three simple things that can be done in order to get the very most out of your investment in training, be you were learner or an HR manager and we talk to a lot of HR managers that are fried, frustrated because their people come back from training courses and nothing has changed. Yet they’ve ticked a box, and if ticked boxing is all you want to do, then this isn’t for you. If you genuinely want the learner to get a better return on investment from their time, and you for your company getting a better return on your money spent, then doing something different is crucial. Let me take you through these three steps.” My New iPhone “A few weeks ago I got a brand new iPhone, a seven. I’m not quite up to date with the kids, but a seven isn’t bad. When I opened that box, I’m excited and I’m turning it on, pairing up and I’m trying all these different things. I’m using the different apps, the bits of technology, the heart function on it. I’m interested. So I’m interested, so my individual learning objective, whilst not quite conscious, was I want to learn it because I’m excited, because I’m interested, because I think it will add some value to my life and also it’s a little something to talk about. So my individual learning objective, my ILO is I want to understand it for me. Everyone needs an individual learning objective. Now once we get to that point of people understanding I’m going on a course or I’m doing a piece of learning or it’s a seven-day course, it doesn’t really matter, as long as it’s a piece of learning. Once they understand that they need to know what’s in it for them, what are they want to get from it?” Simple Individual Learning Objectives to Make Learning Stick “And what I don’t mean is I want to be a better time manager. That simply won’t work because they’re ticking a box. It has to be truly about them. I want to go home at five every night. I want to be less stressed. Also, I want to manage this project so much better and deliver it on time. That’s what we want. Now they’ll learn a whole bunch of other things. What we need to make sure is that they have what they truly want and it has to be a problem. The problem is this. And it has to be specific, ideally a smart individual learning objective, but let’s just start with something specific to them that’s a problem. I don’t get this iPhone phone thing and how it works, therefore I’m going to go and fix that. I keep getting beaten up by my bar in negotiation skills and I don’t want to be beaten up anymore. Let’s fix that. So, part one is the learner needs an individual learning objective or put really simply, what the hell do they want to get out of the time that they’re investing in this learning?” Learning to Drive “Part two. I was 17. I’m at home. Mom and dad were excited. We’re in the living room. It’s my birthday. Now, as a surprise present, they said, “Look out the window.” And there it is. The car with the L on top. My heart sank. And I didn’t know then what I know now, the reason my heart sank. So mom and dad have bought me a present. Of course, I went outside. Talked to Dave, my new driving instructor. He said, get in the car in the driver’s side. He pretty much went through, there’s the steering wheel, these are the pedals, that’s go, let’s… Off we go.” “I came back after an hour. Mum, Dad said, “How was it?” I just said I’d hated it. Now, I didn’t want to say that, it was my birthday present, but I did. I absolutely hated it. And what I understand now, but didn’t back then, is that my driving instructor was an activist. Now there’s a lot of research around whether learning styles exist or not. Let’s not get sucked into that. Let’s say there is something about how we prefer to learn with a particular activity and it can change. So my driving instructor was an activist, which was pretty much, there it is getting on with it. My learning style’s reflector, which means I want to have a think about it. I want stuff to be explained and then me to go slightly daydreaming and then I’ll come back. There is some science around the mnemonic, P-A-R-T, which is pragmatist activist, reflect to theorist, which suggests you go through all four of those learning styles, but you just join that roundabout at a different place.” People Learn in Different Ways “For now, let’s just say that people learn very differently and they need to consume the learning in the way they want to consume. So for you at your desk, if you’re teaching someone Excel, you might not get the best out of them if you show them how to do it. They might need to do it, which is an activist or you might need to explain it and then they’ll come back later and say, did you mean this? That’s a reflector. So allow the learners to consume the learning in the way they need to learn it best. And they may not even know it, but introduced an activist and reflector at least we start that common language.” Ebbinghaus “The last one comes back to some old research, we’re talking mid-1800s, by a German psychologist called Herman Ebbinghaus. Now broadly, what he said was that if you don’t use what you’ve learned after 30 days, you’ll lose it. Now, there’s a lot more to the science that you came up with, but we’re talking very old science that’s still very useful today. So, if you’ve go on a one-day training course and you don’t use what you’ve learned within 30 days, it will be gone. What a waste. What a shame. You will have failed to make your leaning stick. So, we need to use what we’ve learnt.” Creating Habits for Long Term Change “B.J. Fogg is a professor at Stanford. He’s the grandfather of habit formation. I’m introducing him because I want you to understand that you need to create a habit. So for me, I broke my foot some years ago playing volleyball, a fantastic leap in the air, at least eight feet off the ground, or at least I thought it was, came down, broke my foot. The doctor gave me exercises to get my ankle strength back. The best way to do that was for me to tack the habits, the behaviour onto an existing habit. So imagine me brushing my teeth every morning, toothbrush in my right hand, toothbrush in my mouth, left foot, swinging around for the two or three minutes it took me to brush my teeth.” “If you want to change your behaviour because you’ve learnt something new, piggyback it onto a current habit. Like me brushing my teeth, I did my ankle exercises. For you, it might be time management. You need to write your daily to-do list. So before you open the lid of your laptop, and maybe your to-do list is in the lid of your laptop, and that’ll remind you to write your to-do list before you get stuck into your emails. Try and disrupt your behaviour. Try and add it on to a current habit.” Final Thoughts “So in summary, one-day training courses don’t work. They fail to make the learning stick. The science proves that. If you want to get more out of your learning, one, figure out what’s in it for you. Two, begin to understand how you want to consume the material. And three, do something with it within 30 days, ideally adding it onto a current habit that you do. Thank you.” Read more about how Sticky Learning will make your learning really stick and improve your return on investment from training. Haven’t got time? Simply watch our short video. We are delighted to announce that our Podcast: Personal Development Tips told through Short and Sticky Stories was selected as one of the Top 10 Negotiation Podcasts on the web by Feedspot. 

Claire Ebbinghaus has been the Ministries Facilitator at Kirkpatrick Memorial Presbyterian Church since 2015. She supports, both practically and pastorally, all the leaders of Kirkpatrick's ministries and organisations, including her husband, Christoph, who has been the minister at Kirkpatrick for 15 years. Claire shared that, "Leadership is the art of motivating a group of people to act towards achieving a common goal. To be a leader, we need to be clear about the goal of our leadership. We need to be clear about what goal we are trying to achieve and how we go about achieving it." That goal for Presbyterian Women is to encourage women to become disciples of Jesus Christ and to grow together as His followers. In order to achieve this goal, Claire explained that we needed to recognise that "you cannot make disciples if you are not a disciple yourself", and that good, biblical leadership is "about obedience rather than expertise" because Jesus will be at work in us and through us when we are willing and when we are open to Him.

Die Anforderung, dass Sie die Wirksamkeit von Schulungen prüfen müssen, besteht nicht nur seitens der ISO 9001:2015. Dies zu tun ist überdies auch absolut sinnvoll. Diese Podcast-Episode ist der fünfte von sechs Episoden zu Themen rund um Schulung und Wirksamkeitsprüfung. Im vorherigen Teil haben wir uns mit der Vergessenskurve nach Ebbinghaus beschäftigt. Es ist wichtig,...

Wenn Sie die Episode 38 zum Zielgruppenfokus bei Schulungen noch nicht kennen, holen Sie das bitte hier nach, bevor Sie sich anhören, wie gnadenlos die Vergessenskurve nach Ebbinghaus zuschlägt. Darf ich vorstellen: Die Vergessenskurve Die Schulung ist vorbei und die Unterschriftenlisten ausgefüllt und archiviert. Und nun? Ab diesem Moment beginnt die Kurve des Vergessens. Der...

Wie werden Soundtracks zusammengestellt? Wie wird entschieden, welcher Track genau passt? Und wer arrangiert die einzelnen Titel zum fertigen Soundtrack? Peter F. Ebbinghaus ist ein Audio Team Agent und zuständig dafür, für Projekte die richtige Musik zu finden. Worauf er achten muss, wie er zu den großen Komponisten steht und wo die akustische Reise vermutlich hingeht - das hat er uns erzählt. Musik: http://www.bensound.com

出品：中国科普博览 SELF格致论道讲坛导语：记忆究竟影响一个人多少？如果失去了过去的记忆，我们还是原来的自己吗？人脑内有一个海马区，掌控了长期间记忆，若是受损，有可能从此无法形成新的记忆，这意味着无法认识新的人、无法记得5分钟前做了什么！“记忆某种程度上就代表了我们本身”，在SELF讲坛上，中科院神经科学研究所的李澄宇为我们揭开“记忆”神秘的面纱。---嘉宾介绍---李澄宇中国科学院神经科学研究所研究员以下内容为李澄宇演讲实录：各位下午好！非常荣幸有机会在这里和大家一起交流关于记忆的一些奥秘。记忆当然很重要，如果我们有一天突然丧失了记忆，比如说阿尔茨海默症患者，当我们走到路中间突然不记得自己是谁？为什么在这里？怎么回家？这是一个很可怕的事情，所以记忆当然很重要。但是因为我们已经社会化这么久了，所以其实遗忘掉在演化上我们和其他动物相比，是拥有类似的记忆的能力的，所以我在这里想向各位介绍一些有趣的例子，来说动物为什么需要学习和记忆。第一个例子，这白眉猴它所生活的空间相当之大，它的主要食物是成熟之后的果实，它生存的空间里面有大概10万棵树，在任何一个时刻成熟的果树有50棵，所以它需要赶在别的竞争对手之前找到这50棵树，对不对？要不然就被其他的鸟类吃掉了。所以需要学会找到这些树，然后记住它在哪里。第二个例子，如果你是一个捕食者，那么需要学会去捕食；如果是个被捕食者，需要学会不要被人吃掉，对不对？或者被别的动物吃掉。所以这是明显例子，这都是和记忆有很大的关系。我想问各位一个问题──在这张图片中哪一只是老大？可以告诉我吗？哪个是老大？中间那个是吧，我们并不是狒狒，但是我们很容易看出来谁是老大。如果你我们生活在这个群体里面，或者我们生活在人的群体里面──人的社会群体有非常强烈的等级制度──我们很容易理解，是需要学会这些等级制度和相关的行为的，所以学习是蛮重要的。接下来我想举一个更明确的例子，来说明学习记忆对生存的必要性。这边展示的是黑长尾猴，它生活在非洲，大概3到5公斤，是很小的一类猴子。在野外，黑长尾猴的生存相当不易，一岁之内的小的黑长尾猴有60%会死亡，其中至少70%是来自于捕食者。黑长尾猴的捕食者有主要分为三类：第一类是在陆地上捕食的──以豹子为代表──这些大型的捕食动物；第二类是在空中飞翔的──以战雕为代表的──翼展两米的捕食鸟类；第三种是蟒蛇，在草丛里面埋伏的准备捕食的。针对这三类不同的捕食者，黑长尾猴发展出了非常有效的警告性的呼叫声。这里我想请工作人员来播放这个声音，当黑长尾猴看到豹子的时候，它会发出这样的警告声音，黑长尾猴听到同伴这样的叫声的时候，它的第一反应要上树，为什么？豹子的体重大，它在树上跑的没有猴子快，所以在树上安全。曾经有人观察到一只豹子追一只黑长尾猴，在树上追了一个小时没有追到，所以树上是安全的。如果看到的是鹰，那么警报声是这样子的，非常短促，如果听到这样的声音，那么正确的反应是马上进入灌木丛。我刚刚说战雕翼展两米，所以在灌木里面它是无法飞行和捕食的，灌木丛里安全。如果看到是蛇，那么警告声音是这样的，很短促的声音，如果听到说这种警告式叫声的话，那么正确的反应是站起来向四面看，因为蟒蛇主要靠潜伏来捕食，在草丛里面你正好踩到蟒蛇身上了，它把你吃掉了。如果你听到的是鹰的警告声，然后你的反应是进灌木丛，那对不起，一般那蟒蛇在，如果你走错的话，那么后果是很悲惨的。刚才是警告性的声音，这是很重要的发现，但是Cheney和Seyfarth他们两个人在长期的关注──他们发展的这样有趣的实验来证明“观察学习”的重要性。我刚才说幼儿的这个黑长尾猴它的死亡率是很高的，他们就对这种幼儿的一岁以下的黑长尾猴播放刚才那三种声音，音箱放到草丛里面播放，看它们的反应是不是对。然后在分析的时候，把这种反应分成两类：左边一类是在小猴反应之前，先看一下成年猴，你看他做正确的反应的次数就远高于做错误反应的次数。如果这些小猴没有看一下成年猴，就直接做了反应了，那么它们出错的几率是很高的，做正确或错误差不多。请各位再回想一下，我刚才说一岁之内的小猴60%会死亡，多数是来自于捕食的话，就会意识到现在的这个差别，看一下和不看一下，观察一下、不观察一下对于生存有着非常重要的意义。所以这是一个例子，我觉得很有趣，是说明在野外其实动物是非常依赖于学习记忆的。接下来我想向各位介绍一下什么是“学习记忆”，但不是传统意义上的介绍，因为大家都知道学习记忆，都明白──经验引起了后续的行为改变──就是学习和记忆。我想说的是我们在实验室里面怎么去研究学习记忆？我想向各位展示一个视频，是黑猩猩它们去做一个工作记忆的任务。这并不是说黑猩猩的短时间的工作记忆能力比人强，这是因为它做这任务时，每做对一次，就有一个花生可以吃。我们在实验室里面也让我们的实验动物或者人，做类似的类似的行为：比如说在这个任务里面我们先给受试者一个视觉刺激，然后延迟的时候把样本隐藏起来，选择的时候，我要让人或者是动物选择一个和刚才样本不一样的刺激，就这样一个任务。或者是病人──比如说精神分裂症患者──来做这样的事情，可以看到X轴就是给不同的样本的数量；Y轴是出现错误的几率，即使正常的红色的线也是随着要我记得信息越来越多，我出错的几率会越大，对吧？这是正常的。但是精神分裂症患者，他们出的错误就更高。做基础研究对于临床或者对我们实际生活其实是有很大的关系的，比如说工作记忆这种，它是一个非常基础的研究，对不对？但是其实我们的很多患者都有很严重的工作记忆的问题。 当我自己躺在我们的所里面的核磁功能共振成像仪器里面，我自己做刚才这个任务，这是我自己的脑子的反应，至少这个脑子看起来还比较正常。如果侧过来看的话，额叶顶叶这两个脑区在我做工作记忆的任务的时候──需要短时间的记住一个信息──它会被激活，就颜色比较热的这种地方，颜色比较蓝的地方就是被抑制的地方，所以我们的脑子其实有很多特定的脑区，是在帮助我们做这种行为的。但是我还不太愿意把我自己脑子切开来，然后把它拿出来看我的脑子是怎么工作的，所以我们需要和刚才几位老师说的一样，需要各种各样的动物模型，所以在我们实验室里面主要用小鼠作为模型来研究工作记忆，这种短暂的存储信息的这种能力。我们所使用的是嗅觉──因为小鼠是一个嗅觉很好的动物──我们会给它两次气味，两个气味中间会有延迟期几秒钟，如果两个气味是不一样，那么它要舔，来得到水；如果两个气味是一样的，那就不用舔，因为没有水。就这样一个任务。这个任务的好处是在时间上，把感觉、记忆、抉择给它分开来，这是我们这么设计的原因。接下来我会展示一个视频，看小鼠怎么做这个任务：我们现在要给它一个气味──气味A──延迟──还要记住，然后气味B，不一样，那么它舔来得到水；在下一次任务里面，两个气味是一样的──气味B──延迟──还是气味B，它没有再舔，所以小鼠知道这个任务怎么回事。这边展示是我们的实际数据，我们其实也经过很长时间，大概五年左右的时间，来证明小鼠的前额叶这个脑区，它对于这个工作记忆是蛮重要的。我们用一种叫做光遗传的技术，用光来调控神经元活动这样一个方法。右边下面所示就是如果你给光的话，那么神经元的活动就会被抑制，而且时间尺度的话是秒级的，所以可以在很短的时间里面去操控神经元活动。左边就是我们的数据，可以看到如果你给光去操控神经活动，小鼠的行为和正常小鼠相比就会变差，那就证明了内侧前叶这个脑区，它对工作记忆这个行为是很重要的。接下来我想离开我们实验室，进入更广大的一个空间来来问问看──什么是记忆的机理？我们要研究一个东西时候都要看它的边界在哪里？什么时候它会失败，对不对？所以我想讲几个例子，是记忆出问题的时候，第一个例子我想说的是──不是所有发生事情都会被记住。我想请各位看一个视频，请关注“穿白色的运动员传球的次数”，现在开始播放我们的视频。多少次？有人答对了，很好。有人看到大猩猩了吗？大概有一半会看不到。有没有人看到穿黑色的运动员走掉？还有颜色变化？其实这叫做非注意性失忆──如果你没有注意，那你是不会记住的──这很正常，对吧？世界中不停的发生很多的随机事件，所以我们其实不要把所有的事情都记下来，我们的记忆只记那些对我们有重要意义的事情，对吧？所以非注意性失忆是有它的意义的。我还想说一个“记忆的极限”，不是所有时候的学习都是一样的效果。我们的语言能力，大家都认为是很自然，对不对？每个人都会说话。这个是依赖于所谓关键期的，在2到7岁的时候，我们必须要经历语言这个经验，如果这时候没有语言经验，那么结果会非常的可怕。 这边图示的这个小女孩叫做Genie，她的父亲是严重的精神分裂症患者，在这个小女孩13岁之前，他都把这个小女孩捆在家里面，用铁链子捆在床上，他们生活在农村，周围几十里地都没什么人，所以直到13岁的时候，她才被别人发现、被解救出来。她的精神分裂症患者的父亲并不说话，所以在13岁之前Genie是没有语言经验。这当然是一个很悲剧的事情，但是对于科学家来说是这个很难得的机会，可以看当你在13岁之前没有语言经验的时候，会有什么样的结果？所以安排了全世界最好的教育家、语言教育家去教Genie语言，专门安排了博士生去跟踪Genie，看她的语言能力发展。在七、八年之后，这个学生博士生毕业的时候，结论是Genie能够说的最长的句子是两个词。专门有文章发表去争论她到底说的是两个词还是三个词。七、八年每天都是长期的训练，只能得到这样的结果。之后Genie因为她变得很有名、有很多书、文章去讲她，所以她在哪里是一个秘密。但是她是被收养，终生她是不能够独立生活而且是不说话的。这就是告诉我们一个问题，这关键期在我们小的时候，有一些非常重要的一些能力我们必须去学习，这是为什么我们从小的时候要学数学，如果过了这个关键期你不学这些能力的话，其实我们是有很大的问题。如果是一个成人，脑子受了损伤，记忆也会出问题。我这里想举一个在神经科学界非常重要的例子，一个叫做海马的脑区，如果海马这个脑区出现问题，那么会出现很严重的记忆障碍。它叫海马是因为这个组织长的和真正的海马很像，所以叫做海马，很漂亮的一个结构。 有一个人叫做HM，他因为严重的癫痫，所以在他20多岁左右的时候，医生把他会产生癫痫的部分脑区摘除掉了，就癫痫灶拿掉了，几乎全部海马都给拿掉了，人们马上发现做完手术之后，HM这个病人他已经不再是HM，他无法形成新的记忆，在手术之前的记忆还在，没有问题，但是新的记忆无法形成了，所以后来照顾他的新进来的护士医生，每次见到他都必须向他自我介绍；即使你出了房间去喝了杯咖啡，五分钟以后再回来，他就完全忘记你是谁了。我给大家举一个例子，Howard Eichanbaum现在是美国波士顿大学的教授，他在读博士生的时候研究HM，他的任务之一就是每天早上开车去把HM从家里面接到医院去研究、做各种各样的实验。有一天早上Howard Eichanbaum吃早饭时候，喝了杯McDonald's的咖啡，在那咖啡杯上印了McDonald's这几个字，他开车时候把这个咖啡放到前座上面车窗那边。HM一看到这个杯子说：唉，我小时候有一个朋友，叫McDonald，然后他和我是很好的朋友，我们两个一起打棒球，打的非常好，我们也有很多很好的故事，这是一个很愉快的交谈过程。这个交谈过程结束了，HM看了窗外看了一会，回来又看到这个杯子──我小时候认识一个朋友叫McDonald的，我以前和他是一块儿打棒球，打的非常好，我们有很好的故事……一模一样的故事又讲了一遍。然后结果结束以后，他又看了会窗外，一会儿又看见了这个杯子──我小时候有一个朋友叫McDonald，我以前……同样的故事，又讲了第三遍。讲到第三遍的时候，Howard Eichanbaum就偷偷的把这个咖啡杯拿下来，放到自己座位里面，要不然他这一路上会一直讲这个故事，这是一个典型的例子告诉我们海马多么的重要。HM和他的父亲关系非常之好，他父亲在他手术一段时间之后去世。HM每次听到父亲去世的消息，都非常悲痛，每次都处在同样的巨大悲痛之中。所以，如果我们无法形成新的记忆，我们就不再是以前的自己了。因为HM以及相关的一些其他脑区损伤的病人，我们现在知道我们的记忆是分不同类型的，比如说HM他的长时间记忆有很大的问题，但是他的短时间记忆，或者我刚才说的让小鼠做或者我自己做的工作记忆没有问题。你看刚才他是可以和Howard Eichanbaum很好地进行对话，这个时候都需要用到工作记忆的。 在长时程记忆里面又分成“陈述式记忆”和“非陈述式记忆”。HM的主要是陈述式记忆出问题，也就是说这种可以被陈述出来的事情，不管是事实还是一个场景──我昨天和谁一块吃饭、说什么话呀、吃什么东西……这些时间、地点、人物，这种“场景记忆”。海马是很重要的，或者是“事实记忆”，对吧？“南海是中国的。”这是一个是事实记忆。“非陈述式记忆”比如说“运动记忆”──骑自行车，这是一个运动记忆，大家都经过运动以后学会的。HM他是可以学会新的运动技能的，做的非常好、和普通人差不多，但是他拒绝承认自己学过。所以“记得自己学过”这是一个陈述式的记忆；但是“学这个动作本身”是个非陈述式的记忆。或者是一些“情感记忆”、“情绪记忆”──比如说“南海是中国的！”是吧？这就是情绪记忆。所以记忆分不同类别。那么记忆的核心原理是什么呢？因为时间关系，所以我只能讲很小的一部分──因为这里有大量的工作，其实科学家做了大量的工作来问记忆是什么原理。我们脑大概850亿到1000亿个神经元，这些神经元通过是一千个到10万个突触，来形成突触联系、来进行交流。神经元长得很漂亮，图上左边就是显示了几个神经元的样子，你看它们长得很大的、天线一样的形状，就是接受输入的地方；它们还长出很纤细的、很长的叫“轴突”的这种结构，来传输自己的这个信号，那么接受这个信号的地方就叫做“突触”。这种突触很重要，而且它可以被神经元自己的活动来调控──当突触前和突触后神经元活动按照一定的规则来运行的时候，突触活动的强度会被增强或者减弱，而且在我们学习的过程中，这种突触的活动增强或者减弱是可以被观察到的，而且如果你阻止这种活动的改变，那么会影响学习。所以人们一般认为，这个突触的改变是我们学习记忆的核心机制。刚才说的是单个的神经元之间的连接，而群体网络层面，一般认为是“吸引子网络”来解释记忆是怎么回事。所谓的吸引子，很简单──碗就是一个吸引子──如果你把一个玻璃珠放到碗的边上，一放手它会落到碗的底部，所谓吸引子的底部，那么我们的记忆在经过学习的过程中，我们的突触连接的改变，其实就形成了各种各样的吸引子。这种吸引子的好处是部分信息可以提取出完整的信息。 在座更关注的可能是“学习记忆怎么被提高”对不对？我想给大家一个好的消息，学习记忆是可以提高的！怎么被提高呢？就是“记好多次”。这是一个非常严肃的结论。右边图这个人叫做Ebbinghaus，他是第一个严肃的研究记忆的心理学的一个科学家，他发现：底下x轴显示的是我在一天之前，学习一些材料，我所做的学习次数；Y轴就是在一天之后，我重新学习又要需要多长时间。可以看到如果你学的次数越多，那么第二天你就花的时间越少来学会，就说明你学习次数多，就记得好，对不对？所以勤奋是必要的。还要“睡得好”，如果记录头皮脑电的话，那么在人睡眠的时候，可以看到“慢波”，这边显示的每一个小的波动就是一个慢波，在全脑里面是很大尺度的神经元活动。德国科学家发现，如果你在人睡眠的时候，在脑子里面引发这种慢波，那么可以记得更好。他实际上让学生晚上学习外语，然后在睡觉时候去电刺激脑子，引起更多慢波，第二天早上起来问他学的词汇还记住多少？如果你做过电刺激，那么学得更多。我并不是建议大家晚上回去以后就电刺激自己脑子，因为你并不一定总要记住昨天晚上的事情，对吧？我想结语是，在一定程度上，其实在一定程度上，“我们就是我们的记忆”，更多的记忆的奥秘等待我们发现！谢谢各位！“SELF格致论道”是中国科学院全力推出、中国科普博览承办的科学讲坛，致力于精英思想的跨界传播，由中国科学院计算机网络信息中心和中国科学院科学传播局联合主办。登陆“SELF格致论道”官方网站、关注微信公众号“SELF格致论道讲坛”、微博“SELF格致论道”获取更多信息。更多合作与SELF工作组self@cnic.cn联系。

出品：中国科普博览 SELF格致论道讲坛导语：记忆究竟影响一个人多少？如果失去了过去的记忆，我们还是原来的自己吗？人脑内有一个海马区，掌控了长期间记忆，若是受损，有可能从此无法形成新的记忆，这意味着无法认识新的人、无法记得5分钟前做了什么！“记忆某种程度上就代表了我们本身”，在SELF讲坛上，中科院神经科学研究所的李澄宇为我们揭开“记忆”神秘的面纱。---嘉宾介绍---李澄宇中国科学院神经科学研究所研究员以下内容为李澄宇演讲实录：各位下午好！非常荣幸有机会在这里和大家一起交流关于记忆的一些奥秘。记忆当然很重要，如果我们有一天突然丧失了记忆，比如说阿尔茨海默症患者，当我们走到路中间突然不记得自己是谁？为什么在这里？怎么回家？这是一个很可怕的事情，所以记忆当然很重要。但是因为我们已经社会化这么久了，所以其实遗忘掉在演化上我们和其他动物相比，是拥有类似的记忆的能力的，所以我在这里想向各位介绍一些有趣的例子，来说动物为什么需要学习和记忆。第一个例子，这白眉猴它所生活的空间相当之大，它的主要食物是成熟之后的果实，它生存的空间里面有大概10万棵树，在任何一个时刻成熟的果树有50棵，所以它需要赶在别的竞争对手之前找到这50棵树，对不对？要不然就被其他的鸟类吃掉了。所以需要学会找到这些树，然后记住它在哪里。第二个例子，如果你是一个捕食者，那么需要学会去捕食；如果是个被捕食者，需要学会不要被人吃掉，对不对？或者被别的动物吃掉。所以这是明显例子，这都是和记忆有很大的关系。我想问各位一个问题──在这张图片中哪一只是老大？可以告诉我吗？哪个是老大？中间那个是吧，我们并不是狒狒，但是我们很容易看出来谁是老大。如果你我们生活在这个群体里面，或者我们生活在人的群体里面──人的社会群体有非常强烈的等级制度──我们很容易理解，是需要学会这些等级制度和相关的行为的，所以学习是蛮重要的。接下来我想举一个更明确的例子，来说明学习记忆对生存的必要性。这边展示的是黑长尾猴，它生活在非洲，大概3到5公斤，是很小的一类猴子。在野外，黑长尾猴的生存相当不易，一岁之内的小的黑长尾猴有60%会死亡，其中至少70%是来自于捕食者。黑长尾猴的捕食者有主要分为三类：第一类是在陆地上捕食的──以豹子为代表──这些大型的捕食动物；第二类是在空中飞翔的──以战雕为代表的──翼展两米的捕食鸟类；第三种是蟒蛇，在草丛里面埋伏的准备捕食的。针对这三类不同的捕食者，黑长尾猴发展出了非常有效的警告性的呼叫声。这里我想请工作人员来播放这个声音，当黑长尾猴看到豹子的时候，它会发出这样的警告声音，黑长尾猴听到同伴这样的叫声的时候，它的第一反应要上树，为什么？豹子的体重大，它在树上跑的没有猴子快，所以在树上安全。曾经有人观察到一只豹子追一只黑长尾猴，在树上追了一个小时没有追到，所以树上是安全的。如果看到的是鹰，那么警报声是这样子的，非常短促，如果听到这样的声音，那么正确的反应是马上进入灌木丛。我刚刚说战雕翼展两米，所以在灌木里面它是无法飞行和捕食的，灌木丛里安全。如果看到是蛇，那么警告声音是这样的，很短促的声音，如果听到说这种警告式叫声的话，那么正确的反应是站起来向四面看，因为蟒蛇主要靠潜伏来捕食，在草丛里面你正好踩到蟒蛇身上了，它把你吃掉了。如果你听到的是鹰的警告声，然后你的反应是进灌木丛，那对不起，一般那蟒蛇在，如果你走错的话，那么后果是很悲惨的。刚才是警告性的声音，这是很重要的发现，但是Cheney和Seyfarth他们两个人在长期的关注──他们发展的这样有趣的实验来证明“观察学习”的重要性。我刚才说幼儿的这个黑长尾猴它的死亡率是很高的，他们就对这种幼儿的一岁以下的黑长尾猴播放刚才那三种声音，音箱放到草丛里面播放，看它们的反应是不是对。然后在分析的时候，把这种反应分成两类：左边一类是在小猴反应之前，先看一下成年猴，你看他做正确的反应的次数就远高于做错误反应的次数。如果这些小猴没有看一下成年猴，就直接做了反应了，那么它们出错的几率是很高的，做正确或错误差不多。请各位再回想一下，我刚才说一岁之内的小猴60%会死亡，多数是来自于捕食的话，就会意识到现在的这个差别，看一下和不看一下，观察一下、不观察一下对于生存有着非常重要的意义。所以这是一个例子，我觉得很有趣，是说明在野外其实动物是非常依赖于学习记忆的。接下来我想向各位介绍一下什么是“学习记忆”，但不是传统意义上的介绍，因为大家都知道学习记忆，都明白──经验引起了后续的行为改变──就是学习和记忆。我想说的是我们在实验室里面怎么去研究学习记忆？我想向各位展示一个视频，是黑猩猩它们去做一个工作记忆的任务。这并不是说黑猩猩的短时间的工作记忆能力比人强，这是因为它做这任务时，每做对一次，就有一个花生可以吃。我们在实验室里面也让我们的实验动物或者人，做类似的类似的行为：比如说在这个任务里面我们先给受试者一个视觉刺激，然后延迟的时候把样本隐藏起来，选择的时候，我要让人或者是动物选择一个和刚才样本不一样的刺激，就这样一个任务。或者是病人──比如说精神分裂症患者──来做这样的事情，可以看到X轴就是给不同的样本的数量；Y轴是出现错误的几率，即使正常的红色的线也是随着要我记得信息越来越多，我出错的几率会越大，对吧？这是正常的。但是精神分裂症患者，他们出的错误就更高。做基础研究对于临床或者对我们实际生活其实是有很大的关系的，比如说工作记忆这种，它是一个非常基础的研究，对不对？但是其实我们的很多患者都有很严重的工作记忆的问题。 当我自己躺在我们的所里面的核磁功能共振成像仪器里面，我自己做刚才这个任务，这是我自己的脑子的反应，至少这个脑子看起来还比较正常。如果侧过来看的话，额叶顶叶这两个脑区在我做工作记忆的任务的时候──需要短时间的记住一个信息──它会被激活，就颜色比较热的这种地方，颜色比较蓝的地方就是被抑制的地方，所以我们的脑子其实有很多特定的脑区，是在帮助我们做这种行为的。但是我还不太愿意把我自己脑子切开来，然后把它拿出来看我的脑子是怎么工作的，所以我们需要和刚才几位老师说的一样，需要各种各样的动物模型，所以在我们实验室里面主要用小鼠作为模型来研究工作记忆，这种短暂的存储信息的这种能力。我们所使用的是嗅觉──因为小鼠是一个嗅觉很好的动物──我们会给它两次气味，两个气味中间会有延迟期几秒钟，如果两个气味是不一样，那么它要舔，来得到水；如果两个气味是一样的，那就不用舔，因为没有水。就这样一个任务。这个任务的好处是在时间上，把感觉、记忆、抉择给它分开来，这是我们这么设计的原因。接下来我会展示一个视频，看小鼠怎么做这个任务：我们现在要给它一个气味──气味A──延迟──还要记住，然后气味B，不一样，那么它舔来得到水；在下一次任务里面，两个气味是一样的──气味B──延迟──还是气味B，它没有再舔，所以小鼠知道这个任务怎么回事。这边展示是我们的实际数据，我们其实也经过很长时间，大概五年左右的时间，来证明小鼠的前额叶这个脑区，它对于这个工作记忆是蛮重要的。我们用一种叫做光遗传的技术，用光来调控神经元活动这样一个方法。右边下面所示就是如果你给光的话，那么神经元的活动就会被抑制，而且时间尺度的话是秒级的，所以可以在很短的时间里面去操控神经元活动。左边就是我们的数据，可以看到如果你给光去操控神经活动，小鼠的行为和正常小鼠相比就会变差，那就证明了内侧前叶这个脑区，它对工作记忆这个行为是很重要的。接下来我想离开我们实验室，进入更广大的一个空间来来问问看──什么是记忆的机理？我们要研究一个东西时候都要看它的边界在哪里？什么时候它会失败，对不对？所以我想讲几个例子，是记忆出问题的时候，第一个例子我想说的是──不是所有发生事情都会被记住。我想请各位看一个视频，请关注“穿白色的运动员传球的次数”，现在开始播放我们的视频。多少次？有人答对了，很好。有人看到大猩猩了吗？大概有一半会看不到。有没有人看到穿黑色的运动员走掉？还有颜色变化？其实这叫做非注意性失忆──如果你没有注意，那你是不会记住的──这很正常，对吧？世界中不停的发生很多的随机事件，所以我们其实不要把所有的事情都记下来，我们的记忆只记那些对我们有重要意义的事情，对吧？所以非注意性失忆是有它的意义的。我还想说一个“记忆的极限”，不是所有时候的学习都是一样的效果。我们的语言能力，大家都认为是很自然，对不对？每个人都会说话。这个是依赖于所谓关键期的，在2到7岁的时候，我们必须要经历语言这个经验，如果这时候没有语言经验，那么结果会非常的可怕。 这边图示的这个小女孩叫做Genie，她的父亲是严重的精神分裂症患者，在这个小女孩13岁之前，他都把这个小女孩捆在家里面，用铁链子捆在床上，他们生活在农村，周围几十里地都没什么人，所以直到13岁的时候，她才被别人发现、被解救出来。她的精神分裂症患者的父亲并不说话，所以在13岁之前Genie是没有语言经验。这当然是一个很悲剧的事情，但是对于科学家来说是这个很难得的机会，可以看当你在13岁之前没有语言经验的时候，会有什么样的结果？所以安排了全世界最好的教育家、语言教育家去教Genie语言，专门安排了博士生去跟踪Genie，看她的语言能力发展。在七、八年之后，这个学生博士生毕业的时候，结论是Genie能够说的最长的句子是两个词。专门有文章发表去争论她到底说的是两个词还是三个词。七、八年每天都是长期的训练，只能得到这样的结果。之后Genie因为她变得很有名、有很多书、文章去讲她，所以她在哪里是一个秘密。但是她是被收养，终生她是不能够独立生活而且是不说话的。这就是告诉我们一个问题，这关键期在我们小的时候，有一些非常重要的一些能力我们必须去学习，这是为什么我们从小的时候要学数学，如果过了这个关键期你不学这些能力的话，其实我们是有很大的问题。如果是一个成人，脑子受了损伤，记忆也会出问题。我这里想举一个在神经科学界非常重要的例子，一个叫做海马的脑区，如果海马这个脑区出现问题，那么会出现很严重的记忆障碍。它叫海马是因为这个组织长的和真正的海马很像，所以叫做海马，很漂亮的一个结构。 有一个人叫做HM，他因为严重的癫痫，所以在他20多岁左右的时候，医生把他会产生癫痫的部分脑区摘除掉了，就癫痫灶拿掉了，几乎全部海马都给拿掉了，人们马上发现做完手术之后，HM这个病人他已经不再是HM，他无法形成新的记忆，在手术之前的记忆还在，没有问题，但是新的记忆无法形成了，所以后来照顾他的新进来的护士医生，每次见到他都必须向他自我介绍；即使你出了房间去喝了杯咖啡，五分钟以后再回来，他就完全忘记你是谁了。我给大家举一个例子，Howard Eichanbaum现在是美国波士顿大学的教授，他在读博士生的时候研究HM，他的任务之一就是每天早上开车去把HM从家里面接到医院去研究、做各种各样的实验。有一天早上Howard Eichanbaum吃早饭时候，喝了杯McDonald's的咖啡，在那咖啡杯上印了McDonald's这几个字，他开车时候把这个咖啡放到前座上面车窗那边。HM一看到这个杯子说：唉，我小时候有一个朋友，叫McDonald，然后他和我是很好的朋友，我们两个一起打棒球，打的非常好，我们也有很多很好的故事，这是一个很愉快的交谈过程。这个交谈过程结束了，HM看了窗外看了一会，回来又看到这个杯子──我小时候认识一个朋友叫McDonald的，我以前和他是一块儿打棒球，打的非常好，我们有很好的故事……一模一样的故事又讲了一遍。然后结果结束以后，他又看了会窗外，一会儿又看见了这个杯子──我小时候有一个朋友叫McDonald，我以前……同样的故事，又讲了第三遍。讲到第三遍的时候，Howard Eichanbaum就偷偷的把这个咖啡杯拿下来，放到自己座位里面，要不然他这一路上会一直讲这个故事，这是一个典型的例子告诉我们海马多么的重要。HM和他的父亲关系非常之好，他父亲在他手术一段时间之后去世。HM每次听到父亲去世的消息，都非常悲痛，每次都处在同样的巨大悲痛之中。所以，如果我们无法形成新的记忆，我们就不再是以前的自己了。因为HM以及相关的一些其他脑区损伤的病人，我们现在知道我们的记忆是分不同类型的，比如说HM他的长时间记忆有很大的问题，但是他的短时间记忆，或者我刚才说的让小鼠做或者我自己做的工作记忆没有问题。你看刚才他是可以和Howard Eichanbaum很好地进行对话，这个时候都需要用到工作记忆的。 在长时程记忆里面又分成“陈述式记忆”和“非陈述式记忆”。HM的主要是陈述式记忆出问题，也就是说这种可以被陈述出来的事情，不管是事实还是一个场景──我昨天和谁一块吃饭、说什么话呀、吃什么东西……这些时间、地点、人物，这种“场景记忆”。海马是很重要的，或者是“事实记忆”，对吧？“南海是中国的。”这是一个是事实记忆。“非陈述式记忆”比如说“运动记忆”──骑自行车，这是一个运动记忆，大家都经过运动以后学会的。HM他是可以学会新的运动技能的，做的非常好、和普通人差不多，但是他拒绝承认自己学过。所以“记得自己学过”这是一个陈述式的记忆；但是“学这个动作本身”是个非陈述式的记忆。或者是一些“情感记忆”、“情绪记忆”──比如说“南海是中国的！”是吧？这就是情绪记忆。所以记忆分不同类别。那么记忆的核心原理是什么呢？因为时间关系，所以我只能讲很小的一部分──因为这里有大量的工作，其实科学家做了大量的工作来问记忆是什么原理。我们脑大概850亿到1000亿个神经元，这些神经元通过是一千个到10万个突触，来形成突触联系、来进行交流。神经元长得很漂亮，图上左边就是显示了几个神经元的样子，你看它们长得很大的、天线一样的形状，就是接受输入的地方；它们还长出很纤细的、很长的叫“轴突”的这种结构，来传输自己的这个信号，那么接受这个信号的地方就叫做“突触”。这种突触很重要，而且它可以被神经元自己的活动来调控──当突触前和突触后神经元活动按照一定的规则来运行的时候，突触活动的强度会被增强或者减弱，而且在我们学习的过程中，这种突触的活动增强或者减弱是可以被观察到的，而且如果你阻止这种活动的改变，那么会影响学习。所以人们一般认为，这个突触的改变是我们学习记忆的核心机制。刚才说的是单个的神经元之间的连接，而群体网络层面，一般认为是“吸引子网络”来解释记忆是怎么回事。所谓的吸引子，很简单──碗就是一个吸引子──如果你把一个玻璃珠放到碗的边上，一放手它会落到碗的底部，所谓吸引子的底部，那么我们的记忆在经过学习的过程中，我们的突触连接的改变，其实就形成了各种各样的吸引子。这种吸引子的好处是部分信息可以提取出完整的信息。 在座更关注的可能是“学习记忆怎么被提高”对不对？我想给大家一个好的消息，学习记忆是可以提高的！怎么被提高呢？就是“记好多次”。这是一个非常严肃的结论。右边图这个人叫做Ebbinghaus，他是第一个严肃的研究记忆的心理学的一个科学家，他发现：底下x轴显示的是我在一天之前，学习一些材料，我所做的学习次数；Y轴就是在一天之后，我重新学习又要需要多长时间。可以看到如果你学的次数越多，那么第二天你就花的时间越少来学会，就说明你学习次数多，就记得好，对不对？所以勤奋是必要的。还要“睡得好”，如果记录头皮脑电的话，那么在人睡眠的时候，可以看到“慢波”，这边显示的每一个小的波动就是一个慢波，在全脑里面是很大尺度的神经元活动。德国科学家发现，如果你在人睡眠的时候，在脑子里面引发这种慢波，那么可以记得更好。他实际上让学生晚上学习外语，然后在睡觉时候去电刺激脑子，引起更多慢波，第二天早上起来问他学的词汇还记住多少？如果你做过电刺激，那么学得更多。我并不是建议大家晚上回去以后就电刺激自己脑子，因为你并不一定总要记住昨天晚上的事情，对吧？我想结语是，在一定程度上，其实在一定程度上，“我们就是我们的记忆”，更多的记忆的奥秘等待我们发现！谢谢各位！“SELF格致论道”是中国科学院全力推出、中国科普博览承办的科学讲坛，致力于精英思想的跨界传播，由中国科学院计算机网络信息中心和中国科学院科学传播局联合主办。登陆“SELF格致论道”官方网站、关注微信公众号“SELF格致论道讲坛”、微博“SELF格致论道”获取更多信息。更多合作与SELF工作组self@cnic.cn联系。

出品：中国科普博览 SELF格致论道讲坛导语：记忆究竟影响一个人多少？如果失去了过去的记忆，我们还是原来的自己吗？人脑内有一个海马区，掌控了长期间记忆，若是受损，有可能从此无法形成新的记忆，这意味着无法认识新的人、无法记得5分钟前做了什么！“记忆某种程度上就代表了我们本身”，在SELF讲坛上，中科院神经科学研究所的李澄宇为我们揭开“记忆”神秘的面纱。---嘉宾介绍---李澄宇中国科学院神经科学研究所研究员以下内容为李澄宇演讲实录：各位下午好！非常荣幸有机会在这里和大家一起交流关于记忆的一些奥秘。记忆当然很重要，如果我们有一天突然丧失了记忆，比如说阿尔茨海默症患者，当我们走到路中间突然不记得自己是谁？为什么在这里？怎么回家？这是一个很可怕的事情，所以记忆当然很重要。但是因为我们已经社会化这么久了，所以其实遗忘掉在演化上我们和其他动物相比，是拥有类似的记忆的能力的，所以我在这里想向各位介绍一些有趣的例子，来说动物为什么需要学习和记忆。第一个例子，这白眉猴它所生活的空间相当之大，它的主要食物是成熟之后的果实，它生存的空间里面有大概10万棵树，在任何一个时刻成熟的果树有50棵，所以它需要赶在别的竞争对手之前找到这50棵树，对不对？要不然就被其他的鸟类吃掉了。所以需要学会找到这些树，然后记住它在哪里。第二个例子，如果你是一个捕食者，那么需要学会去捕食；如果是个被捕食者，需要学会不要被人吃掉，对不对？或者被别的动物吃掉。所以这是明显例子，这都是和记忆有很大的关系。我想问各位一个问题──在这张图片中哪一只是老大？可以告诉我吗？哪个是老大？中间那个是吧，我们并不是狒狒，但是我们很容易看出来谁是老大。如果你我们生活在这个群体里面，或者我们生活在人的群体里面──人的社会群体有非常强烈的等级制度──我们很容易理解，是需要学会这些等级制度和相关的行为的，所以学习是蛮重要的。接下来我想举一个更明确的例子，来说明学习记忆对生存的必要性。这边展示的是黑长尾猴，它生活在非洲，大概3到5公斤，是很小的一类猴子。在野外，黑长尾猴的生存相当不易，一岁之内的小的黑长尾猴有60%会死亡，其中至少70%是来自于捕食者。黑长尾猴的捕食者有主要分为三类：第一类是在陆地上捕食的──以豹子为代表──这些大型的捕食动物；第二类是在空中飞翔的──以战雕为代表的──翼展两米的捕食鸟类；第三种是蟒蛇，在草丛里面埋伏的准备捕食的。针对这三类不同的捕食者，黑长尾猴发展出了非常有效的警告性的呼叫声。这里我想请工作人员来播放这个声音，当黑长尾猴看到豹子的时候，它会发出这样的警告声音，黑长尾猴听到同伴这样的叫声的时候，它的第一反应要上树，为什么？豹子的体重大，它在树上跑的没有猴子快，所以在树上安全。曾经有人观察到一只豹子追一只黑长尾猴，在树上追了一个小时没有追到，所以树上是安全的。如果看到的是鹰，那么警报声是这样子的，非常短促，如果听到这样的声音，那么正确的反应是马上进入灌木丛。我刚刚说战雕翼展两米，所以在灌木里面它是无法飞行和捕食的，灌木丛里安全。如果看到是蛇，那么警告声音是这样的，很短促的声音，如果听到说这种警告式叫声的话，那么正确的反应是站起来向四面看，因为蟒蛇主要靠潜伏来捕食，在草丛里面你正好踩到蟒蛇身上了，它把你吃掉了。如果你听到的是鹰的警告声，然后你的反应是进灌木丛，那对不起，一般那蟒蛇在，如果你走错的话，那么后果是很悲惨的。刚才是警告性的声音，这是很重要的发现，但是Cheney和Seyfarth他们两个人在长期的关注──他们发展的这样有趣的实验来证明“观察学习”的重要性。我刚才说幼儿的这个黑长尾猴它的死亡率是很高的，他们就对这种幼儿的一岁以下的黑长尾猴播放刚才那三种声音，音箱放到草丛里面播放，看它们的反应是不是对。然后在分析的时候，把这种反应分成两类：左边一类是在小猴反应之前，先看一下成年猴，你看他做正确的反应的次数就远高于做错误反应的次数。如果这些小猴没有看一下成年猴，就直接做了反应了，那么它们出错的几率是很高的，做正确或错误差不多。请各位再回想一下，我刚才说一岁之内的小猴60%会死亡，多数是来自于捕食的话，就会意识到现在的这个差别，看一下和不看一下，观察一下、不观察一下对于生存有着非常重要的意义。所以这是一个例子，我觉得很有趣，是说明在野外其实动物是非常依赖于学习记忆的。接下来我想向各位介绍一下什么是“学习记忆”，但不是传统意义上的介绍，因为大家都知道学习记忆，都明白──经验引起了后续的行为改变──就是学习和记忆。我想说的是我们在实验室里面怎么去研究学习记忆？我想向各位展示一个视频，是黑猩猩它们去做一个工作记忆的任务。这并不是说黑猩猩的短时间的工作记忆能力比人强，这是因为它做这任务时，每做对一次，就有一个花生可以吃。我们在实验室里面也让我们的实验动物或者人，做类似的类似的行为：比如说在这个任务里面我们先给受试者一个视觉刺激，然后延迟的时候把样本隐藏起来，选择的时候，我要让人或者是动物选择一个和刚才样本不一样的刺激，就这样一个任务。或者是病人──比如说精神分裂症患者──来做这样的事情，可以看到X轴就是给不同的样本的数量；Y轴是出现错误的几率，即使正常的红色的线也是随着要我记得信息越来越多，我出错的几率会越大，对吧？这是正常的。但是精神分裂症患者，他们出的错误就更高。做基础研究对于临床或者对我们实际生活其实是有很大的关系的，比如说工作记忆这种，它是一个非常基础的研究，对不对？但是其实我们的很多患者都有很严重的工作记忆的问题。 当我自己躺在我们的所里面的核磁功能共振成像仪器里面，我自己做刚才这个任务，这是我自己的脑子的反应，至少这个脑子看起来还比较正常。如果侧过来看的话，额叶顶叶这两个脑区在我做工作记忆的任务的时候──需要短时间的记住一个信息──它会被激活，就颜色比较热的这种地方，颜色比较蓝的地方就是被抑制的地方，所以我们的脑子其实有很多特定的脑区，是在帮助我们做这种行为的。但是我还不太愿意把我自己脑子切开来，然后把它拿出来看我的脑子是怎么工作的，所以我们需要和刚才几位老师说的一样，需要各种各样的动物模型，所以在我们实验室里面主要用小鼠作为模型来研究工作记忆，这种短暂的存储信息的这种能力。我们所使用的是嗅觉──因为小鼠是一个嗅觉很好的动物──我们会给它两次气味，两个气味中间会有延迟期几秒钟，如果两个气味是不一样，那么它要舔，来得到水；如果两个气味是一样的，那就不用舔，因为没有水。就这样一个任务。这个任务的好处是在时间上，把感觉、记忆、抉择给它分开来，这是我们这么设计的原因。接下来我会展示一个视频，看小鼠怎么做这个任务：我们现在要给它一个气味──气味A──延迟──还要记住，然后气味B，不一样，那么它舔来得到水；在下一次任务里面，两个气味是一样的──气味B──延迟──还是气味B，它没有再舔，所以小鼠知道这个任务怎么回事。这边展示是我们的实际数据，我们其实也经过很长时间，大概五年左右的时间，来证明小鼠的前额叶这个脑区，它对于这个工作记忆是蛮重要的。我们用一种叫做光遗传的技术，用光来调控神经元活动这样一个方法。右边下面所示就是如果你给光的话，那么神经元的活动就会被抑制，而且时间尺度的话是秒级的，所以可以在很短的时间里面去操控神经元活动。左边就是我们的数据，可以看到如果你给光去操控神经活动，小鼠的行为和正常小鼠相比就会变差，那就证明了内侧前叶这个脑区，它对工作记忆这个行为是很重要的。接下来我想离开我们实验室，进入更广大的一个空间来来问问看──什么是记忆的机理？我们要研究一个东西时候都要看它的边界在哪里？什么时候它会失败，对不对？所以我想讲几个例子，是记忆出问题的时候，第一个例子我想说的是──不是所有发生事情都会被记住。我想请各位看一个视频，请关注“穿白色的运动员传球的次数”，现在开始播放我们的视频。多少次？有人答对了，很好。有人看到大猩猩了吗？大概有一半会看不到。有没有人看到穿黑色的运动员走掉？还有颜色变化？其实这叫做非注意性失忆──如果你没有注意，那你是不会记住的──这很正常，对吧？世界中不停的发生很多的随机事件，所以我们其实不要把所有的事情都记下来，我们的记忆只记那些对我们有重要意义的事情，对吧？所以非注意性失忆是有它的意义的。我还想说一个“记忆的极限”，不是所有时候的学习都是一样的效果。我们的语言能力，大家都认为是很自然，对不对？每个人都会说话。这个是依赖于所谓关键期的，在2到7岁的时候，我们必须要经历语言这个经验，如果这时候没有语言经验，那么结果会非常的可怕。 这边图示的这个小女孩叫做Genie，她的父亲是严重的精神分裂症患者，在这个小女孩13岁之前，他都把这个小女孩捆在家里面，用铁链子捆在床上，他们生活在农村，周围几十里地都没什么人，所以直到13岁的时候，她才被别人发现、被解救出来。她的精神分裂症患者的父亲并不说话，所以在13岁之前Genie是没有语言经验。这当然是一个很悲剧的事情，但是对于科学家来说是这个很难得的机会，可以看当你在13岁之前没有语言经验的时候，会有什么样的结果？所以安排了全世界最好的教育家、语言教育家去教Genie语言，专门安排了博士生去跟踪Genie，看她的语言能力发展。在七、八年之后，这个学生博士生毕业的时候，结论是Genie能够说的最长的句子是两个词。专门有文章发表去争论她到底说的是两个词还是三个词。七、八年每天都是长期的训练，只能得到这样的结果。之后Genie因为她变得很有名、有很多书、文章去讲她，所以她在哪里是一个秘密。但是她是被收养，终生她是不能够独立生活而且是不说话的。这就是告诉我们一个问题，这关键期在我们小的时候，有一些非常重要的一些能力我们必须去学习，这是为什么我们从小的时候要学数学，如果过了这个关键期你不学这些能力的话，其实我们是有很大的问题。如果是一个成人，脑子受了损伤，记忆也会出问题。我这里想举一个在神经科学界非常重要的例子，一个叫做海马的脑区，如果海马这个脑区出现问题，那么会出现很严重的记忆障碍。它叫海马是因为这个组织长的和真正的海马很像，所以叫做海马，很漂亮的一个结构。 有一个人叫做HM，他因为严重的癫痫，所以在他20多岁左右的时候，医生把他会产生癫痫的部分脑区摘除掉了，就癫痫灶拿掉了，几乎全部海马都给拿掉了，人们马上发现做完手术之后，HM这个病人他已经不再是HM，他无法形成新的记忆，在手术之前的记忆还在，没有问题，但是新的记忆无法形成了，所以后来照顾他的新进来的护士医生，每次见到他都必须向他自我介绍；即使你出了房间去喝了杯咖啡，五分钟以后再回来，他就完全忘记你是谁了。我给大家举一个例子，Howard Eichanbaum现在是美国波士顿大学的教授，他在读博士生的时候研究HM，他的任务之一就是每天早上开车去把HM从家里面接到医院去研究、做各种各样的实验。有一天早上Howard Eichanbaum吃早饭时候，喝了杯McDonald's的咖啡，在那咖啡杯上印了McDonald's这几个字，他开车时候把这个咖啡放到前座上面车窗那边。HM一看到这个杯子说：唉，我小时候有一个朋友，叫McDonald，然后他和我是很好的朋友，我们两个一起打棒球，打的非常好，我们也有很多很好的故事，这是一个很愉快的交谈过程。这个交谈过程结束了，HM看了窗外看了一会，回来又看到这个杯子──我小时候认识一个朋友叫McDonald的，我以前和他是一块儿打棒球，打的非常好，我们有很好的故事……一模一样的故事又讲了一遍。然后结果结束以后，他又看了会窗外，一会儿又看见了这个杯子──我小时候有一个朋友叫McDonald，我以前……同样的故事，又讲了第三遍。讲到第三遍的时候，Howard Eichanbaum就偷偷的把这个咖啡杯拿下来，放到自己座位里面，要不然他这一路上会一直讲这个故事，这是一个典型的例子告诉我们海马多么的重要。HM和他的父亲关系非常之好，他父亲在他手术一段时间之后去世。HM每次听到父亲去世的消息，都非常悲痛，每次都处在同样的巨大悲痛之中。所以，如果我们无法形成新的记忆，我们就不再是以前的自己了。因为HM以及相关的一些其他脑区损伤的病人，我们现在知道我们的记忆是分不同类型的，比如说HM他的长时间记忆有很大的问题，但是他的短时间记忆，或者我刚才说的让小鼠做或者我自己做的工作记忆没有问题。你看刚才他是可以和Howard Eichanbaum很好地进行对话，这个时候都需要用到工作记忆的。 在长时程记忆里面又分成“陈述式记忆”和“非陈述式记忆”。HM的主要是陈述式记忆出问题，也就是说这种可以被陈述出来的事情，不管是事实还是一个场景──我昨天和谁一块吃饭、说什么话呀、吃什么东西……这些时间、地点、人物，这种“场景记忆”。海马是很重要的，或者是“事实记忆”，对吧？“南海是中国的。”这是一个是事实记忆。“非陈述式记忆”比如说“运动记忆”──骑自行车，这是一个运动记忆，大家都经过运动以后学会的。HM他是可以学会新的运动技能的，做的非常好、和普通人差不多，但是他拒绝承认自己学过。所以“记得自己学过”这是一个陈述式的记忆；但是“学这个动作本身”是个非陈述式的记忆。或者是一些“情感记忆”、“情绪记忆”──比如说“南海是中国的！”是吧？这就是情绪记忆。所以记忆分不同类别。那么记忆的核心原理是什么呢？因为时间关系，所以我只能讲很小的一部分──因为这里有大量的工作，其实科学家做了大量的工作来问记忆是什么原理。我们脑大概850亿到1000亿个神经元，这些神经元通过是一千个到10万个突触，来形成突触联系、来进行交流。神经元长得很漂亮，图上左边就是显示了几个神经元的样子，你看它们长得很大的、天线一样的形状，就是接受输入的地方；它们还长出很纤细的、很长的叫“轴突”的这种结构，来传输自己的这个信号，那么接受这个信号的地方就叫做“突触”。这种突触很重要，而且它可以被神经元自己的活动来调控──当突触前和突触后神经元活动按照一定的规则来运行的时候，突触活动的强度会被增强或者减弱，而且在我们学习的过程中，这种突触的活动增强或者减弱是可以被观察到的，而且如果你阻止这种活动的改变，那么会影响学习。所以人们一般认为，这个突触的改变是我们学习记忆的核心机制。刚才说的是单个的神经元之间的连接，而群体网络层面，一般认为是“吸引子网络”来解释记忆是怎么回事。所谓的吸引子，很简单──碗就是一个吸引子──如果你把一个玻璃珠放到碗的边上，一放手它会落到碗的底部，所谓吸引子的底部，那么我们的记忆在经过学习的过程中，我们的突触连接的改变，其实就形成了各种各样的吸引子。这种吸引子的好处是部分信息可以提取出完整的信息。 在座更关注的可能是“学习记忆怎么被提高”对不对？我想给大家一个好的消息，学习记忆是可以提高的！怎么被提高呢？就是“记好多次”。这是一个非常严肃的结论。右边图这个人叫做Ebbinghaus，他是第一个严肃的研究记忆的心理学的一个科学家，他发现：底下x轴显示的是我在一天之前，学习一些材料，我所做的学习次数；Y轴就是在一天之后，我重新学习又要需要多长时间。可以看到如果你学的次数越多，那么第二天你就花的时间越少来学会，就说明你学习次数多，就记得好，对不对？所以勤奋是必要的。还要“睡得好”，如果记录头皮脑电的话，那么在人睡眠的时候，可以看到“慢波”，这边显示的每一个小的波动就是一个慢波，在全脑里面是很大尺度的神经元活动。德国科学家发现，如果你在人睡眠的时候，在脑子里面引发这种慢波，那么可以记得更好。他实际上让学生晚上学习外语，然后在睡觉时候去电刺激脑子，引起更多慢波，第二天早上起来问他学的词汇还记住多少？如果你做过电刺激，那么学得更多。我并不是建议大家晚上回去以后就电刺激自己脑子，因为你并不一定总要记住昨天晚上的事情，对吧？我想结语是，在一定程度上，其实在一定程度上，“我们就是我们的记忆”，更多的记忆的奥秘等待我们发现！谢谢各位！“SELF格致论道”是中国科学院全力推出、中国科普博览承办的科学讲坛，致力于精英思想的跨界传播，由中国科学院计算机网络信息中心和中国科学院科学传播局联合主办。登陆“SELF格致论道”官方网站、关注微信公众号“SELF格致论道讲坛”、微博“SELF格致论道”获取更多信息。更多合作与SELF工作组self@cnic.cn联系。

出品：中国科普博览 SELF格致论道讲坛导语：记忆究竟影响一个人多少？如果失去了过去的记忆，我们还是原来的自己吗？人脑内有一个海马区，掌控了长期间记忆，若是受损，有可能从此无法形成新的记忆，这意味着无法认识新的人、无法记得5分钟前做了什么！“记忆某种程度上就代表了我们本身”，在SELF讲坛上，中科院神经科学研究所的李澄宇为我们揭开“记忆”神秘的面纱。---嘉宾介绍---李澄宇中国科学院神经科学研究所研究员以下内容为李澄宇演讲实录：各位下午好！非常荣幸有机会在这里和大家一起交流关于记忆的一些奥秘。记忆当然很重要，如果我们有一天突然丧失了记忆，比如说阿尔茨海默症患者，当我们走到路中间突然不记得自己是谁？为什么在这里？怎么回家？这是一个很可怕的事情，所以记忆当然很重要。但是因为我们已经社会化这么久了，所以其实遗忘掉在演化上我们和其他动物相比，是拥有类似的记忆的能力的，所以我在这里想向各位介绍一些有趣的例子，来说动物为什么需要学习和记忆。第一个例子，这白眉猴它所生活的空间相当之大，它的主要食物是成熟之后的果实，它生存的空间里面有大概10万棵树，在任何一个时刻成熟的果树有50棵，所以它需要赶在别的竞争对手之前找到这50棵树，对不对？要不然就被其他的鸟类吃掉了。所以需要学会找到这些树，然后记住它在哪里。第二个例子，如果你是一个捕食者，那么需要学会去捕食；如果是个被捕食者，需要学会不要被人吃掉，对不对？或者被别的动物吃掉。所以这是明显例子，这都是和记忆有很大的关系。我想问各位一个问题──在这张图片中哪一只是老大？可以告诉我吗？哪个是老大？中间那个是吧，我们并不是狒狒，但是我们很容易看出来谁是老大。如果你我们生活在这个群体里面，或者我们生活在人的群体里面──人的社会群体有非常强烈的等级制度──我们很容易理解，是需要学会这些等级制度和相关的行为的，所以学习是蛮重要的。接下来我想举一个更明确的例子，来说明学习记忆对生存的必要性。这边展示的是黑长尾猴，它生活在非洲，大概3到5公斤，是很小的一类猴子。在野外，黑长尾猴的生存相当不易，一岁之内的小的黑长尾猴有60%会死亡，其中至少70%是来自于捕食者。黑长尾猴的捕食者有主要分为三类：第一类是在陆地上捕食的──以豹子为代表──这些大型的捕食动物；第二类是在空中飞翔的──以战雕为代表的──翼展两米的捕食鸟类；第三种是蟒蛇，在草丛里面埋伏的准备捕食的。针对这三类不同的捕食者，黑长尾猴发展出了非常有效的警告性的呼叫声。这里我想请工作人员来播放这个声音，当黑长尾猴看到豹子的时候，它会发出这样的警告声音，黑长尾猴听到同伴这样的叫声的时候，它的第一反应要上树，为什么？豹子的体重大，它在树上跑的没有猴子快，所以在树上安全。曾经有人观察到一只豹子追一只黑长尾猴，在树上追了一个小时没有追到，所以树上是安全的。如果看到的是鹰，那么警报声是这样子的，非常短促，如果听到这样的声音，那么正确的反应是马上进入灌木丛。我刚刚说战雕翼展两米，所以在灌木里面它是无法飞行和捕食的，灌木丛里安全。如果看到是蛇，那么警告声音是这样的，很短促的声音，如果听到说这种警告式叫声的话，那么正确的反应是站起来向四面看，因为蟒蛇主要靠潜伏来捕食，在草丛里面你正好踩到蟒蛇身上了，它把你吃掉了。如果你听到的是鹰的警告声，然后你的反应是进灌木丛，那对不起，一般那蟒蛇在，如果你走错的话，那么后果是很悲惨的。刚才是警告性的声音，这是很重要的发现，但是Cheney和Seyfarth他们两个人在长期的关注──他们发展的这样有趣的实验来证明“观察学习”的重要性。我刚才说幼儿的这个黑长尾猴它的死亡率是很高的，他们就对这种幼儿的一岁以下的黑长尾猴播放刚才那三种声音，音箱放到草丛里面播放，看它们的反应是不是对。然后在分析的时候，把这种反应分成两类：左边一类是在小猴反应之前，先看一下成年猴，你看他做正确的反应的次数就远高于做错误反应的次数。如果这些小猴没有看一下成年猴，就直接做了反应了，那么它们出错的几率是很高的，做正确或错误差不多。请各位再回想一下，我刚才说一岁之内的小猴60%会死亡，多数是来自于捕食的话，就会意识到现在的这个差别，看一下和不看一下，观察一下、不观察一下对于生存有着非常重要的意义。所以这是一个例子，我觉得很有趣，是说明在野外其实动物是非常依赖于学习记忆的。接下来我想向各位介绍一下什么是“学习记忆”，但不是传统意义上的介绍，因为大家都知道学习记忆，都明白──经验引起了后续的行为改变──就是学习和记忆。我想说的是我们在实验室里面怎么去研究学习记忆？我想向各位展示一个视频，是黑猩猩它们去做一个工作记忆的任务。这并不是说黑猩猩的短时间的工作记忆能力比人强，这是因为它做这任务时，每做对一次，就有一个花生可以吃。我们在实验室里面也让我们的实验动物或者人，做类似的类似的行为：比如说在这个任务里面我们先给受试者一个视觉刺激，然后延迟的时候把样本隐藏起来，选择的时候，我要让人或者是动物选择一个和刚才样本不一样的刺激，就这样一个任务。或者是病人──比如说精神分裂症患者──来做这样的事情，可以看到X轴就是给不同的样本的数量；Y轴是出现错误的几率，即使正常的红色的线也是随着要我记得信息越来越多，我出错的几率会越大，对吧？这是正常的。但是精神分裂症患者，他们出的错误就更高。做基础研究对于临床或者对我们实际生活其实是有很大的关系的，比如说工作记忆这种，它是一个非常基础的研究，对不对？但是其实我们的很多患者都有很严重的工作记忆的问题。 当我自己躺在我们的所里面的核磁功能共振成像仪器里面，我自己做刚才这个任务，这是我自己的脑子的反应，至少这个脑子看起来还比较正常。如果侧过来看的话，额叶顶叶这两个脑区在我做工作记忆的任务的时候──需要短时间的记住一个信息──它会被激活，就颜色比较热的这种地方，颜色比较蓝的地方就是被抑制的地方，所以我们的脑子其实有很多特定的脑区，是在帮助我们做这种行为的。但是我还不太愿意把我自己脑子切开来，然后把它拿出来看我的脑子是怎么工作的，所以我们需要和刚才几位老师说的一样，需要各种各样的动物模型，所以在我们实验室里面主要用小鼠作为模型来研究工作记忆，这种短暂的存储信息的这种能力。我们所使用的是嗅觉──因为小鼠是一个嗅觉很好的动物──我们会给它两次气味，两个气味中间会有延迟期几秒钟，如果两个气味是不一样，那么它要舔，来得到水；如果两个气味是一样的，那就不用舔，因为没有水。就这样一个任务。这个任务的好处是在时间上，把感觉、记忆、抉择给它分开来，这是我们这么设计的原因。接下来我会展示一个视频，看小鼠怎么做这个任务：我们现在要给它一个气味──气味A──延迟──还要记住，然后气味B，不一样，那么它舔来得到水；在下一次任务里面，两个气味是一样的──气味B──延迟──还是气味B，它没有再舔，所以小鼠知道这个任务怎么回事。这边展示是我们的实际数据，我们其实也经过很长时间，大概五年左右的时间，来证明小鼠的前额叶这个脑区，它对于这个工作记忆是蛮重要的。我们用一种叫做光遗传的技术，用光来调控神经元活动这样一个方法。右边下面所示就是如果你给光的话，那么神经元的活动就会被抑制，而且时间尺度的话是秒级的，所以可以在很短的时间里面去操控神经元活动。左边就是我们的数据，可以看到如果你给光去操控神经活动，小鼠的行为和正常小鼠相比就会变差，那就证明了内侧前叶这个脑区，它对工作记忆这个行为是很重要的。接下来我想离开我们实验室，进入更广大的一个空间来来问问看──什么是记忆的机理？我们要研究一个东西时候都要看它的边界在哪里？什么时候它会失败，对不对？所以我想讲几个例子，是记忆出问题的时候，第一个例子我想说的是──不是所有发生事情都会被记住。我想请各位看一个视频，请关注“穿白色的运动员传球的次数”，现在开始播放我们的视频。多少次？有人答对了，很好。有人看到大猩猩了吗？大概有一半会看不到。有没有人看到穿黑色的运动员走掉？还有颜色变化？其实这叫做非注意性失忆──如果你没有注意，那你是不会记住的──这很正常，对吧？世界中不停的发生很多的随机事件，所以我们其实不要把所有的事情都记下来，我们的记忆只记那些对我们有重要意义的事情，对吧？所以非注意性失忆是有它的意义的。我还想说一个“记忆的极限”，不是所有时候的学习都是一样的效果。我们的语言能力，大家都认为是很自然，对不对？每个人都会说话。这个是依赖于所谓关键期的，在2到7岁的时候，我们必须要经历语言这个经验，如果这时候没有语言经验，那么结果会非常的可怕。 这边图示的这个小女孩叫做Genie，她的父亲是严重的精神分裂症患者，在这个小女孩13岁之前，他都把这个小女孩捆在家里面，用铁链子捆在床上，他们生活在农村，周围几十里地都没什么人，所以直到13岁的时候，她才被别人发现、被解救出来。她的精神分裂症患者的父亲并不说话，所以在13岁之前Genie是没有语言经验。这当然是一个很悲剧的事情，但是对于科学家来说是这个很难得的机会，可以看当你在13岁之前没有语言经验的时候，会有什么样的结果？所以安排了全世界最好的教育家、语言教育家去教Genie语言，专门安排了博士生去跟踪Genie，看她的语言能力发展。在七、八年之后，这个学生博士生毕业的时候，结论是Genie能够说的最长的句子是两个词。专门有文章发表去争论她到底说的是两个词还是三个词。七、八年每天都是长期的训练，只能得到这样的结果。之后Genie因为她变得很有名、有很多书、文章去讲她，所以她在哪里是一个秘密。但是她是被收养，终生她是不能够独立生活而且是不说话的。这就是告诉我们一个问题，这关键期在我们小的时候，有一些非常重要的一些能力我们必须去学习，这是为什么我们从小的时候要学数学，如果过了这个关键期你不学这些能力的话，其实我们是有很大的问题。如果是一个成人，脑子受了损伤，记忆也会出问题。我这里想举一个在神经科学界非常重要的例子，一个叫做海马的脑区，如果海马这个脑区出现问题，那么会出现很严重的记忆障碍。它叫海马是因为这个组织长的和真正的海马很像，所以叫做海马，很漂亮的一个结构。 有一个人叫做HM，他因为严重的癫痫，所以在他20多岁左右的时候，医生把他会产生癫痫的部分脑区摘除掉了，就癫痫灶拿掉了，几乎全部海马都给拿掉了，人们马上发现做完手术之后，HM这个病人他已经不再是HM，他无法形成新的记忆，在手术之前的记忆还在，没有问题，但是新的记忆无法形成了，所以后来照顾他的新进来的护士医生，每次见到他都必须向他自我介绍；即使你出了房间去喝了杯咖啡，五分钟以后再回来，他就完全忘记你是谁了。我给大家举一个例子，Howard Eichanbaum现在是美国波士顿大学的教授，他在读博士生的时候研究HM，他的任务之一就是每天早上开车去把HM从家里面接到医院去研究、做各种各样的实验。有一天早上Howard Eichanbaum吃早饭时候，喝了杯McDonald's的咖啡，在那咖啡杯上印了McDonald's这几个字，他开车时候把这个咖啡放到前座上面车窗那边。HM一看到这个杯子说：唉，我小时候有一个朋友，叫McDonald，然后他和我是很好的朋友，我们两个一起打棒球，打的非常好，我们也有很多很好的故事，这是一个很愉快的交谈过程。这个交谈过程结束了，HM看了窗外看了一会，回来又看到这个杯子──我小时候认识一个朋友叫McDonald的，我以前和他是一块儿打棒球，打的非常好，我们有很好的故事……一模一样的故事又讲了一遍。然后结果结束以后，他又看了会窗外，一会儿又看见了这个杯子──我小时候有一个朋友叫McDonald，我以前……同样的故事，又讲了第三遍。讲到第三遍的时候，Howard Eichanbaum就偷偷的把这个咖啡杯拿下来，放到自己座位里面，要不然他这一路上会一直讲这个故事，这是一个典型的例子告诉我们海马多么的重要。HM和他的父亲关系非常之好，他父亲在他手术一段时间之后去世。HM每次听到父亲去世的消息，都非常悲痛，每次都处在同样的巨大悲痛之中。所以，如果我们无法形成新的记忆，我们就不再是以前的自己了。因为HM以及相关的一些其他脑区损伤的病人，我们现在知道我们的记忆是分不同类型的，比如说HM他的长时间记忆有很大的问题，但是他的短时间记忆，或者我刚才说的让小鼠做或者我自己做的工作记忆没有问题。你看刚才他是可以和Howard Eichanbaum很好地进行对话，这个时候都需要用到工作记忆的。 在长时程记忆里面又分成“陈述式记忆”和“非陈述式记忆”。HM的主要是陈述式记忆出问题，也就是说这种可以被陈述出来的事情，不管是事实还是一个场景──我昨天和谁一块吃饭、说什么话呀、吃什么东西……这些时间、地点、人物，这种“场景记忆”。海马是很重要的，或者是“事实记忆”，对吧？“南海是中国的。”这是一个是事实记忆。“非陈述式记忆”比如说“运动记忆”──骑自行车，这是一个运动记忆，大家都经过运动以后学会的。HM他是可以学会新的运动技能的，做的非常好、和普通人差不多，但是他拒绝承认自己学过。所以“记得自己学过”这是一个陈述式的记忆；但是“学这个动作本身”是个非陈述式的记忆。或者是一些“情感记忆”、“情绪记忆”──比如说“南海是中国的！”是吧？这就是情绪记忆。所以记忆分不同类别。那么记忆的核心原理是什么呢？因为时间关系，所以我只能讲很小的一部分──因为这里有大量的工作，其实科学家做了大量的工作来问记忆是什么原理。我们脑大概850亿到1000亿个神经元，这些神经元通过是一千个到10万个突触，来形成突触联系、来进行交流。神经元长得很漂亮，图上左边就是显示了几个神经元的样子，你看它们长得很大的、天线一样的形状，就是接受输入的地方；它们还长出很纤细的、很长的叫“轴突”的这种结构，来传输自己的这个信号，那么接受这个信号的地方就叫做“突触”。这种突触很重要，而且它可以被神经元自己的活动来调控──当突触前和突触后神经元活动按照一定的规则来运行的时候，突触活动的强度会被增强或者减弱，而且在我们学习的过程中，这种突触的活动增强或者减弱是可以被观察到的，而且如果你阻止这种活动的改变，那么会影响学习。所以人们一般认为，这个突触的改变是我们学习记忆的核心机制。刚才说的是单个的神经元之间的连接，而群体网络层面，一般认为是“吸引子网络”来解释记忆是怎么回事。所谓的吸引子，很简单──碗就是一个吸引子──如果你把一个玻璃珠放到碗的边上，一放手它会落到碗的底部，所谓吸引子的底部，那么我们的记忆在经过学习的过程中，我们的突触连接的改变，其实就形成了各种各样的吸引子。这种吸引子的好处是部分信息可以提取出完整的信息。 在座更关注的可能是“学习记忆怎么被提高”对不对？我想给大家一个好的消息，学习记忆是可以提高的！怎么被提高呢？就是“记好多次”。这是一个非常严肃的结论。右边图这个人叫做Ebbinghaus，他是第一个严肃的研究记忆的心理学的一个科学家，他发现：底下x轴显示的是我在一天之前，学习一些材料，我所做的学习次数；Y轴就是在一天之后，我重新学习又要需要多长时间。可以看到如果你学的次数越多，那么第二天你就花的时间越少来学会，就说明你学习次数多，就记得好，对不对？所以勤奋是必要的。还要“睡得好”，如果记录头皮脑电的话，那么在人睡眠的时候，可以看到“慢波”，这边显示的每一个小的波动就是一个慢波，在全脑里面是很大尺度的神经元活动。德国科学家发现，如果你在人睡眠的时候，在脑子里面引发这种慢波，那么可以记得更好。他实际上让学生晚上学习外语，然后在睡觉时候去电刺激脑子，引起更多慢波，第二天早上起来问他学的词汇还记住多少？如果你做过电刺激，那么学得更多。我并不是建议大家晚上回去以后就电刺激自己脑子，因为你并不一定总要记住昨天晚上的事情，对吧？我想结语是，在一定程度上，其实在一定程度上，“我们就是我们的记忆”，更多的记忆的奥秘等待我们发现！谢谢各位！“SELF格致论道”是中国科学院全力推出、中国科普博览承办的科学讲坛，致力于精英思想的跨界传播，由中国科学院计算机网络信息中心和中国科学院科学传播局联合主办。登陆“SELF格致论道”官方网站、关注微信公众号“SELF格致论道讲坛”、微博“SELF格致论道”获取更多信息。更多合作与SELF工作组self@cnic.cn联系。

出品：中国科普博览 SELF格致论道讲坛导语：记忆究竟影响一个人多少？如果失去了过去的记忆，我们还是原来的自己吗？人脑内有一个海马区，掌控了长期间记忆，若是受损，有可能从此无法形成新的记忆，这意味着无法认识新的人、无法记得5分钟前做了什么！“记忆某种程度上就代表了我们本身”，在SELF讲坛上，中科院神经科学研究所的李澄宇为我们揭开“记忆”神秘的面纱。---嘉宾介绍---李澄宇中国科学院神经科学研究所研究员以下内容为李澄宇演讲实录：各位下午好！非常荣幸有机会在这里和大家一起交流关于记忆的一些奥秘。记忆当然很重要，如果我们有一天突然丧失了记忆，比如说阿尔茨海默症患者，当我们走到路中间突然不记得自己是谁？为什么在这里？怎么回家？这是一个很可怕的事情，所以记忆当然很重要。但是因为我们已经社会化这么久了，所以其实遗忘掉在演化上我们和其他动物相比，是拥有类似的记忆的能力的，所以我在这里想向各位介绍一些有趣的例子，来说动物为什么需要学习和记忆。第一个例子，这白眉猴它所生活的空间相当之大，它的主要食物是成熟之后的果实，它生存的空间里面有大概10万棵树，在任何一个时刻成熟的果树有50棵，所以它需要赶在别的竞争对手之前找到这50棵树，对不对？要不然就被其他的鸟类吃掉了。所以需要学会找到这些树，然后记住它在哪里。第二个例子，如果你是一个捕食者，那么需要学会去捕食；如果是个被捕食者，需要学会不要被人吃掉，对不对？或者被别的动物吃掉。所以这是明显例子，这都是和记忆有很大的关系。我想问各位一个问题──在这张图片中哪一只是老大？可以告诉我吗？哪个是老大？中间那个是吧，我们并不是狒狒，但是我们很容易看出来谁是老大。如果你我们生活在这个群体里面，或者我们生活在人的群体里面──人的社会群体有非常强烈的等级制度──我们很容易理解，是需要学会这些等级制度和相关的行为的，所以学习是蛮重要的。接下来我想举一个更明确的例子，来说明学习记忆对生存的必要性。这边展示的是黑长尾猴，它生活在非洲，大概3到5公斤，是很小的一类猴子。在野外，黑长尾猴的生存相当不易，一岁之内的小的黑长尾猴有60%会死亡，其中至少70%是来自于捕食者。黑长尾猴的捕食者有主要分为三类：第一类是在陆地上捕食的──以豹子为代表──这些大型的捕食动物；第二类是在空中飞翔的──以战雕为代表的──翼展两米的捕食鸟类；第三种是蟒蛇，在草丛里面埋伏的准备捕食的。针对这三类不同的捕食者，黑长尾猴发展出了非常有效的警告性的呼叫声。这里我想请工作人员来播放这个声音，当黑长尾猴看到豹子的时候，它会发出这样的警告声音，黑长尾猴听到同伴这样的叫声的时候，它的第一反应要上树，为什么？豹子的体重大，它在树上跑的没有猴子快，所以在树上安全。曾经有人观察到一只豹子追一只黑长尾猴，在树上追了一个小时没有追到，所以树上是安全的。如果看到的是鹰，那么警报声是这样子的，非常短促，如果听到这样的声音，那么正确的反应是马上进入灌木丛。我刚刚说战雕翼展两米，所以在灌木里面它是无法飞行和捕食的，灌木丛里安全。如果看到是蛇，那么警告声音是这样的，很短促的声音，如果听到说这种警告式叫声的话，那么正确的反应是站起来向四面看，因为蟒蛇主要靠潜伏来捕食，在草丛里面你正好踩到蟒蛇身上了，它把你吃掉了。如果你听到的是鹰的警告声，然后你的反应是进灌木丛，那对不起，一般那蟒蛇在，如果你走错的话，那么后果是很悲惨的。刚才是警告性的声音，这是很重要的发现，但是Cheney和Seyfarth他们两个人在长期的关注──他们发展的这样有趣的实验来证明“观察学习”的重要性。我刚才说幼儿的这个黑长尾猴它的死亡率是很高的，他们就对这种幼儿的一岁以下的黑长尾猴播放刚才那三种声音，音箱放到草丛里面播放，看它们的反应是不是对。然后在分析的时候，把这种反应分成两类：左边一类是在小猴反应之前，先看一下成年猴，你看他做正确的反应的次数就远高于做错误反应的次数。如果这些小猴没有看一下成年猴，就直接做了反应了，那么它们出错的几率是很高的，做正确或错误差不多。请各位再回想一下，我刚才说一岁之内的小猴60%会死亡，多数是来自于捕食的话，就会意识到现在的这个差别，看一下和不看一下，观察一下、不观察一下对于生存有着非常重要的意义。所以这是一个例子，我觉得很有趣，是说明在野外其实动物是非常依赖于学习记忆的。接下来我想向各位介绍一下什么是“学习记忆”，但不是传统意义上的介绍，因为大家都知道学习记忆，都明白──经验引起了后续的行为改变──就是学习和记忆。我想说的是我们在实验室里面怎么去研究学习记忆？我想向各位展示一个视频，是黑猩猩它们去做一个工作记忆的任务。这并不是说黑猩猩的短时间的工作记忆能力比人强，这是因为它做这任务时，每做对一次，就有一个花生可以吃。我们在实验室里面也让我们的实验动物或者人，做类似的类似的行为：比如说在这个任务里面我们先给受试者一个视觉刺激，然后延迟的时候把样本隐藏起来，选择的时候，我要让人或者是动物选择一个和刚才样本不一样的刺激，就这样一个任务。或者是病人──比如说精神分裂症患者──来做这样的事情，可以看到X轴就是给不同的样本的数量；Y轴是出现错误的几率，即使正常的红色的线也是随着要我记得信息越来越多，我出错的几率会越大，对吧？这是正常的。但是精神分裂症患者，他们出的错误就更高。做基础研究对于临床或者对我们实际生活其实是有很大的关系的，比如说工作记忆这种，它是一个非常基础的研究，对不对？但是其实我们的很多患者都有很严重的工作记忆的问题。 当我自己躺在我们的所里面的核磁功能共振成像仪器里面，我自己做刚才这个任务，这是我自己的脑子的反应，至少这个脑子看起来还比较正常。如果侧过来看的话，额叶顶叶这两个脑区在我做工作记忆的任务的时候──需要短时间的记住一个信息──它会被激活，就颜色比较热的这种地方，颜色比较蓝的地方就是被抑制的地方，所以我们的脑子其实有很多特定的脑区，是在帮助我们做这种行为的。但是我还不太愿意把我自己脑子切开来，然后把它拿出来看我的脑子是怎么工作的，所以我们需要和刚才几位老师说的一样，需要各种各样的动物模型，所以在我们实验室里面主要用小鼠作为模型来研究工作记忆，这种短暂的存储信息的这种能力。我们所使用的是嗅觉──因为小鼠是一个嗅觉很好的动物──我们会给它两次气味，两个气味中间会有延迟期几秒钟，如果两个气味是不一样，那么它要舔，来得到水；如果两个气味是一样的，那就不用舔，因为没有水。就这样一个任务。这个任务的好处是在时间上，把感觉、记忆、抉择给它分开来，这是我们这么设计的原因。接下来我会展示一个视频，看小鼠怎么做这个任务：我们现在要给它一个气味──气味A──延迟──还要记住，然后气味B，不一样，那么它舔来得到水；在下一次任务里面，两个气味是一样的──气味B──延迟──还是气味B，它没有再舔，所以小鼠知道这个任务怎么回事。这边展示是我们的实际数据，我们其实也经过很长时间，大概五年左右的时间，来证明小鼠的前额叶这个脑区，它对于这个工作记忆是蛮重要的。我们用一种叫做光遗传的技术，用光来调控神经元活动这样一个方法。右边下面所示就是如果你给光的话，那么神经元的活动就会被抑制，而且时间尺度的话是秒级的，所以可以在很短的时间里面去操控神经元活动。左边就是我们的数据，可以看到如果你给光去操控神经活动，小鼠的行为和正常小鼠相比就会变差，那就证明了内侧前叶这个脑区，它对工作记忆这个行为是很重要的。接下来我想离开我们实验室，进入更广大的一个空间来来问问看──什么是记忆的机理？我们要研究一个东西时候都要看它的边界在哪里？什么时候它会失败，对不对？所以我想讲几个例子，是记忆出问题的时候，第一个例子我想说的是──不是所有发生事情都会被记住。我想请各位看一个视频，请关注“穿白色的运动员传球的次数”，现在开始播放我们的视频。多少次？有人答对了，很好。有人看到大猩猩了吗？大概有一半会看不到。有没有人看到穿黑色的运动员走掉？还有颜色变化？其实这叫做非注意性失忆──如果你没有注意，那你是不会记住的──这很正常，对吧？世界中不停的发生很多的随机事件，所以我们其实不要把所有的事情都记下来，我们的记忆只记那些对我们有重要意义的事情，对吧？所以非注意性失忆是有它的意义的。我还想说一个“记忆的极限”，不是所有时候的学习都是一样的效果。我们的语言能力，大家都认为是很自然，对不对？每个人都会说话。这个是依赖于所谓关键期的，在2到7岁的时候，我们必须要经历语言这个经验，如果这时候没有语言经验，那么结果会非常的可怕。 这边图示的这个小女孩叫做Genie，她的父亲是严重的精神分裂症患者，在这个小女孩13岁之前，他都把这个小女孩捆在家里面，用铁链子捆在床上，他们生活在农村，周围几十里地都没什么人，所以直到13岁的时候，她才被别人发现、被解救出来。她的精神分裂症患者的父亲并不说话，所以在13岁之前Genie是没有语言经验。这当然是一个很悲剧的事情，但是对于科学家来说是这个很难得的机会，可以看当你在13岁之前没有语言经验的时候，会有什么样的结果？所以安排了全世界最好的教育家、语言教育家去教Genie语言，专门安排了博士生去跟踪Genie，看她的语言能力发展。在七、八年之后，这个学生博士生毕业的时候，结论是Genie能够说的最长的句子是两个词。专门有文章发表去争论她到底说的是两个词还是三个词。七、八年每天都是长期的训练，只能得到这样的结果。之后Genie因为她变得很有名、有很多书、文章去讲她，所以她在哪里是一个秘密。但是她是被收养，终生她是不能够独立生活而且是不说话的。这就是告诉我们一个问题，这关键期在我们小的时候，有一些非常重要的一些能力我们必须去学习，这是为什么我们从小的时候要学数学，如果过了这个关键期你不学这些能力的话，其实我们是有很大的问题。如果是一个成人，脑子受了损伤，记忆也会出问题。我这里想举一个在神经科学界非常重要的例子，一个叫做海马的脑区，如果海马这个脑区出现问题，那么会出现很严重的记忆障碍。它叫海马是因为这个组织长的和真正的海马很像，所以叫做海马，很漂亮的一个结构。 有一个人叫做HM，他因为严重的癫痫，所以在他20多岁左右的时候，医生把他会产生癫痫的部分脑区摘除掉了，就癫痫灶拿掉了，几乎全部海马都给拿掉了，人们马上发现做完手术之后，HM这个病人他已经不再是HM，他无法形成新的记忆，在手术之前的记忆还在，没有问题，但是新的记忆无法形成了，所以后来照顾他的新进来的护士医生，每次见到他都必须向他自我介绍；即使你出了房间去喝了杯咖啡，五分钟以后再回来，他就完全忘记你是谁了。我给大家举一个例子，Howard Eichanbaum现在是美国波士顿大学的教授，他在读博士生的时候研究HM，他的任务之一就是每天早上开车去把HM从家里面接到医院去研究、做各种各样的实验。有一天早上Howard Eichanbaum吃早饭时候，喝了杯McDonald's的咖啡，在那咖啡杯上印了McDonald's这几个字，他开车时候把这个咖啡放到前座上面车窗那边。HM一看到这个杯子说：唉，我小时候有一个朋友，叫McDonald，然后他和我是很好的朋友，我们两个一起打棒球，打的非常好，我们也有很多很好的故事，这是一个很愉快的交谈过程。这个交谈过程结束了，HM看了窗外看了一会，回来又看到这个杯子──我小时候认识一个朋友叫McDonald的，我以前和他是一块儿打棒球，打的非常好，我们有很好的故事……一模一样的故事又讲了一遍。然后结果结束以后，他又看了会窗外，一会儿又看见了这个杯子──我小时候有一个朋友叫McDonald，我以前……同样的故事，又讲了第三遍。讲到第三遍的时候，Howard Eichanbaum就偷偷的把这个咖啡杯拿下来，放到自己座位里面，要不然他这一路上会一直讲这个故事，这是一个典型的例子告诉我们海马多么的重要。HM和他的父亲关系非常之好，他父亲在他手术一段时间之后去世。HM每次听到父亲去世的消息，都非常悲痛，每次都处在同样的巨大悲痛之中。所以，如果我们无法形成新的记忆，我们就不再是以前的自己了。因为HM以及相关的一些其他脑区损伤的病人，我们现在知道我们的记忆是分不同类型的，比如说HM他的长时间记忆有很大的问题，但是他的短时间记忆，或者我刚才说的让小鼠做或者我自己做的工作记忆没有问题。你看刚才他是可以和Howard Eichanbaum很好地进行对话，这个时候都需要用到工作记忆的。 在长时程记忆里面又分成“陈述式记忆”和“非陈述式记忆”。HM的主要是陈述式记忆出问题，也就是说这种可以被陈述出来的事情，不管是事实还是一个场景──我昨天和谁一块吃饭、说什么话呀、吃什么东西……这些时间、地点、人物，这种“场景记忆”。海马是很重要的，或者是“事实记忆”，对吧？“南海是中国的。”这是一个是事实记忆。“非陈述式记忆”比如说“运动记忆”──骑自行车，这是一个运动记忆，大家都经过运动以后学会的。HM他是可以学会新的运动技能的，做的非常好、和普通人差不多，但是他拒绝承认自己学过。所以“记得自己学过”这是一个陈述式的记忆；但是“学这个动作本身”是个非陈述式的记忆。或者是一些“情感记忆”、“情绪记忆”──比如说“南海是中国的！”是吧？这就是情绪记忆。所以记忆分不同类别。那么记忆的核心原理是什么呢？因为时间关系，所以我只能讲很小的一部分──因为这里有大量的工作，其实科学家做了大量的工作来问记忆是什么原理。我们脑大概850亿到1000亿个神经元，这些神经元通过是一千个到10万个突触，来形成突触联系、来进行交流。神经元长得很漂亮，图上左边就是显示了几个神经元的样子，你看它们长得很大的、天线一样的形状，就是接受输入的地方；它们还长出很纤细的、很长的叫“轴突”的这种结构，来传输自己的这个信号，那么接受这个信号的地方就叫做“突触”。这种突触很重要，而且它可以被神经元自己的活动来调控──当突触前和突触后神经元活动按照一定的规则来运行的时候，突触活动的强度会被增强或者减弱，而且在我们学习的过程中，这种突触的活动增强或者减弱是可以被观察到的，而且如果你阻止这种活动的改变，那么会影响学习。所以人们一般认为，这个突触的改变是我们学习记忆的核心机制。刚才说的是单个的神经元之间的连接，而群体网络层面，一般认为是“吸引子网络”来解释记忆是怎么回事。所谓的吸引子，很简单──碗就是一个吸引子──如果你把一个玻璃珠放到碗的边上，一放手它会落到碗的底部，所谓吸引子的底部，那么我们的记忆在经过学习的过程中，我们的突触连接的改变，其实就形成了各种各样的吸引子。这种吸引子的好处是部分信息可以提取出完整的信息。 在座更关注的可能是“学习记忆怎么被提高”对不对？我想给大家一个好的消息，学习记忆是可以提高的！怎么被提高呢？就是“记好多次”。这是一个非常严肃的结论。右边图这个人叫做Ebbinghaus，他是第一个严肃的研究记忆的心理学的一个科学家，他发现：底下x轴显示的是我在一天之前，学习一些材料，我所做的学习次数；Y轴就是在一天之后，我重新学习又要需要多长时间。可以看到如果你学的次数越多，那么第二天你就花的时间越少来学会，就说明你学习次数多，就记得好，对不对？所以勤奋是必要的。还要“睡得好”，如果记录头皮脑电的话，那么在人睡眠的时候，可以看到“慢波”，这边显示的每一个小的波动就是一个慢波，在全脑里面是很大尺度的神经元活动。德国科学家发现，如果你在人睡眠的时候，在脑子里面引发这种慢波，那么可以记得更好。他实际上让学生晚上学习外语，然后在睡觉时候去电刺激脑子，引起更多慢波，第二天早上起来问他学的词汇还记住多少？如果你做过电刺激，那么学得更多。我并不是建议大家晚上回去以后就电刺激自己脑子，因为你并不一定总要记住昨天晚上的事情，对吧？我想结语是，在一定程度上，其实在一定程度上，“我们就是我们的记忆”，更多的记忆的奥秘等待我们发现！谢谢各位！“SELF格致论道”是中国科学院全力推出、中国科普博览承办的科学讲坛，致力于精英思想的跨界传播，由中国科学院计算机网络信息中心和中国科学院科学传播局联合主办。登陆“SELF格致论道”官方网站、关注微信公众号“SELF格致论道讲坛”、微博“SELF格致论道”获取更多信息。更多合作与SELF工作组self@cnic.cn联系。

出品：中国科普博览 SELF格致论道讲坛导语：记忆究竟影响一个人多少？如果失去了过去的记忆，我们还是原来的自己吗？人脑内有一个海马区，掌控了长期间记忆，若是受损，有可能从此无法形成新的记忆，这意味着无法认识新的人、无法记得5分钟前做了什么！“记忆某种程度上就代表了我们本身”，在SELF讲坛上，中科院神经科学研究所的李澄宇为我们揭开“记忆”神秘的面纱。---嘉宾介绍---李澄宇中国科学院神经科学研究所研究员以下内容为李澄宇演讲实录：各位下午好！非常荣幸有机会在这里和大家一起交流关于记忆的一些奥秘。记忆当然很重要，如果我们有一天突然丧失了记忆，比如说阿尔茨海默症患者，当我们走到路中间突然不记得自己是谁？为什么在这里？怎么回家？这是一个很可怕的事情，所以记忆当然很重要。但是因为我们已经社会化这么久了，所以其实遗忘掉在演化上我们和其他动物相比，是拥有类似的记忆的能力的，所以我在这里想向各位介绍一些有趣的例子，来说动物为什么需要学习和记忆。第一个例子，这白眉猴它所生活的空间相当之大，它的主要食物是成熟之后的果实，它生存的空间里面有大概10万棵树，在任何一个时刻成熟的果树有50棵，所以它需要赶在别的竞争对手之前找到这50棵树，对不对？要不然就被其他的鸟类吃掉了。所以需要学会找到这些树，然后记住它在哪里。第二个例子，如果你是一个捕食者，那么需要学会去捕食；如果是个被捕食者，需要学会不要被人吃掉，对不对？或者被别的动物吃掉。所以这是明显例子，这都是和记忆有很大的关系。我想问各位一个问题──在这张图片中哪一只是老大？可以告诉我吗？哪个是老大？中间那个是吧，我们并不是狒狒，但是我们很容易看出来谁是老大。如果你我们生活在这个群体里面，或者我们生活在人的群体里面──人的社会群体有非常强烈的等级制度──我们很容易理解，是需要学会这些等级制度和相关的行为的，所以学习是蛮重要的。接下来我想举一个更明确的例子，来说明学习记忆对生存的必要性。这边展示的是黑长尾猴，它生活在非洲，大概3到5公斤，是很小的一类猴子。在野外，黑长尾猴的生存相当不易，一岁之内的小的黑长尾猴有60%会死亡，其中至少70%是来自于捕食者。黑长尾猴的捕食者有主要分为三类：第一类是在陆地上捕食的──以豹子为代表──这些大型的捕食动物；第二类是在空中飞翔的──以战雕为代表的──翼展两米的捕食鸟类；第三种是蟒蛇，在草丛里面埋伏的准备捕食的。针对这三类不同的捕食者，黑长尾猴发展出了非常有效的警告性的呼叫声。这里我想请工作人员来播放这个声音，当黑长尾猴看到豹子的时候，它会发出这样的警告声音，黑长尾猴听到同伴这样的叫声的时候，它的第一反应要上树，为什么？豹子的体重大，它在树上跑的没有猴子快，所以在树上安全。曾经有人观察到一只豹子追一只黑长尾猴，在树上追了一个小时没有追到，所以树上是安全的。如果看到的是鹰，那么警报声是这样子的，非常短促，如果听到这样的声音，那么正确的反应是马上进入灌木丛。我刚刚说战雕翼展两米，所以在灌木里面它是无法飞行和捕食的，灌木丛里安全。如果看到是蛇，那么警告声音是这样的，很短促的声音，如果听到说这种警告式叫声的话，那么正确的反应是站起来向四面看，因为蟒蛇主要靠潜伏来捕食，在草丛里面你正好踩到蟒蛇身上了，它把你吃掉了。如果你听到的是鹰的警告声，然后你的反应是进灌木丛，那对不起，一般那蟒蛇在，如果你走错的话，那么后果是很悲惨的。刚才是警告性的声音，这是很重要的发现，但是Cheney和Seyfarth他们两个人在长期的关注──他们发展的这样有趣的实验来证明“观察学习”的重要性。我刚才说幼儿的这个黑长尾猴它的死亡率是很高的，他们就对这种幼儿的一岁以下的黑长尾猴播放刚才那三种声音，音箱放到草丛里面播放，看它们的反应是不是对。然后在分析的时候，把这种反应分成两类：左边一类是在小猴反应之前，先看一下成年猴，你看他做正确的反应的次数就远高于做错误反应的次数。如果这些小猴没有看一下成年猴，就直接做了反应了，那么它们出错的几率是很高的，做正确或错误差不多。请各位再回想一下，我刚才说一岁之内的小猴60%会死亡，多数是来自于捕食的话，就会意识到现在的这个差别，看一下和不看一下，观察一下、不观察一下对于生存有着非常重要的意义。所以这是一个例子，我觉得很有趣，是说明在野外其实动物是非常依赖于学习记忆的。接下来我想向各位介绍一下什么是“学习记忆”，但不是传统意义上的介绍，因为大家都知道学习记忆，都明白──经验引起了后续的行为改变──就是学习和记忆。我想说的是我们在实验室里面怎么去研究学习记忆？我想向各位展示一个视频，是黑猩猩它们去做一个工作记忆的任务。这并不是说黑猩猩的短时间的工作记忆能力比人强，这是因为它做这任务时，每做对一次，就有一个花生可以吃。我们在实验室里面也让我们的实验动物或者人，做类似的类似的行为：比如说在这个任务里面我们先给受试者一个视觉刺激，然后延迟的时候把样本隐藏起来，选择的时候，我要让人或者是动物选择一个和刚才样本不一样的刺激，就这样一个任务。或者是病人──比如说精神分裂症患者──来做这样的事情，可以看到X轴就是给不同的样本的数量；Y轴是出现错误的几率，即使正常的红色的线也是随着要我记得信息越来越多，我出错的几率会越大，对吧？这是正常的。但是精神分裂症患者，他们出的错误就更高。做基础研究对于临床或者对我们实际生活其实是有很大的关系的，比如说工作记忆这种，它是一个非常基础的研究，对不对？但是其实我们的很多患者都有很严重的工作记忆的问题。 当我自己躺在我们的所里面的核磁功能共振成像仪器里面，我自己做刚才这个任务，这是我自己的脑子的反应，至少这个脑子看起来还比较正常。如果侧过来看的话，额叶顶叶这两个脑区在我做工作记忆的任务的时候──需要短时间的记住一个信息──它会被激活，就颜色比较热的这种地方，颜色比较蓝的地方就是被抑制的地方，所以我们的脑子其实有很多特定的脑区，是在帮助我们做这种行为的。但是我还不太愿意把我自己脑子切开来，然后把它拿出来看我的脑子是怎么工作的，所以我们需要和刚才几位老师说的一样，需要各种各样的动物模型，所以在我们实验室里面主要用小鼠作为模型来研究工作记忆，这种短暂的存储信息的这种能力。我们所使用的是嗅觉──因为小鼠是一个嗅觉很好的动物──我们会给它两次气味，两个气味中间会有延迟期几秒钟，如果两个气味是不一样，那么它要舔，来得到水；如果两个气味是一样的，那就不用舔，因为没有水。就这样一个任务。这个任务的好处是在时间上，把感觉、记忆、抉择给它分开来，这是我们这么设计的原因。接下来我会展示一个视频，看小鼠怎么做这个任务：我们现在要给它一个气味──气味A──延迟──还要记住，然后气味B，不一样，那么它舔来得到水；在下一次任务里面，两个气味是一样的──气味B──延迟──还是气味B，它没有再舔，所以小鼠知道这个任务怎么回事。这边展示是我们的实际数据，我们其实也经过很长时间，大概五年左右的时间，来证明小鼠的前额叶这个脑区，它对于这个工作记忆是蛮重要的。我们用一种叫做光遗传的技术，用光来调控神经元活动这样一个方法。右边下面所示就是如果你给光的话，那么神经元的活动就会被抑制，而且时间尺度的话是秒级的，所以可以在很短的时间里面去操控神经元活动。左边就是我们的数据，可以看到如果你给光去操控神经活动，小鼠的行为和正常小鼠相比就会变差，那就证明了内侧前叶这个脑区，它对工作记忆这个行为是很重要的。接下来我想离开我们实验室，进入更广大的一个空间来来问问看──什么是记忆的机理？我们要研究一个东西时候都要看它的边界在哪里？什么时候它会失败，对不对？所以我想讲几个例子，是记忆出问题的时候，第一个例子我想说的是──不是所有发生事情都会被记住。我想请各位看一个视频，请关注“穿白色的运动员传球的次数”，现在开始播放我们的视频。多少次？有人答对了，很好。有人看到大猩猩了吗？大概有一半会看不到。有没有人看到穿黑色的运动员走掉？还有颜色变化？其实这叫做非注意性失忆──如果你没有注意，那你是不会记住的──这很正常，对吧？世界中不停的发生很多的随机事件，所以我们其实不要把所有的事情都记下来，我们的记忆只记那些对我们有重要意义的事情，对吧？所以非注意性失忆是有它的意义的。我还想说一个“记忆的极限”，不是所有时候的学习都是一样的效果。我们的语言能力，大家都认为是很自然，对不对？每个人都会说话。这个是依赖于所谓关键期的，在2到7岁的时候，我们必须要经历语言这个经验，如果这时候没有语言经验，那么结果会非常的可怕。 这边图示的这个小女孩叫做Genie，她的父亲是严重的精神分裂症患者，在这个小女孩13岁之前，他都把这个小女孩捆在家里面，用铁链子捆在床上，他们生活在农村，周围几十里地都没什么人，所以直到13岁的时候，她才被别人发现、被解救出来。她的精神分裂症患者的父亲并不说话，所以在13岁之前Genie是没有语言经验。这当然是一个很悲剧的事情，但是对于科学家来说是这个很难得的机会，可以看当你在13岁之前没有语言经验的时候，会有什么样的结果？所以安排了全世界最好的教育家、语言教育家去教Genie语言，专门安排了博士生去跟踪Genie，看她的语言能力发展。在七、八年之后，这个学生博士生毕业的时候，结论是Genie能够说的最长的句子是两个词。专门有文章发表去争论她到底说的是两个词还是三个词。七、八年每天都是长期的训练，只能得到这样的结果。之后Genie因为她变得很有名、有很多书、文章去讲她，所以她在哪里是一个秘密。但是她是被收养，终生她是不能够独立生活而且是不说话的。这就是告诉我们一个问题，这关键期在我们小的时候，有一些非常重要的一些能力我们必须去学习，这是为什么我们从小的时候要学数学，如果过了这个关键期你不学这些能力的话，其实我们是有很大的问题。如果是一个成人，脑子受了损伤，记忆也会出问题。我这里想举一个在神经科学界非常重要的例子，一个叫做海马的脑区，如果海马这个脑区出现问题，那么会出现很严重的记忆障碍。它叫海马是因为这个组织长的和真正的海马很像，所以叫做海马，很漂亮的一个结构。 有一个人叫做HM，他因为严重的癫痫，所以在他20多岁左右的时候，医生把他会产生癫痫的部分脑区摘除掉了，就癫痫灶拿掉了，几乎全部海马都给拿掉了，人们马上发现做完手术之后，HM这个病人他已经不再是HM，他无法形成新的记忆，在手术之前的记忆还在，没有问题，但是新的记忆无法形成了，所以后来照顾他的新进来的护士医生，每次见到他都必须向他自我介绍；即使你出了房间去喝了杯咖啡，五分钟以后再回来，他就完全忘记你是谁了。我给大家举一个例子，Howard Eichanbaum现在是美国波士顿大学的教授，他在读博士生的时候研究HM，他的任务之一就是每天早上开车去把HM从家里面接到医院去研究、做各种各样的实验。有一天早上Howard Eichanbaum吃早饭时候，喝了杯McDonald's的咖啡，在那咖啡杯上印了McDonald's这几个字，他开车时候把这个咖啡放到前座上面车窗那边。HM一看到这个杯子说：唉，我小时候有一个朋友，叫McDonald，然后他和我是很好的朋友，我们两个一起打棒球，打的非常好，我们也有很多很好的故事，这是一个很愉快的交谈过程。这个交谈过程结束了，HM看了窗外看了一会，回来又看到这个杯子──我小时候认识一个朋友叫McDonald的，我以前和他是一块儿打棒球，打的非常好，我们有很好的故事……一模一样的故事又讲了一遍。然后结果结束以后，他又看了会窗外，一会儿又看见了这个杯子──我小时候有一个朋友叫McDonald，我以前……同样的故事，又讲了第三遍。讲到第三遍的时候，Howard Eichanbaum就偷偷的把这个咖啡杯拿下来，放到自己座位里面，要不然他这一路上会一直讲这个故事，这是一个典型的例子告诉我们海马多么的重要。HM和他的父亲关系非常之好，他父亲在他手术一段时间之后去世。HM每次听到父亲去世的消息，都非常悲痛，每次都处在同样的巨大悲痛之中。所以，如果我们无法形成新的记忆，我们就不再是以前的自己了。因为HM以及相关的一些其他脑区损伤的病人，我们现在知道我们的记忆是分不同类型的，比如说HM他的长时间记忆有很大的问题，但是他的短时间记忆，或者我刚才说的让小鼠做或者我自己做的工作记忆没有问题。你看刚才他是可以和Howard Eichanbaum很好地进行对话，这个时候都需要用到工作记忆的。 在长时程记忆里面又分成“陈述式记忆”和“非陈述式记忆”。HM的主要是陈述式记忆出问题，也就是说这种可以被陈述出来的事情，不管是事实还是一个场景──我昨天和谁一块吃饭、说什么话呀、吃什么东西……这些时间、地点、人物，这种“场景记忆”。海马是很重要的，或者是“事实记忆”，对吧？“南海是中国的。”这是一个是事实记忆。“非陈述式记忆”比如说“运动记忆”──骑自行车，这是一个运动记忆，大家都经过运动以后学会的。HM他是可以学会新的运动技能的，做的非常好、和普通人差不多，但是他拒绝承认自己学过。所以“记得自己学过”这是一个陈述式的记忆；但是“学这个动作本身”是个非陈述式的记忆。或者是一些“情感记忆”、“情绪记忆”──比如说“南海是中国的！”是吧？这就是情绪记忆。所以记忆分不同类别。那么记忆的核心原理是什么呢？因为时间关系，所以我只能讲很小的一部分──因为这里有大量的工作，其实科学家做了大量的工作来问记忆是什么原理。我们脑大概850亿到1000亿个神经元，这些神经元通过是一千个到10万个突触，来形成突触联系、来进行交流。神经元长得很漂亮，图上左边就是显示了几个神经元的样子，你看它们长得很大的、天线一样的形状，就是接受输入的地方；它们还长出很纤细的、很长的叫“轴突”的这种结构，来传输自己的这个信号，那么接受这个信号的地方就叫做“突触”。这种突触很重要，而且它可以被神经元自己的活动来调控──当突触前和突触后神经元活动按照一定的规则来运行的时候，突触活动的强度会被增强或者减弱，而且在我们学习的过程中，这种突触的活动增强或者减弱是可以被观察到的，而且如果你阻止这种活动的改变，那么会影响学习。所以人们一般认为，这个突触的改变是我们学习记忆的核心机制。刚才说的是单个的神经元之间的连接，而群体网络层面，一般认为是“吸引子网络”来解释记忆是怎么回事。所谓的吸引子，很简单──碗就是一个吸引子──如果你把一个玻璃珠放到碗的边上，一放手它会落到碗的底部，所谓吸引子的底部，那么我们的记忆在经过学习的过程中，我们的突触连接的改变，其实就形成了各种各样的吸引子。这种吸引子的好处是部分信息可以提取出完整的信息。 在座更关注的可能是“学习记忆怎么被提高”对不对？我想给大家一个好的消息，学习记忆是可以提高的！怎么被提高呢？就是“记好多次”。这是一个非常严肃的结论。右边图这个人叫做Ebbinghaus，他是第一个严肃的研究记忆的心理学的一个科学家，他发现：底下x轴显示的是我在一天之前，学习一些材料，我所做的学习次数；Y轴就是在一天之后，我重新学习又要需要多长时间。可以看到如果你学的次数越多，那么第二天你就花的时间越少来学会，就说明你学习次数多，就记得好，对不对？所以勤奋是必要的。还要“睡得好”，如果记录头皮脑电的话，那么在人睡眠的时候，可以看到“慢波”，这边显示的每一个小的波动就是一个慢波，在全脑里面是很大尺度的神经元活动。德国科学家发现，如果你在人睡眠的时候，在脑子里面引发这种慢波，那么可以记得更好。他实际上让学生晚上学习外语，然后在睡觉时候去电刺激脑子，引起更多慢波，第二天早上起来问他学的词汇还记住多少？如果你做过电刺激，那么学得更多。我并不是建议大家晚上回去以后就电刺激自己脑子，因为你并不一定总要记住昨天晚上的事情，对吧？我想结语是，在一定程度上，其实在一定程度上，“我们就是我们的记忆”，更多的记忆的奥秘等待我们发现！谢谢各位！“SELF格致论道”是中国科学院全力推出、中国科普博览承办的科学讲坛，致力于精英思想的跨界传播，由中国科学院计算机网络信息中心和中国科学院科学传播局联合主办。登陆“SELF格致论道”官方网站、关注微信公众号“SELF格致论道讲坛”、微博“SELF格致论道”获取更多信息。更多合作与SELF工作组self@cnic.cn联系。

Dr. Robert P. Giugliano and Dr. Serge Korjian Discuss

For students who are keen to get more out of their revision time, the concept of multiplying their reading speeds is highly attractive. This podcast takes a look at some of the contemporary approaches to speed reading.

Brainy Thing:   15:47           Behind the Redwood Curtain:  25:35Welcome to Episode:  How the Distributive Practice Effect or Spacing Effect can help you learn skills in the fiber Arts.What we’re learning from our Knitting Catherine got a lot of satisfaction by completing Laura Nelkin’s Butin Collar.  http://www.ravelry.com/patterns/library/butin-collarMargaret created felted bangles from Mags Kandis’ Bevy of Bangles pattern, http://www.ravelry.com/patterns/library/bevy-of-banglesfrom the book Gifted, Lovely little things to knit and crochet http://www.amazon.com/Gifted-Lovely-Little-Things-Crochet-ebook/dp/B00DH40MIG/ref=dp_kinw_strp_1by Mags Kandis or get them for free from the Interweave website.  Brainy Thing:  The Distributive Practice EffectCatherine talks about the Distributive Practice Effect, first described by Herman Ebbinghaus. https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hermann_Ebbinghaus.    In psychology,it is talked about as the Spacing Effect. http://www.aft.org/periodical/american-educator/summer-2002/ask-cognitive-scientist.   Essentially, practicing something a little bit every day is more effective in learning than practicing for a long time for one day a week.  Behind the Redwood Curtain:   Ferndale, CA, the Victorian VillageCatherine introduces us to Ferndale, CA which has a large number of well preserved Victorian buildings.   It is very well decorated around Christmas time.Knitting Tip:Margaret shares a tip from No Sheep for You by Amy Singer:   When knitting socks in Cotton or a yarn with little memory, use ribbing to help the sock  

R equals e to the power of minus t over s.Or, to put it another way, people forget about 80% of what they learn on a training course.That might not be exactly true, Ebbinghaus's research and "curve of forgetting" equation is not the most rigorous of science, but it's probably true-ish and that's good enough for this podcast!In this episode I talk again to Roger Greenaway, an expert in experiential and innovative training methodologies. We talk about what "learning transfer" really means, and then discuss some unusual and creative ways of designing training courses so that learning transfer is more likely to occur.

Ebbinghaus et al. Music "Stretch" by Dice

Recall vs Recognition vs Recall are covered in this podcast - all 3 are explained along with examples (including the savings score formula)

The Forgetting curve shows the rate and amount of forgetting that occurs over time.

The rate and amount of forgetting is gauged by the Ebbinghaus forgetting curve.